Physical - Geography by Dr. Muhamad Alkhuzamy Aziz PDF

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Physical Geography
Selected Readings for Geography Students
Prepared By
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Alkhuzamy Aziz
Faculty of Arts, Geography Dpt.
Fayoum University
September 2016
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Introduction
Geography has been defined differently through different

periods its history. Geographical work in ancient Greece had
followed two distinct traditions. One was the mathematical
traditional which was focused on fixing the location of places
on the earth's surface, and the other was gathering geographic
information through travels and field work. Acoording to
them, the purpose of geography was to provide a descriptian
of the physical features and conditions in different parts of the
world.
The emergence of regional approach in geography also
emphasied the descriptive character of geography. According
to Humboldt, geography is the science realted to nature and it
studies and descibes all material things found on the earth.
Anther important school of thought defined geography as the
study of man-environemental relationships.
Geography is one of the oldest earth science and its roots date
back to in the works of the early Greek scholars. The word
"Geography" was first used by the Greekscholar Eratosthenes
in the third century B.C. "Geo" "Earth" and "Graphy" " to
describe" that mean describe the earth's surface; in other
words "Geography is largely the study of the interaction of all
physical and human phenomena and landscapes created by
such interactions. It is about how, why and where human and
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natural activities occur and how these activities are
interconnected1.
Geography has undergone in its approach. The earlier
geographers were descriptive geographers. Later, geography
came to be developed as an analytical science. Today, the
discipline is not only concerned with descriptions but also
with analysis as well as prediction.
The proposed course aims at explaining the meaning of
Geography as a science and it's subdivisions. It throws light on
the descriptions of the mean subdivisions and the realted
fields. It attempts to enrich knowledge and illustrate basic
concepts as well as technical terms which are building blocks
of geographic knoledge.
The course introduce selected readings realted to physical
Geography that will cover the most known topics. These topics
will enhance the ability of reading and understanding english
texts in physical Geography and how these texts have been
written as research.
Hope, this book will reach the proposed educational
objectives.
Cairo, September 2016.

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Alkhuzamy Aziz
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Natural of Geography as a Discipline, p.2.
http://www.slideshare.net/eugenio1958/nature-of-geography-as-a-discipline
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Table of Contents:
Page
1) Geography and It's Branches …………………. 8

2) Description of Physical Geography Branches… .14
3) Geography and related Fields …………………. 17
4) Geography and Earth System…………………...22
5) Geomorphology: Basics and Applications……...31
6) Climate Geography……………………………...52
7) Global Warming and its Impact in Egypt ………71
8) Geography of Water resources…………………..88
9) Soil Geography…………………………………103
10) Biogeography …………………………..124
11) Appendices: …………………………….138
a. Top 20 Journals for Physical Geography.138
b. Resources for Physical Geography……..142
c. Glossary of Physical Geography……….144
d. Citations and References……………….181
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1. Geography and
Its Branches
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1. Geography and its Branches
Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία, geographia, literally
"earth description"2 is a field of science devoted to the study
of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the
phenomena of Earth3. The first person to use the word
"γεωγραφία" was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC)4. Four
historical traditions in geographical research are spatial
analysis of the natural and the human phenomena
(geography as the study of distribution), area studies (places
and regions), study of the human-land relationship, and
research in the Earth sciences5. Nonetheless, modern
geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost
seeks to understand the Earth and all of its human and
natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but
how they have changed and come to be. Geography has
been called "the world discipline" and "the bridge between
the human and the physical science". Geography is divided
into two main branches: human geography and physical
geography6.
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main

subsidiary fields: human geography and physical
geography. The former largely focuses on the built
2
"Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2009-04-17.
3
"Geography". The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth
Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
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Eratosthenes' Geography. Princeton University Press. 2010. ISBN 9780691142678.
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Pattison, W.D. (1990). "The Four Traditions of Geography" (PDF). Journal of
Geography. 89 (5): 202–6. doi:10.1080/00221349008979196. ISSN 0022-1341.
Reprint of a 1964 article.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
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environment and how humans create, view, manage, and
influence space. The latter examines the natural
environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and
landforms produce and interact. The difference between
these approaches led to a third field, environmental
geography, which combines the physical and the human
geography, and looks at the interactions between the
environment and humans7.
Physical Geography (or physiography) focuses on

geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the
physical problems and the issues of lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and
fauna patterns (biosphere)8.
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Hayes-Bohanan, James. "What is Environmental Geography, Anyway? October 9,
2006".
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Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006
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Source: Natural of Geography as a Discipline.
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Parts of Geography9
Physical geography can be divided into many broad

categories, including10:
Biogeography
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Robert E. Gabler, James F. Petersen, L. Michael Trapasso, 2007, Essentials of
Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 4, ISBN 0-495-
01194-0
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Climatology & meteorology
Coastal geography
Environmental management
Geomorphology
Glaciology
Hydrology & hydrography
Landscape ecology
Oceanography
Quaternary science
Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on

the study of patterns and processes that shape the human
society. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social,
and economic aspects.
Human geography can be divided into many broad

categories, such as11:
Cultural geography
Development geography
Economic geography
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2. Description of
Physical Geography
Branches
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2. Description of Physical Geography Branches
Physical geography is concerned with the study and
explanation of physical phenomena, encompassing the other
such fields like geology, meteorology, zoology and
chemistry. It became a very popular subject during the later
part of the nineteen century. It has a number of sub-branches
which treat different kind of physical phenomena.
Subfields of Physical Geography

Source: Blij, H.J.de et al., 2004, Physical Geography, The global environment, 3 rd
edition, Oxford, p. 10.
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Astronomical Geography: It studies the celestial
phenomena which concern the Earth‘s surface particularly
Sun, Moon and Planets of the Solar System.
Geomorphology: It is concerned with the study of the
landforms on the Earth‘s surface. It includes origin and
development of landforms through erosional,
transportational and depositional processes of water, wind
and glaciers.
Climatology : Climatology is the study of the atmospheric
conditions and related climatic and weather phenomena. It
includes the study of atmospheric composition, climatic
regions seasons, etc.
Oceanography: It is concerned with the study of various
types of Oceanic format component and processes related to
ocean floor depths, currents, corals reefs, and continental
drifts etc.
Soil Geography: It studies various soil forming processes,
their physical, chemical and biological constituents, their
color and types, texture, and distribution and carrying
capacity etc.
Bio-geography: It is concerned with the biological
phenomena in space, especially in terms of the distribution
of various kinds of floral and faunal species. Biogeography
may be subdivided into plant or floral geography, animals or
faunal geography, and human ecology.
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3. Geography and
related Fields
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3. Geography and related Fields
Related Fields to Geography that can be considered as well
as geographical divisions are:
1) Regional geography; is a branch of geography which

studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a
prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to
understand, or define the uniqueness, or character of a
particular region that consists of natural as well as human
elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which
covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into
regions.
Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach

to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or
critical geographies, for more information see History of
geography).
2) Geomatics; is a branch of geography that has emerged

