History of Ancient Persia

Achaemenids

Main article: Achaemenid Empire

The first dynasty of the Persian Empire was created by the Achaemenids, established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC
with the conquest of the Median, Lydian and Babylonian empires.[1][2] It covered much of the then known Ancient
world.[3] Persepolis, the most famous historical site related to Persian Empire in the Achaemenid era, has been a
UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979.[4]
Sasanians
Main articles: Parthian Empire and Sasanian Empire
From 247 BC to 224 AD, Persia was ruled by the Parthian Empire, which supplanted the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire,
and then by the Sassanian Empire, which ruled up until the mid-7th century.[5] The Persian Empire in the Sasanian
era was interrupted by the Arab conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic caliphate, and
later by the Mongol invasion. The main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh
century, it was slowly replaced by Islam.[6]
Safavids
Main article: Safavid dynasty
The Safavid Empire was the greatest Iranian Empire established after the Muslim conquest of Persia. From their
base in Ardabil, the Safavid Persians established control over parts of Greater Persia/Iran and reasserted the Persian
identity of the region, becoming the first native Persian dynasty since the Sasanian Empire to establish a unified
Persian state.[7]
Literature, art and architecture flourished in the Safavid era once again, and it is often cited as the "rebirth of the
Persian Empire". Safavids also announced Shia Islam as the official religion in the empire versus the Sunni Islam in
the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. The Safavid Empire was the first Muslim Iranian state to be a match for the
Ottomans and Mameluks.[8]
Afshars
Main article: Afsharid dynasty
The Afsharid dynasty was an Iranian dynasty that originated in Khorasan from the Afshar tribe. The dyansty was
founded by Nader Shah. Nader rose to power during a period of chaos in Iran after a rebellion by
the Hotaki Pashtuns had overthrown the weak Sultan Husayn, while the arch-enemy of the Safavids, the Ottomans,
as well as the Russians had seized Iranian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Iranian realm and removed
the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had
ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become Shah himself in 1736. The Afsharids ruled Iran from 1736 to 1796.
Zands
Main article: Zand dynasty
The Zand dynasty was an Iranian dynasty of Lak a branch of Lurs[9] origin founded by Karim Khan Zand that initially
ruled southern and central Iran in the 18th century. It later quickly came to expand to include much of the rest of
contemporary Iran, as well as Azerbaijan, Bahrain,[10] and parts of Iraq and Armenia.
Qajars
Main article: Qajar dynasty
In 1796, after the fall of the Zand and Afsharid dynasties, Agha Mohammad Khan of Qajar dynasty was the sole ruler
of Iran. But soon after, in 1797, he was assassinated by his servants. Since he had no children, the shah was
succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah.[11] The reign of Fath-Ali Shah saw huge and irrecoverable territorial loss for
the Persian Empire after wars against the Russians in 1804–13 and 1826–28.[12] Fath-Ali died in 1834 and was
succeeded by his grandson, Mohammad Shah.[13]
During his short reign, Mohammad Shah tried to modernize the Iranian army and recapture Herat. However, his
attempts were unsuccessful. He died at the age of 40 in Mohammadieh Palace in 1848. After the death of
Mohammad Shah, his son, Naser al-Din Shah, ascended to the Sun Throne. He ruled for 50 years, and became the
third longest reigning monarch in Iranian history after Shapur II and Tahmasp I. Many events took place during his
long reign, including wars with the British Empire, the rebellion of Babis, the assassination of Amir Kabir, and
the Tobacco Protest.
After the assassination of Naser al-Din Shah, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah ascened to the throne. The first Iranian
revolution, the Constitutional Revolution, took place during his reign.[14] Mozaffar ad-Din Shah was the last shah who
died in Iran. Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar succeeded his father in 1907. He dissolved the parliament and declared the
Constitution abolished[15] and bombarded the Majlis.[16] However, he abdicated after the Triumph of Tehran by pro-
Constitution forces and re-establishment of the constitution.[17]
Following the abdication of the shah in 1909, the Majlis placed his 6-years-old son, Ahmad Shah on the Iranian
throne.[18]World War I took place during his reign and Iran declared neutrality. However, it didn't stop the British forces
and they occupied many parts of Iran, which caused the Great famine of 1917–1919 and death of 2 million
Iranians.[19][20][21]
With the 1921 Persian coup d'état, Reza Pahlavi took control of the country.[22] Ahmad Shah left Iran for health
reasons In 1923 and with the official end of the Qajar dynasty in 1925 and the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty, his tour
became an exile. He died in 1930 in Paris.
Story
Author
 History of Israel and Lebanon
Excerpted with permission of JTA.