since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid-
1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial
techniques used in cartography and topography and their
application to computers. Geomatics has become a
widespread field with many other disciplines, using
techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has
also led to a revitalization of some geography departments,
especially in Northern America where the subject had a
declining status during the 1950s.
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Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with
spatial analysis, such as Cartography, Geographic
information systems (GIS), Remote sensing, and Global
positioning systems (GPS).
3) Cartography; studies the representation of the Earth's

surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although
other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for
presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is
abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has
grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an
actual science.
Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and

ergonomics to understand which symbols convey
information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral
psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the
information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced
mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth
affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat
surface for viewing. It can be said, without much
controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the
larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a
childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would
end up in the field.
4) Geographic information systems (GIS); deal with the

storage of information about the Earth for automatic
retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate
to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other
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subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must
understand computer science and database systems. GIS has
revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all
mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of
GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS
software and GIS techniques to represent, analyze, and
predict the spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands
for Geographic Information Science.
5) Remote sensing; is the science of obtaining information

about Earth features from measurements made at a distance.
Remotely sensed data comes in many forms, such as
satellite imagery, aerial photography, and data obtained
from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use
remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's
land surface, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: a) supplies
objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to
global), b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest,
c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, d) provides
spectral information outside the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and e) facilitates studies of how
features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may
be analyzed either independently of, or in conjunction with
other digital data layers (e.g., in a Geographic Information
System).
6) Geostatistics; deal with quantitative data analysis,

specifically the application of statistical methodology to the
exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used
extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology,
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geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban
planning, logistics, and epidemiology. The mathematical
basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, linear
analysis and non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of
other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on
geographic information systems, particularly for the
interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers
are making notable contributions to the method of
quantitative techniques.
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4. Geography and Earth
System
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4. Geography and Earth System
Geographers apply their expertise to the study of Earth, it is
clear that physical geographers will be observing
phenomena, compiling data, and seeking solutions to
problems that are also of interest to researchers in one or
more of the other physical sciences. Physical geographers,
as climatologists, share ideas and information with
atmospheric physicists. Soil geographers study the same
elements and compounds analyzed by chemists12.
Biogeographers are concerned about the environments of
the same plants and animals that are classified by biologists.
However, to whatever question is raised and whichever
problem requires a solution, the physical geographer brings
a unique point of view—a spatial perspective and a mandate
to carefully consider all Earth phenomena that may be
involved. Physical geographers are concerned with the
processes that affect the Earth‘s physical environments. By
examining the factors, features, and processes that influence
the environment and learning how these elements work
together, we can better understand the ever-changing
physical geography of our planet. We can also appreciate
the importance of viewing Earth in its entirety as a
constantly functioning system—as a whole greater than but
dependent upon each of its parts13.
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Blij, H.J.de et al., 2004, Physical Geography, The global environment, 3 rd edition,
Oxford, p. 8.
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Gabler, R.E. et al., 1982, Essentials of Physical Geography, 2 nd Edition, Sauders
College Publishing, NEW York. P.7.
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The Earth System:
Four major divisions14 of our planet comprise the Earth
system. The atmosphere is the gaseous blanket of air that
envelops, shields, and insulates Earth. The movements and
processes of the atmosphere create the changing conditions
that we know as weather and climate. The solid Earth—
landforms, rocks, soils, and minerals—makes up the
lithosphere. The waters of the Earth system—oceans, lakes,
rivers, and glaciers—constitute the hydrosphere. The
fourth major division, the biosphere, is composed of all
living things: people, other animals, and plants.
It is the nature of these four major subsystems and the
interactions among them that create and nurture the
conditions necessary for life on Earth. For example, the
hydrosphere serves as the water supply for all life, including
humans, and provides a home environment for many types
of aquatic plants and animals. The hydrosphere directly
affects the lithosphere as the moving water in streams,
waves, and currents shapes landforms. It also influences the
atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, and the
effects of ocean temperatures on climate. The impact or
intensity of interactions among Earth‘s subsystems is not
identical everywhere on the planet, and it is this variation
that leads to the geographic patterns of environmental
diversity15.
14
Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 13, ISBN 0-495-
01194-0
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Oxford, p. 73.
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Earth System
Source: Robert E. Gabler, James F. Petersen, L. Michael Trapasso, 2007, Essentials
of Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 14
Many other examples of overlap exist among the four

divisions. Soil can be examined as part of the biosphere, the
hydrosphere, or the lithosphere. The water stored in plants
and animals is part of both the biosphere and the
hydrosphere, and the water in clouds is a component of the
atmosphere as well as the hydrosphere. The fact that we
cannot draw sharp boundaries between these divisions
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underscores the interrelatedness among various parts of the
Earth system. However, like a machine, a computer, or the
human body, planet Earth is a system that functions well
only when all of its parts (and its subsystems) work together
harmoniously.
The Solar System:

If you look at the sky on a clear night, all the stars that you
see are part of a single collection of stars called the Milky
Way Galaxy. A galaxy is an enormous island in the
universe—an almost incomprehensible cluster of stars, dust,
and gases. Our sun is one of hundreds of billions of stars
that compose the Milky Way Galaxy. In turn, the observable
universe appears to contain billions of other galaxies.
Distances within the universe are so vast that it is necessary
to use a large unit of measure termed a light-year—the
distance that light travels in 1 year. A light-year is equal to 6
trillion miles. Light travels at the amazing speed of 298,000
kilometers per second.
Thus, in 1 second, light could travel seven times around the
circumference of Earth. Although that may seem like a great
distance, the closest star to Earth, other than the sun, is 4.3
light-years away, and the closest galaxy to our galaxy is
75,000 light-years away.
The sun is the center of our solar system. A solar system
can be defined as all the heavenly bodies surrounding a
particular star because of the star‘s dominant mass and
gravitational attraction. The principal celestial bodies in our
sun‘s system are the nine major planets (celestial bodies
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that revolve around a star and reflect the star‘s light rather
than producing their own). Our solar system also includes
no less than 130 satellites (like Earth‘s moon, these bodies
orbit the planets) and numerous asteroids (very small
planets, usually with a diameter of less than 500 miles), as
well as comets and meteors. A comet is made up of a
head—a collection of solid fragments held together by ice—
and a tail, sometimes millions of miles long, composed of
gases. Meteors are small, stone like or metallic bodies that,
when entering Earth‘s atmosphere, burn and often appear as
a streak of light, or ―shooting star.‖ A meteor that survives
the fall through the atmosphere and strikes Earth‘s surface is
called a meteorite.
Solar System
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Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere16 can be divided into four layers according
to differences in temperature and rates of temperature
change. The first of these layers, lying closest to Earth‘s
surface, is the troposphere (from Greek: tropo, turn—the
turning or mixing zone), which extends about 8–16
kilometers above Earth. Its thickness, which tends to vary
seasonally, is least at the poles and greatest at the equator. It
is within the troposphere that people live and work, plants
grow, and virtually all Earth‘s weather and climate take
place.
The troposphere has two distinct characteristics that
differentiate it from other layers of the atmosphere. One is
that the water vapor and particulates of the atmosphere are
concentrated in this one layer; they are rarely found in the
atmospheric layers above the troposphere. The other
characteristic of this layer is that temperature normally
decreases with increased altitude. The average rate at which
temperatures within the troposphere decrease with altitude
is called the normal lapse rate (or the environmental lapse
rate); it amounts to 6.5°C per 1000 meters.
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Oxford, p. 76-78
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Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere
The altitude at which the temperature ceases to drop with