Instead of the hoped-for oasis of peace tied to the Jewish state by a wealth of common interest,
Lebanon has proven in recent decades to be a deadly arena of bloodshed and war. First it was the
Palestinians who used the country as a launching pad for terrorist actions against Israel; then it
was the Shi’ite Hezbollah. In both cases, outside powers used the militias as proxies against
Israel; and, in both cases, cross-border violence eventually led to war.

A Promising Beginning
Fifty years ago, things looked more promising. In the mid-1950s, Israel’s first prime minister,
David Ben- Gurion, had visions of peace with an independent Christian country in Lebanon. In
February 1954, he wrote to Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett, urging him to take diplomatic
initiatives toward the establishment of a Christian enclave. Ben-Gurion hoped to create a
coalition of like-minded religious minorities in the predominantly Sunni Muslim Middle East.
But nothing came of the idea. For a decade and a half, relations between the two countries were
virtually nonexistent, although Lebanon played no role in the 1967 Six-Day War. But,
immediately after the war, because of the weakness of its central government and its proximity to
Israel, Lebanon was identified by the Arab world as an ideal base for Palestinian terror. The
Cairo Agreement of November 1969 gave the PLO special status in Lebanon, and after their
defeat in Jordan in September 1970, Yasser Arafat, the entire Fatah leadership, and its fighting
force moved into southern Lebanon.

The 1970s
During the 1970s, PLO terrorists carried out hundreds of cross-border attacks into Israel. One of
the worst was the “Ma’alot massacre” in which 26 people, including 21 students, were held
hostage and killed in a school in the northern Israeli town of Ma’alot.

The influx of Palestinian fighters into Lebanon upset the delicate balance between Muslims and
Christians in the country and, in 1975, led to civil war. Lebanese Christians seeking to restore the
ethnic balance and free the country from growing PLO control looked to Israel for support. The
two sides had a common interest: to drive the terrorists from their Lebanese base. Two Christian
enclaves supported by Israel were set up in the South. That led to the establishment of the Israeli-
backed South Lebanon Army under Maj. Saad Hadad.

In 1976, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin met with Christian leader Camille Chamoun on an Israeli
missile boat off the Lebanese coast to formalize the arrangement. Israel, Rabin promised, would
supply arms and training facilities. Two years later, Rabin’s successor, Menachem Begin,
upgraded the alliance, promising Israeli air cover if Christian positions were attacked by Syrian
warplanes.

Like Israel, the Syrians had used the civil war to gain a foothold in Lebanon. They had
intervened in 1976, first on the side of the Christians, then on the side of the PLO.

With close Syrian support, the PLO grew bolder and in July 1981 launched a huge artillery
barrage on northern Israel. War was narrowly averted through last-minute American mediation.
 Story
Israel, A Story of Survival
In the summer of 1997 I had the good fortune to study at the Hebrew University in
Jerusalem. One day between classes several students rushed out spreading the news that a
terror bombing had hit the city. Sixteen people were killed and a hundred wounded by two
suicide bomb attacks at Mahane Yehuda, a popular fruit and vegetable market.

I was horrified.

But to my surprise, our teachers took the news in stride, saying in effect, life must go
on. We returned to our studies.

A couple days later I rode the bus past Mahane Yehuda. The market had been cleared of
debris and was packed once again. I expressed my surprise to a young Israeli woman sitting
next to me. “This is how it needs to be,” she told me. “Life needs to go on, we have to prove to
the terrorists that they can’t beat us.”

I was impressed by her fortitude. A few minutes later I got off at Jerusalem's central bus
station. Another bus pulled up and its passengers disembarked. With the two busses emptied,
the station platform was densely packed. I suddenly realized that it would be the perfect
opportunity for a suicide bomber to attack. If there were two suicide attacks like at the fruit
market, the damage would be enormous. I panicked as I realized that my life might be in
jeopardy. When I regained my composure, it occurred to me that this was the fear that Israelis
lived with every day.

It was a lesson I never forgot. I never experienced fear like that in America, even after
the September 11 attacks.

Unfortunately, this is hardly an unusual story. It is a mere microcosm for what life is like
for Israelis. They have to contend with fear and violence on a daily basis. Yet they survive.
Indeed, at its heart, the story of Israel is a story of survival.

Throughout its first decades of existence, the Jewish state faced numerous attempts at
its destruction. The wars of 1948, 1967, and 1973 all brought Israel to the brink of
annihilation. Surrounded by more numerous Arab states, Israel’s survival seemed very unlikely
to contemporary observers during these decades. And yet, the Jewish state survived and
prospered.

How it survived in the face of steep odds is the topic of my new book, Return to Zion. It is a
story that needs to be told, for the courage and perseverance of those pioneers is a tale for the
ages. And while there is no lack of books on Israel’s history, most of those books do not give
any idea of what it was like for the people who experienced these momentous events.
These were the questions I wanted to know about. And since no books addressed these
issues, I collected eyewitness accounts of all the major events in the history of modern Israel in
order to give the reader a sense of what it was like to live through those momentous times. I
also wanted to explain that history in easy non-academic language. It is my hope through my
book young people and non-specialists will learn the history of Israel’s survival in an engaging
and entertaining manner and gain a new appreciation for all that they endured, and continue to
endure to this day.

Thankfully, the richness of our story is a balm that soothes the pain. From the biblical times of
Abraham declaring there is one G-d, to Moses leading the Jewish people out of slavery and into
the land G-d promised them, to Bar Kokhba fighting the Romans and deadly exile of the
people, fast forwarding to Theodore Herzl calling for the rebirth of a Jewish nation two
thousand years later, to David Ben Gurion declaring it so. We must recognize that the leaders
make the history books but it is the everyday people like you and me who dream and build
along with them.

Author

Eric Gartman is an intelligence analyst for the United States Department of Defense
who has lived and studied in Israel and traveled extensively throughout the Middle
East. Gartman is the author Return to Zion: The History of Modern Israel.
 History of Africa
The history of Africa begins with the emergence of hominids, archaic humans and—at
least 200,000 years ago—anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens), in East Africa, and
continues unbroken into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation
states. The earliest known recorded history arose in the Kingdom of Kush,[1] and later in Ancient
Egypt, the Sahel, the Maghreb and the Horn of Africa.

Following the desertification of the Sahara, North African history became entwined with
the Middle East and Southern Europe while the Bantu expansion swept from modern
day Cameroon (Central Africa) across much of the sub-Saharan continent in waves between
around 1000 BC and 0 AD, creating a linguistic commonality across much of the central and
Southern continent.

During the Middle Ages, Islam spread west from Arabia to Egypt, crossing the Maghreb
and the Sahel. Some notable pre-colonial states and societies in Africa include the Ajuran
Empire, D'mt, Adal Sultanate, Alodia, Warsangali Sultanate, Kingdom of Nri, Nok culture, Mali
Empire, Songhai Empire, Benin Empire, Oyo Empire, Kingdom of Lunda (Punu-yaka) , Ashanti
Empire, Ghana Empire, Mossi Kingdoms, Mutapa Empire, Kingdom of Mapungubwe, Kingdom
of Sine, Kingdom of Sennar, Kingdom of Saloum, Kingdom of Baol, Kingdom of Cayor, Kingdom
of Zimbabwe, Kingdom of Kongo, Empire of Kaabu, Kingdom of Ile Ife, Ancient
Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, and the Aksumite Empire. At its peak, prior to
European colonialism, it is estimated that Africa had up to 10,000 different states and
autonomous groups with distinct languages and customs.[2]

From the mid-7th century, the Arab slave trade saw Muslim Arabs enslave Africans.
Following an armistice between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Kingdom of Makuria after
the Second Battle of Dongola in 652 AD, they were transported, along with Asians and
Europeans, across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert.

From the late 15th century, Europeans joined the slave trade. One could say the
Portuguese led in partnership with other Europeans. That includes the triangular trade, with the
Portuguese initially acquiring slaves through trade and later by force as part of the Atlantic slave
trade. They transported enslaved West, Central, and Southern Africans
overseas.[3] Subsequently, European colonization of Africa developed rapidly from around 10%
(1870) to over 90% (1914) in the Scramble for Africa (1881–1914). However following struggles
for independence in many parts of the continent, as well as a weakened Europe after
the Second World War (1939–1945), decolonization took place across the continent,
culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa.

Disciplines such as recording of oral history, historical

linguistics, archaeology and genetics have been vital in rediscovering the great African
civilizations of antiquity.
 Story
Goso, The Teacher
Once there was a man named Go′so, who taught children to read, not in a schoolhouse, but under a calabash tree.
One evening, while Goso was sitting under the tree deep in the study of the next day’s lessons, Paa, the gazelle,
climbed up the tree very quietly to steal some fruit, and in so doing shook off a calabash, which, in falling, struck the
teacher on the head and killed him.

When his scholars came in the morning and found their teacher lying dead, they were filled with grief; so, after giving
him a decent burial, they agreed among themselves to find the one who had killed Goso, and put him to death.

After talking the matter over they came to the conclusion that the south wind was the offender.