increased altitude is called the tropopause. It is the
boundary that separates the troposphere from the
stratosphere— the second layer of the atmosphere.The
temperature of the lower part of the stratosphere remains
fairly constant (about 257°C, to an altitude of about 32
kilometers. It is in the stratosphere that we find the ozone
layer that does so much to protect life on Earth from the
sun‘s UV radiation. As the ozone layer absorbs UV
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radiation, this absorbed energy results in the release of heat,
and thus temperatures increase in the upper parts of the
stratosphere. Some water is available in the stratosphere, but
it appears as stratospheric ice clouds. These thin veils of ice
clouds have no effect on weather as we experience it.
Temperatures at the stratopause (another boundary), which
is about 50 kilometers above Earth, are about the same as
temperatures found on Earth‘s surface, although little of that
heat can be transferred because the air is so thin.
Above the stratopause is the mesosphere, in which
temperatures tend to drop with increased altitude; the
mesopause (the last boundary) separates the mesosphere
from the thermosphere, where temperatures increase until
they approach 1100°C at noon. Again, the air is so thin at
this altitude that there is practically a vacuum and little heat
can be transferred17.
17
Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 99
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5. Geomorphology:
Basics and Applications
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5. Geomorphology: Basics and Applications
Meaning:
The word geomorphology derives from three Greek words:

gew (the Earth), morfh (form), and logoV (discourse).
Geomorphology is therefore ‗a discourse on Earth forms‘. It
is the study of Earth‘s physical land surface features, its
landforms: rivers, hills, plains, beaches, sand dunes, and
others18.
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and
evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created
by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or
near the Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to
understand why landscapes look the way they do, to
understand landform history and dynamics and to predict
changes through a combination of field observations,
physical experiments and numerical modeling.
Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical
geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology,
archaeology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base
of interests contributes to many research styles and interests
within the field19.
Origin of Geomorphology20:
Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers wondered how
mountains and other surface features in the natural
18
Richard John Huggett, Fundamental of Geomorphology, Routledge
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition 2007, p. 1
19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
20
Richard John Huggett, Fundamental of Geomorphology, Routledge Fundamentals
of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition 2007, p. 2
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landscape had formed. Aristotle, Herodotus, Seneca, Strabo,
Xenophanes, and many others discoursed on topics such as
the origin of river valleys and deltas, and the presence of
seashells in mountains.
Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 580–480 BC) speculated that,
as seashells are found on the tops of mountains, the surface
of the Earth must have risen and fallen. Herodotus (c. 484–
420 BC) thought that the lower part of Egypt was a former
marine bay, reputedly saying ‗Egypt is the gift of the river‘,
referring to the year-by-year accumulation of river-borne silt
in the Nile delta region. Aristotle (384–322 BC) conjectured
that land and sea change places, with areas that are now dry
land once being sea and areas that are now sea once being
dry land. Strabo (64/63 BC–AD 23?) observed that the land
rises and falls, and suggested that the size of a river delta
depends on the nature of its catchment, the largest deltas
being found where the catchment areas are large and the
surface rocks within it are weak. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4
BC–AD 65) appears to have appreciated that rivers possess
the power to erode their valleys. About a millennium later,
the illustrious Arab scholar ibn-Sina, also known as
Avicenna (980–1037), who translated Aristotle, propounded
the view that some mountains are produced by differential
erosion, running water and wind hollowing out softer rocks.
During the Renaissance, many scholars debated Earth
history. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) believed that
changes in the levels of land and sea explained the presence
of fossil marine shells in mountains. He also opined that
valleys were cut by streams and that streams carried
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material from one place and deposited it elsewhere. In the
eighteenth century, Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti (1712–84)
recognized evidence of stream erosion. He argued that the
valleys of the Arno, Val di Chaina, and Ombrosa in Italy
were excavated by rivers and floods resulting from the
bursting of barrier lakes, and suggested that the irregular
courses of streams relate to the differences in the rocks in
which they cut, a process now called differential erosion.
Jean-Étienne Guettard (1715–86) argued that streams
destroy mountains and the sediment produced in the process
builds floodplains before being carried to the sea. He also
pointed to the efficacy of marine erosion, noting the rapid
destruction of chalk cliffs in northern France by the sea, and
the fact that the mountains of the Auvergne were extinct
volcanoes. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–99)
contended that valleys were produced by the streams that
flow within them, and that glaciers may erode rocks. From
these early ideas on the origin of landforms arose modern
geomorphology21.
History of Geomorphology22:
Geomorphology was first used as a term to describe the
morphology of the Earth‘s surface in the 1870s and 1880s23
It was originally defined as ‗the genetic study of
21
Chorley, R. J., Dunn, A. J., Beckinsale, R. P. (1964) A History of the Study of
Landforms or the Development of Geomorphology. Volume 1, Geomorphology
Before Davis. London: MethuenWiley.
22
23
de Margerie, E. (1886) Géologie. Polybiblion RevueBibliographique Universelle,
Partie littéraire 2, 24, 310–30.
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topographic forms‘24, and was used in popular parlance by
1896. Despite the modern acquisition of its name,
geomorphology is a venerable discipline. It investigates
landforms and the processes that fashion them. A large
corpus of geomorphologists expends much sweat in
researching relationships between landforms and the
processes acting on them now. These are the process or
functional geomorphologists. Many geomorphic processes
affect, and are affected by, human activities. Applied
geomorphologists explore this rich area of enquiry, which is
largely an extension of process geomorphology. Many
landforms have a long history, and their present form does
not always relate to the current processes acting upon them.
The nature and rate of geomorphic processes change with
time, and some landforms were produced under different
environmental conditions, surviving today as relict features.
In high latitudes, many landforms are relicts from the
Quaternary glaciations; but, in parts of the world, some
landforms survive from millions and hundreds of millions of
years ago. Geomorphology, then, has an important historical
dimension, which is the domain of the historical
geomorphologists. In short, modern geomorphologists
study three chief aspects of landforms – form, process, and
history. The first two are sometimes termed functional
geomorphology, the last historical geomorphology25.
24
McGee,W. J. (1888) The geology of the head of Chesapeake Bay. Annual Report
of the United States Geological Survey 7, 537–646.
25
Chorley, R. J. (1978) Bases for theory in geomorphology. In C. Embleton, D.
Brunsden, and D. K. C. Jones (eds) Geomorphology: Present Problems and Future
Prospects, pp. 1–13. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Process studies have enjoyed hegemony for some three or
four decades. Historical studies were sidelined by process
studies but are making a strong comeback. Although
process and historical studies dominate much modern
geomorphological enquiry, particularly in English speaking
nations, other types of study exist. For example, structural
geomorphologists, who were once a very influential group,
argued that underlying geological structures are the key to
understanding many landforms.
Climatic geomorphologists, who are found mainly in
France and Germany, believe that climate exerts a profound
influence on landforms, each climatic region creating a
distinguishing suite of landforms .
Applied geomorphology
Applied geomorphology studies the interactions of humans
with landscapes and landforms26. There are many applied
studies have been studied such as coastal erosion and
beach management27, soil erosion, the weathering of
buildings, landslide protection, river management and river
channel restoration28, and the planning and design of landfill
26
27
Bird, E. C. F. (1996) Beach Management. Chichester: JohnWiley & Sons.
Also, Viles, H. and Spencer, T. (1996) Coastal Problems: Geomorphology,Ecology
and Society at the Coast. London: Arnold.
28
Brookes, A. J. and Shields, F. D. (1996) River Channel Restoration: Guiding
Principles for Sustainable Projects. Chichester: JohnWiley & Sons.
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sites29. On other hand there are general applied issues as
follows:
a) Geomorphology in Environmental Planning30, for
example, considered the interaction between
geomorphology and public policies, with contributions on
rural land-use and soil erosion, urban land-use, slope
management, river management, coastal management, and
policy formulation.
b) Geomorphology in Environmental Management31, it is
related to management aspects of the environment.
c) Geomorphology and Land Management in a Changing
Environment32 that focus upon problems of managing land
against a background of environmental change.
d) In addition to these research fields of applied
Geomorphology comes in consideration the conservation of
ancient and modern landforms.
Geomorphological Processes:
Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into (1) the
production of regolith by weathering and erosion, (2) the
transport of that material, and (3) its eventual deposition.
Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic
features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass
wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial
29
Gray, J. M. (1993) Quaternary geology and waste disposal in south Norfolk, England,
Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 899–912.
30
Hooke, J. M. (ed.) (1988) Geomorphology in Environmental Planning. hichester:
JohnWiley & Sons.
31
Cooke, R. U. (1990) Geomorphology in Environmental Management: A New
Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
32
McGregor, D. M. and Thompson, D. A. (1995) Geomorphology and Land
Management in a Changing Environment. Chichester: JohnWiley & Sons.
37
action, tectonism, and volcanism. Other more exotic
geomorphic processes might include periglacial (freeze-
thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, marine currents
activity, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or
extraterrestrial impact.
These are the most known geomorphological processes:
a) Aeolian processes:
Aeolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and
more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface
of the Earth. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit
materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse
vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated
sediments. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize
more material than wind in most environments, eolian
processes are important in arid environments such as
deserts33.
Aeolian Process (Wind Erosion)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian_processes
33
Leeder, M., 1999, Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins, From Turbulence to
Tectonics, Blackwell Science, 592 p. ISBN 0-632-04976-6.
38
b) Biological processes:
The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or
biogeomorphologic processes, can be of many different
forms, and is probably of profound importance for the
terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can
influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from
biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering,
to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and
tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global
erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon
dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of
biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively
excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important
information for understanding the geomorphology of other
planets, such as Mars34.
c) Fluvial processes:
The stream-related processes are called fluvial (from the
Latin word "fluvius" = "river".35
Water dislodges, dissolves, or removes surface material in
the process called erosion. Streams produce fluvial erosion,
in which weathered sediment is picked up for transport, and
movement to new locations. Sediments are laid down by
another process, deposition. Alluvium is the general term
for the clay, silt, and sand deposited by running water.
34
Dietrich, William E.; Perron, J. Taylor (26 January 2006). "The search for a
topographic signature of life". Nature. 439 (7075): 411–418.
35
http://web.ccsu.edu/faculty/kyem/GEOG272/Chapter11/Rivers_Landforms.htm
39
As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase
in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers
thus formed is a drainage system. Drainage systems have
four primary components: drainage basin, alluvial valley,
delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic
examples of fluvial landforms are alluvial fans, oxbow
lakes, and fluvial terraces.
Source: https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/erosion-and-fluvial-
processes/deck/6017271
d) Glacial processes:
A glacier is a large mass of ice formed of compressed snow
that moves slowly under its own weight. Glaciers, can be
also defined as the gradual movement of ice down a valley
causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock. Glacial
erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to
the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin36.
36
Church, Michael; Ryder, June M. (October 1972). "Paraglacial Sedimentation: A
Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation". Geological Society
of America Bulletin. 83 (10): 3059–3072.
40
Source: https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=Glacial+processes+images
e) Hillslope processes:
Hillslopes are result of soil and rock movements downslope
under the force of gravity via creep, slides, flows, topples,
and falls. The Earth's landscape can be thought of as being
composed of a mosaic of slope types, ranging from steep
mountains and cliffs to almost flat plains. On most
hillslopes large quantities of soil and sediment are moved
over time via the mediums of air, water, and ice often under
the direct influence of gravity. The form a hillslope takes is
dependent on the various geomorphic processes acting on it.
Hillslopes are also the source of materials that are used to
construct a number of depositional landforms37.
In practical terms, hillslopes have direct and indirect
influence on a number of human activities. The steepness
and structural stability of hillslopes determines their
suitability for agriculture, forestry, and human settlement.
37
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10x.html
41
Hillslopes can also become a hazard to humans if their
materials move rapidly through the process of mass wasting.
Source: https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=Hillslope+processes+images
f) Igneous processes:
These are the action of volcanic and tectonic processes. The
result of these processes are covering the old land surface
with lava and tephra, releasing pyroclastic material and
forcing rivers through new paths38. The landforms that result
from volcanic eruptions depend primarily on the
explosiveness of the eruptions. The cones built by eruptions
also build substantial new topography, which can be acted
upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding
then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift and
38
http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137454.pdf
42
subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new
material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces39.
Source: https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=Igneous+processes+images
g) Tectonic processes:
Tectonic effects on geomorphology can range from scales of
millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics
on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the
underlying bedrock fabric that more or less controls what
kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. Earthquakes
can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land
creating new wetlands. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics
give rise to orogenic belts, large mountain chains with
typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which
39
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology
43
form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope
processes and thus long-term sediment production40.
Source: https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=Tectonic+processes+images
h) Marine processes:
Marine processes are those associated with the action of
waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the
seafloor.
40
Cserepes, L.; Christensen, U.R.; Ribe, N.M. (15 May 2000). "Geoid height versus
topography for a plume model of the Hawaiian swell". Earth and Planetary Science
Letters. 178 (1–2): 29–38. Bibcode:2000E&PSL.178.
44
Source: https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=Marine+processes+images
Related fields to Geomorphology:

Tectonic geomorphology is the study of the interplay
between tectonic and geomorphic processes in regions
where the Earth‘s crust actively deforms. Advances in the
measurement of rates and in the understanding of the
physical basis of tectonic and geomorphic processes have
revitalized it as a field of enquiry. It is a stimulating and
highly integrative field that uses techniques and data drawn
from studies of geomorphology, seismology,
geochronology, structure, geodesy, and Quaternary climate
change41 .
Submarine geomorphology deals with the form, origin,
and development of features of the sea floor. Submarine
landforms cover about 71 per cent of the Earth‘s surface, but
41
Burbank, D. W. and Anderson, R. S. (2001) Tectonic Geomorphology: A Frontier
in Earth Science. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science Inc.
45
are mostly less well studied than their terrestrial
counterparts. In shallow marine environments, landforms
include ripples, dunes, sand waves, sand ridges, shorelines,
and subsurface channels. In the continental slope transition
zone are submarine canyons and gullies, inter-canyon areas,
intraslope basins, and slump and slide scars. The deep
marine environment contains varied landforms, including
trench and basin plains, trench fans, sediment wedges,
abyssal plains, distributary channels, and submarine
canyons.
Planetary geomorphology is the study of landforms on
planets and large moons with a solid crust, for example
Venus, Mars, and some moons of Jupiter and Saturn42.
Climatic geomorphology rests on the not universally
accepted observation that each climatic zone (tropical, arid,
temperate for example) engenders a distinctive suite of
landforms43. Climate does strongly influence geomorphic
processes, but it is doubtful that the set of geomorphic
processes within each climatic zone creates characteristic
landforms. The current consensus is that, owing to climatic
and tectonic change, the climatic factor in landform
development is more complicated than climatic
geomorphologists have on occasions suggested44.
42
Howard, A. D. (1978)Origin of the stepped topography of the Martian poles.
Icarus 34, 58l–99.
43
Büdel, J. (1982) Climatic Geomorphology. Translated by Lenore Fischer and
Detlef Busche. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
44
of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition 2007, p. 389.
46
The Stream System
Most flowing water becomes quickly channelized into
streams as it is pulled downhill by the force of gravity.
Continuing downslope, streams form organized channel
systems in which small perennial channels join to make
larger perennial channels, and larger perennial channels join
to create even bigger streams. Smaller streams that
contribute their water and sediment load to a larger one in
this way are tributaries of the larger channel, which is
called the trunk stream .
Hydrologic System - Stream System

Source: Richard John Huggett, Fundamental of Geomorphology, Routledge
47
The stream, or surface runoff, system is a subsystem of the
hydrologic cycle. Its major water input is from precipitation.
However, groundwater may also contribute to the stream
system, particularly in regions of humid climate. The major
water output for most stream systems returns water into the
ocean. Output or loss of water also occurs by evaporation
back to the atmosphere and by infiltration into the
groundwater system. Stream systems are divided into
natural regions known as drainage basins (also called
watersheds), separated from each other by divides;
interfluves are the land areas between stream channels in the
same drainage basin. Drainage basins are fundamental
natural regions of critical importance to life in both humid
and arid regions.
Streams are complex systems of moving water that involve
energy transfers and the transport of a variety of surface
materials. Energy enters the system with precipitation. The
runoff flows downslope increasing the amount of energy
available to the stream for cutting and eroding channels.
Materials transported by streams, known as load, enter the
stream system by erosion and mass movement, particularly
in the headwaters of a drainage basin. Much of the surface
material eroded there consists of large particles, including
boulders. Coarse material is carried along the channel
bottom as bed load. As the number and size of tributaries
increase downstream, the amount of load carried by the
stream generally increases dramatically. This is especially
true for finer materials suspended in water (suspended load)
and dissolved minerals (dissolved load). Load leaves the
48
stream system when carried and deposited in the sea at the
river mouth. Streams also deposit sediment adjacent to their
channels as they overflow their banks during floods. Human
activities can change the amount of load available for stream
systems by building dams, altering land with construction
projects, overgrazing, and clearing forests. These activities
may also affect water quality downstream, where
communities may depend on the stream system for their
water supply.
The Drainage Basin:

Drainage basins are open systems that involve inputs and
outputs of water, sediment, and energy. Knowing the
boundaries of a drainage basin and its component subbasins
is critical to properly managing the water resources of a
watershed.
For example, pollution discovered in a river generally
comes from a source within its drainage basin, entering the
stream system either at the point where the pollutant was
first detected or at a location upstream from that site. This
knowledge helps us track, detect, and correct sources of
pollution.
The drainage divide represents the outside perimeter of a
drainage basin and thus also the boundary between it and
adjacent basins. The drainage divide follows the crest of the
interfluve between two adjacent drainage basins. In some
places, this crest is a definite ridge, but the higher land that
constitutes the divide is not always ridge shaped, nor is it
necessarily much higher than the rest of the interfluves.
49
Surface runoff generated on one side of the divide flows
toward the channel in one drainage basin, while runoff on
the other side travels in a very different direction toward the
channel in the adjacent drainage basin.
Aerial Photography of Stream Network

Stream ordering System:

In this system, first-order streams have no perennial
tributaries. Although they are generally the smallest
channels in the drainage basin, first-order channels can be
mapped on large-scale topographic maps. Most first-order
streams lie high up in the drainage basin near the drainage
divide, the source area of the stream system.
50
Hierarchy of stream ordering

Two first-order streams must meet in order to form a

second-order stream, which is larger than each of the first-
order streams. It takes the intersection of two second-order
channels to make a third-order stream regardless of how
many first-order streams might independently join the
second-order channels. The ordering system continues in
this way, requiring two streams of a given order to combine
to create a stream of the next higher order. The order of a
drainage basin derives from the largest stream order found
within it.
51
6. Climate Geography
52
6. Climate Geography:
Definition:
Climate (from Ancient Greek "klima", meaning
"inclination") is commonly defined as the weather averaged
over a long period45.
Climate Geography is the scientific study of climate in a
particular place. The Climate of a place can be defined as
the average weather conditions obtained through the
synthesis of weather elements prevailing there for over a
period of 30-35 years. The weather, on the other hand, is
defined by the atmospheric condition of a place or a given
location at a particular time46.
The weather elements at a particular place and time are
sunshine, temperature, pressure, precipitation, humidity,
evaporation, wind conditions etc. Geographers seek the
understanding of how the world‘s climate system works,
how it varies from time to time and space to space, and any
use that can be made of resources provided by climate.
Weather and climate are explained by the same element in
combination but weather and climate are not one the same.
The climate pertains to an area and a long period of time
while weather pertains to a place and at a particular time. In
other words weather is an instantaneous condition of the
45
"Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved
2008-05-14.
46
"Climate Data and Data Related Products". World Meteorological Organization.
53
atmosphere and it keeps changing all the time but the
climate of an area is fairly constant over a period of time 47.
Climate is the statistics of weather measured by assessing
the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric
particle count and other meteorological variables in a given
region over long periods of time48.
The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain,
and altitude, as well as nearby water bodies and their
currents. Climates can be classified according to the average
and the typical ranges of different variables, most
commonly temperature and precipitation49.
The Climate System