So they caught the south wind and beat it.

But the south wind cried: “Here! I am Koo′see, the south wind. Why are you beating me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Koosee; it was you who threw down the calabash that struck our teacher
Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Koosee said, “If I were so powerful would I be stopped by a mud wall?”

So they went to the mud wall and beat it.

But the mud wall cried: “Here! I am Keeyambaa′za, the mud wall. Why are you beating me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Keeyambaaza; it was you who stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee,
the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Keeyambaaza said, “If I were so powerful would I be bored through by the rat?”

So they went and caught the rat and beat it.

But the rat cried: “Here! I am Paan′ya, the rat. Why are you beating me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Paanya; it was you who bored through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which
stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso.
You should not have done it.”

But Paanya said, “If I were so powerful would I be eaten by a cat?”

So they hunted for the cat, caught it, and beat it.

But the cat cried: “Here! I am Paa′ka, the cat. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Paaka; it is you that eats Paanya, the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza,
the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that
struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Paaka said, “If I were so powerful would I be tied by a rope?”

So they took the rope and beat it.

But the rope cried: “Here! I am Kaam′ba, the rope. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Kaamba; it is you that ties Paaka, the cat; who eats Paanya, the rat; who bores
through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw
down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Kaamba said, “If I were so powerful would I be cut by a knife?”

So they took the knife and beat it.

But the knife cried: “Here! I am Kee′soo, the knife. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Keesoo; you cut Kaamba, the rope; that ties Paaka, the cat; who eats Paanya,
the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the
south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”
But Keesoo said, “If I were so powerful would I be burned by the fire?”

And they went and beat the fire.

But the fire cried: “Here! I am Mo′to, the fire. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Moto; you burn Keesoo, the knife; that cuts Kaamba, the rope; that ties Paaka,
the cat; who eats Paanya, the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south
wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done
it.”

But Moto said, “If I were so powerful would I be put out by water?”

And they went to the water and beat it.

But the water cried: “Here! I am Maa′jee, the water. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Maajee; you put out Moto, the fire; that burns Keesoo, the knife; that cuts
Kaamba, the rope; that ties Paaka, the cat; who eats Paanya, the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza, the mud
wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our
teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Maajee said, “If I were so powerful would I be drunk by the ox?”

And they went to the ox and beat it.

But the ox cried: “Here! I am Ng’om′bay, the ox. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Ng’ombay; you drink Maajee, the water; that puts out Moto, the fire; that burns
Keesoo, the knife; that cuts Kaamba, the rope; that ties Paaka, the cat; who eats Paanya, the rat; who bores through
Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the
calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Ng’ombay said, “If I were so powerful would I be tormented by the fly?”

And they caught a fly and beat it.

But the fly cried: “Here! I am Een′zee, the fly. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Eenzee; you torment Ng’ombay, the ox; who drinks Maajee, the water; that
puts out Moto, the fire; that burns Keesoo, the knife; that cuts Kaamba, the rope; that ties Paaka, the cat; who eats
Paanya, the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee, the south wind; and
Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not have done it.”

But Eenzee said, “If I were so powerful would I be eaten by the gazelle?”

And they searched for the gazelle, and when they found it they beat it.

But the gazelle said: “Here! I am Paa, the gazelle. Why do you beat me? What have I done?”

And they said: “Yes, we know you are Paa; you eat Eenzee, the fly; that torments Ng’ombay, the ox; who drinks
Maajee, the water; that puts out Moto, the fire; that burns Keesoo, the knife; that cuts Kaamba, the rope; that ties
Paaka, the cat; who eats Paanya, the rat; who bores through Keeyambaaza, the mud wall; which stopped Koosee,
the south wind; and Koosee, the south wind, threw down the calabash that struck our teacher Goso. You should not
have done it.”

The gazelle, through surprise at being found out and fear of the consequences of his accidental killing of the teacher,
while engaged in stealing, was struck dumb.

Then the scholars said: “Ah! he hasn’t a word to say for himself. This is the fellow who threw down the calabash that
struck our teacher Goso. We will kill him.”

So they killed Paa, the gazelle, and avenged the death of their teacher.
 Author

George W. Bateman

Born

in Essex, The United Kingdom

April 24, 1850

Died

August 18, 1940

George W. Bateman is the author of the famous Zanzibar Tales, which were supposedly the
inspiration for a lot of Disney stories like Bambi, The Lion King etc.

Bateman translated these folk stories, which were "narrated to him by the locals of Zanzibar" to
English.
IV: Middle East
and North
Africa

1. Ancient Persia
2. Israel and Lebanon
3. Africa