The climate system50 is an interactive system consisting of
five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere,
the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, forced or
influenced by various external forcing mechanisms, the
most important of which is the Sun. Also the direct effect of
human activities on the climate system is considered an
external forcing.
47
Shepherd, Dr. J. Marshall; Shindell, Drew; O'Carroll, Cynthia M. (1 February
2005). "What's the Difference Between Weather and Climate?". NASA.
48
Planton, Serge (France; editor) (2013). "Annex III. Glossary: IPCC -
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" (PDF). IPCC Fifth Assessment
Report. p. 1450. Retrieved 25 July 2016
49
Schwartz, M.D. (1995). "Detecting Structural Climate Change: An Air Mass-
Based Approach in the North Central United States, 1958–1992". Annals of the
Association of American Geographers. 85 (3): 553–568.
50
www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/pdf/tar-01.pdf
54
The atmosphere51 is the most unstable and rapidly
changing part of the system. Its composition, which has
changed with the evolution of the Earth, is of central
importance to the problem assessed in this Report. The
Earth‘s dry atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen
(N2, 78.1% volume mixing ratio), oxygen (O2, 20.9%
volume mixing ratio, and argon (Ar, 0.93% volume mixing
ratio). These gases have only limited interaction with the
incoming solar radiation and they do not interact with the
infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. However there are a
number of trace gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3), which
do absorb and emit infrared radiation. These so called
greenhouse gases, with a total volume mixing ratio in dry
air of less than 0.1% by volume, play an essential role in the
Earth‘s energy budget. Moreover the atmosphere contains
water vapour (H2O), which is also a natural greenhouse gas.
Its volume mixing ratio is highly variable, but it is typically
in the order of 1%. Because these greenhouse gases absorb
the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and emit infrared
radiation up- and downward, they tend to raise the
temperature near the Earth‘s surface. Water vapour, CO2
and O3 also absorb solar short-wave radiation.
51
Wallace J.M. and P.V. Hobbs (2006). Atmospheric science: an introductory
survey (2nd edition). International Geophysics Series 92, Academic press, 484pp.
55
The hydrosphere52 is the component comprising all liquid
surface and subterranean water, both fresh water, including
rivers, lakes and aquifers, and saline water of the oceans and
seas. Fresh water runoff from the land returning to the
oceans in rivers influences the ocean‘s composition and
circulation.
The cryosphere53, including the ice sheets of Greenland
and Antarctica, continental glaciers and snow fields, sea ice
and permafrost, derives its importance to the climate system
from its high reflectivity (albedo) for solar radiation, its low
thermal conductivity, its large thermal inertia and,
especially, its critical role in driving deep ocean water
circulation.
Because the ice sheets store a large amount of water,
variations in their volume are a potential source of sea level
variations .
52
World Water Resources: A New Appraisal and Assessment for the 21st Century
(Report). UNESCO. 1998. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
53
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryosphere
56
The Climate System54
Classification of Climate:
The most widely used climate classification is based on
temperature and precipitation patterns. It is referred to as the
Köppen system after the German botanist and climatologist
who developed it. Wladimir Koppen recognized that major
vegetation associations reflect the area‘s climate. Hence, his
climate regions were formulated to coincide with well-
defined vegetation regions, and each climate region was
described by the natural vegetation most often found there.
Evidence of the strong influence of Koppen‘s system is seen
in the wide usage of his climatic terminology, even in
54
IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Houghton, J. T., Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs.
57
nonscientific literature (for example, steppe climate, tundra
climate, rainforest climate).
The Köppen climate classification55 scheme divides
climates into five main groups (A, B, C, D, E), each having
several types and subtypes. Each particular climate type is
represented by a two- to four-letter symbol:
Group A: Tropical climates: these climates are
characterized by constant high temperatures, all 12 months
of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C or higher
and divided into:
 Tropical rainforest climate56: All 12 months have
average precipitation of at least 60 mm. These
climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the
equator. This climate is dominated by the doldrums
low-pressure system all year round, so has no natural
seasons. In some eastern-coast areas, they may extend
to as much as 25° away from the equator when they
share precipitation patterns with humid subtropical
climates but feature warm enough temperatures to be
classified as tropical.
 Tropical monsoon climate57: This type of climate,
most common in South America, results from the
55
Köppen, Wladimir (1918). "Klassification der Klimate nach Temperatur,
Niederschlag and Jahreslauf". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. 64. pp. 193–
203, 243–248 – via http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/koeppen.htm.
56
McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000). "Climate Zones and Types". Physical
Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
ISBN 0-13-020263-0., p.205.
57
McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel (2000). "Climate Zones and Types". Physical
Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. P.
208, ISBN 0-13-020263-0
58
monsoon winds which change direction according to
the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which
nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter"
solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less
than 60 mm, but more than 1/25 the total annual
precipitation.
 Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate: these
climates have a pronounced dry season, with the
driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm
and less than 1/25 of the total annual precipitation.
Group B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates58: These
climates are characterized by actual precipitation less than a
threshold value set equal to the potential evapo-
transpiration. The total precipitation in the warmest six
months of the year is taken as reference instead of the total
precipitation in the high-sun half of the year59. There are
two subclimates can be divided under Dry climates60:
 Desert climate : Hot desert & Cold desert
 Steppe climate: Semi-arid, Hot steppe and Cold
steppe
58
Geiger R (1954) Klassifikationen der Klimate nach W. Köppen.In: Landolf-
Börnstein: Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie,
Geophysik und Technik, (alte Serie), Vol. 3. Springer, Berlin, p 603−607
59
Critchfield, H.J. (1983). "Criteria for classification of major climatic types in
modified Köppen system" (4 ed.). University of Idaho.
60
Patton CP (1962) A note on the classification of dry climate in the Köppen
system. California Geographer 3: 105−112
59
Köppen climate classification
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification#/media/File:W
orld_Koppen_Classification_(with_authors).svg
Simplified Köppen Climate Classes

60
Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates: These
climates have an average monthly temperature above 10 °C
in their warmest months (April to September in northern
hemisphere), and an average monthly temperature above
−3 °C in their coldest months61. There are five subclimates:
 Dry-summer or Mediterranean climates
 Temperate or subtropical hot-summer climates
 Maritime temperate climates or Oceanic climates
 Maritime subarctic climates or subpolar oceanic
climate
 Temperate highland climates with dry winters
Group D: Continental/microthermal climates: These
climates have an average temperature above 10 °C in their
warmest months, and a coldest month average below −3 °C
(or 0 °C in some versions, as noted previously). These
usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their
upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern
Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the
smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost
complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some
highland locations. These climates are subdivided as:
 Hot summer continental climates
 Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climates
 Continental subarctic
 Continental subarctic climates with extremely severe
winters
61
Critchfield, H.J. (1983). "Criteria for classification of major climatic types in
modified Köppen system" (4 ed.). University of Idaho.
61
Group E: Polar and alpine climates: These climates are
characterized by average temperatures below 10 °C in all 12
months of the year and divided in two subclimates62:
 Tundra climate: Warmest month has an average
temperature between 0 and 10 °C. These climates
occur on the northern edges of the North American
and Eurasian land masses, and on nearby islands. ET
climates are also found on some islands near the
Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside
the polar regions, above the tree line.
 Ice cap climate: This climate is dominant in
Antarctica and inner Greenland, but also occurs at
extremely high altitudes on mountains, above even
tundra. All twelve months have average temperatures
below 0 °C .
Climate of Egypt:
Egypt‘s climate is hot and dry. The average daily
temperature ranges from 17 to 20 C along the
Mediterranean to more than 25 C in Upper Egypt along the
Nile63.
Based on CRUTEM3 data64 that have been used to provide
an analysis of mean temperatures from 1960 to 2010 over
Egypt using the median of pairwise slopes method to fit the
trend, there is a spatially consistent warming signal for
62
Iceland Met Office. 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
63
EEAA. 2010a. Egypt Second National Communication Under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency,
Cairo, Egypt.
64
Hune, Ch. and J. Slingo, Met Office, Climate: Observations, Projections and
Imapacts, http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/4/j/Egypt.pdf
62
temperature over Egypt. For both summer (June to August)
and winter (December to February) the spatial pattern is
similar. However, for summer, more grid boxes show
warming signals with higher confidence.
Climatic regions in Egypt65:

Egypt is located in the hyper-arid regions of North Africa
and West Asia astride the Sahara and Arabian Desert with
annual rainfall in most parts of less than 50mm.
According to the aridity index P/ETP (P = precipitation and
ETP = potential evapotranspiration, calculated by Penman‘s
formula), the arid regions are classified to hyperarid
(P/ETP< 0.03) and arid (P/ETP = 0.03 – 0.20). These
classes are, in turn, subdivided according to the mean
temperature of the coldest month and that of the hottest
month of the year. Consideration is also given to the time of
rainy period relative to the temperature regime. On these
bases, four climatic provinces in Egypt are distinguished.
1) Hyperarid provinces; include all the area between
Lat.22° and 30° N, except the coastal mountains along the
Gulf of Suez. These are distinguished to:
 Hyperarid with a mild winter and a hot summer
(mean temperature of the hottest month is 20-30 °C),
this includes the Eastern Desert and the northeastern
part of the Western Desert of Egypt, and Gebel
Uweinat .
65
Higazi et al., UNCCD Egypt and Desert Research Center, The National Action
Program to Combat the Desertification in Egypt, 2005, p.5-6.
63
 Hyperarid with a cool winter (mean temperature of
the coldest month is 0-10 °C), and a hot summer,
represented around the highlands of southern Sinai.
The rain in hyperarid provinces is less than 30mm/yr and is
occasional and unpredictable.
2) The arid provinces; include the northern section with
winter rainfall, it extends along the Mediterranean coast and
the Gulf of Suez. This section is distinguished into two
provinces namely;
 The coastal belt province under the maritime
influence of the Mediterranean, with a shorter dry
period (attenuated),
 The more inland province with a longer dry period
(accentuated) and an annual rainfall from 20 to 100
mm. Both provinces are characterized by a mild
winter and a hot summer.
Basic climatic elements in Egypt:

a) Temperature
Generally, summer is hot (mean of the very hottest month
ranges between 20 and 30 °C), or very hot (mean of the
hottest month is more than 30°C). Winter is either warm
(mean of the coldest month is 20-30°C) or mild (mean
minimum of the coldest month is 10-20°C) expect on the
highlands where the winter is cool with a mean minimum of
the coldest month (between 0 and 10°C).The temperature
along the Red Sea coast varies between a mean minimum of
the coldest month of about 10°C towards the North and
about 20°C towards the South , and a mean maximum of the
64
hottest month of about 33°C towards the North and 40°C
towards the South. The range of variation becomes greater
further inland (from about 4 to 38°C in the oases of the
Western Desert). In continental locations, temperature
extremes of less than 4 °C in the coldest month (e.g. oases
of the Western Desert) have been recorded. The coldest
month is between December and February and the hottest
month is between June and August in hyperarid and arid
provinces, respectively.
b) Relative Humidity
The relative humidity is affected mainly by the relative
proximity to the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The lowest
records are those of inland locations of the arid and
hyperarid provinces and the highest ones are those of
locations closer to the Mediterranean coast and in the Nile
Delta within the arid province (e.g. mean minimum 60%
and mean maximum of 72 % in Damanhur). The lowest
records of relative humidity are generally those of late
spring, whereas the highest records are those of late autumn
and early winter.
c) Rainfall
In general, three rainfall belts may be distinguished in the
deserts of Egypt:
(1) The Mediterranean coastal belt, (2) middle Egypt with
latitude 30° N as its southern boundary, and (3) upper
Egypt. The first and second belts have a winter rainfall
(Mediterranean regime), the rainy season extends from
November to April, though mainly concentrated in
December and January. These belts correspond roughly to
65
the attenuated and accentuated arid provinces of northern
Egypt, where the average annual rainfall ranges from 100 to
150 mm in the attenuated arid province, and from 20 to 100
mm in the accentuated arid province. It extends rather south
along the Gulf of Suez to Lat.26° N due to the orographic
influence of the Red Sea coastal mountains. The third belt is
almost rainless; it corresponds roughly to the hyperarid
provinces. Rain at this belt is not an annually recurring
incident; 10mm may occur once every ten years . The
rainfall increases gradually to the North until reaches about
20mm at the borders with the arid province ( at Giza) .
One of the major features of rainfall in arid and semi arid
regions other than being scanty, is its great temporal
variability, average deviation of annual precipitation from
the mean, expressed as percentage of the mean, is greatest in
the hyperarid provinces (e. g. Siwa 83 % ). In the arid
province the percentage variability is 65 % at Giza which is
close to the hyperarid provinces.
66
Average annual Rainfall in Egypt
Source: MWRI , 2005, National Water Resources Plan for 2017, p.2.9
d) Wind
In winter, the Sahara high-pressure system dominates the
circulation and the northerlies bring cool dry air from the
North Africa continental source region though occasionally
the Arabian high brings warmer air to the eastern parts of
the Sudan. Both of these types are occasionally interrupted
by E-W depressions along the Mediterranean, and replaced
by cold dry air from the Eurasian landmass. In spring and
67
autumn, the Arabian high is more dominant in the East, and
the effect of Mediterranean depression is rarely felt, as air
from both the North Africa and the Arabian sources is
considerably warmer than in winter. In Summer , the
Saharan high is again dominant bringing hot dry air .
Occasionally, very hot dust-laden winds blow (Khamaseen)
which have numerous environmental consequences
including possible effect on climate, soil formation,
groundwater quality and crop growth. They may create
problems including substantial degrees of deflation and
erosion.
e) Moisture Regime
The evaporative power of the air in the hyperarid provinces
of Egypt as measured by the Piche evaporimeter, varies in
January from 3.6 mm/day in Aswan to 7.9 mm/day in
Dakhla Oasis, and in June from 14.0 mm/day in the
Bahariya Oasis to 24.3 mm/day in the Dakhla Oasis. In the
arid province, the mean minimum evaporation rate during
winter is, in general, within the same range as in the
hyperarid provinces .
The annual potential evapotranspiration is, in general, lower
in the arid than in hyperarid provinces .The lowest is that of
Giza (592 mm according to Penman‘s equation, and 1582
mm according to Turc‘s equation ).
Factors that affect the climate of Egypt66;
These are its sub-tropical latitude range of 22-32°N, and its
position both close to the circum-global latitudinal belt of
66
Hune, Ch. and J. Slingo, Met Office, Climate: Observations, Projections and
Imapacts, http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/4/j/Egypt.pdf
68
generally high atmospheric pressure and sandwiched
between the vast continental land masses of Africa and
Asia. These factors make Egypt one of the hottest and
sunniest countries in the world, with very low humidity.
Only along the northern coastal strip do winter cyclonic
disturbances moving eastwards along the Mediterranean Sea
bring some significant rainfall and, even at Alexandria on
the coast, total annual rainfall averages are only 196mm.
Some 160km inland at Cairo, average annual rainfall has
reduced to 25mm and southwards it reduces still further to
only 5mm at Hurghada on the Red Sea coast and less than
2mm at Aswan in the Nile valley. In central and southern
Egypt several years may pass without any significant rain.
When rain does fall it is usually in the form of a brief and
sometimes damaging downpour.
Annual mean temperatures increase from around 20°C on
the Mediterranean coastline to around 24°C on the Red Sea
coastline, 25°C at Cairo and 26°C further south at Aswan
with a seasonal variation of about ±7°C. Typical daytime
maxima in mid-summer range from 30°C at Alexandria
southwards to 41°C at Aswan; while the corresponding
north-south range in mid-winter daytime maxima is 18-
23°C. This makes even winter daytimes in the south
pleasantly warm and sunny, albeit with cool nights, as
further north.
Climate hazards include dust storms, heat waves, localized
floods and, very rarely, unaccustomed snowfall in the north.
A particularly unpleasant, occasionally dangerous,
phenomenon in spring and early summer is a dry and dust
69
laden ‗Khamsin‘ wind that, from time to time, carries very
hot air northwards into northern Egypt ahead of weak
cyclonic disturbances in the Mediterranean.
70
7. Global Warming
and its Impact on Egypt
71
7. Global Warming and its Impact on Egypt
Global warming describes the current rise in the average
temperature of Earth‘s air and oceans. Global warming is
often described as the most recent example of climate
change67.
Global warmth begins with sunlight. When light from the
Sun reaches the Earth, roughly 30 percent of it is reflected
back into space by clouds, atmospheric particles, reflective
ground surfaces, and even ocean surface. The remaining 70
percent of the light is absorbed by the land, air, and oceans,
heating our planet‘s surface and atmosphere and making life
on Earth possible. Solar energy does not stay bound up in
Earth‘s environment forever. Instead, as the rocks, the air,
and the sea warm, they emit thermal radiation, or infrared
heat. Much of this thermal radiation travels directly out to
space, allowing Earth to cool68.
Earth‘s climate has changed many times. Our planet has
gone through multiple ice ages, in which ice sheets and
glaciers covered large portions of the Earth. It has also gone
through warm periods when temperatures were higher than
they are today. Past changes in Earth‘s temperature
happened very slowly, over hundreds of thousands of years.
However, the recent warming trend is happening much
faster than it ever has. Natural cycles of warming and
cooling are not enough to explain the amount of warming
67
National Geographic, Encyclopedic Global Warming.
68
NASA, Earth observatory,
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/
72
we have experienced in such a short time—only human
activities can account for it. Scientists worry that the climate
is changing faster than some living things can adapt to it.
The Effect of Greenhose on Earth's energy balance

and Climate69
The increase in temperature will associated with some

changes in ecological system and increase in air pollution as
a result of emissions, soil erosion and wind speed. The new
climate situation would increase the amount of desert dust
carried across the country causing health and economic
problems. Such emphasizes will lead to some case of
demographic dislocation (increasing of immigration
69
National Academy of Science, the Royal Society, Climate evidence and Change,
2010, p. 22.
73
pressure to Europe), socioeconomic disruptions, Increase in
population density. Water/per-capita will reduce to 452 m3
in 206070 .
Impact of Global warming71:
Even slight rises in average global temperatures can have
huge effects. Perhaps the biggest, most obvious effect is that
glaciers and ice caps melt faster than usual. The meltwater
drains into the oceans, causing sea levels to rise and oceans
to become less salty.
Ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat naturally. As
Earth‘s temperature has changed, the ice sheets have grown
and shrunk, and sea levels have fallen and risen. Ancient
corals found on land in Florida, Bermuda, and the Bahamas
show that the sea level must have been 5 to 6 meters higher
130,000 years ago than it is today. Earth doesn‘t need to
become oven-hot to melt the glaciers.
Northern summers were just 3 to 5 degrees Celsius warmer
during the time of those ancient fossils than they are today.
However, the speed at which global warming is taking place
is unprecedented. The effects are unknown. Glaciers and ice
caps cover about 10 percent of the world‘s landmass today.
They hold about 75 percent of the world‘s fresh water. If all
of this ice melted, sea levels would rise by about 70 meters.
The IPCC reported that the global sea level rose about 1.8
millimeters (0.07 inches) per year from 1961 to 1993, and
3.1millimeters per year since 1993.
70
World Bank, report on the effect of Global warming, 2009.
71
http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/global-warming/
74
Rising sea levels could flood coastal communities,
displacing millions of people in areas such as Bangladesh,
the Netherlands, and the U.S. state of Florida. Forced
migration would impact not only those areas, but the regions
to which the ―climate refugees‖ flee. Millions more people
in countries like Bolivia, Peru, and India depend on glacial
meltwater for drinking, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.
Rapid loss of these glaciers would devastate those countries.
Glacial melt has already raised the global sea level slightly.
However, scientists are discovering ways the sea level could
increase even faster. For example, the melting of the
Chacaltaya Glacier in Bolivia has exposed dark rocks
beneath it. The rocks absorb heat from the sun, speeding up
the melting process.
Many scientists use the term ―climate change‖ instead of
―global warming.‖ This is because greenhouse gas
emissions affect more than just temperature. Another effect
involves changes in precipitation like rain and snow.
Patterns in precipitation may change or become more
extreme. Over the course of the 20th century, precipitation
increased in eastern parts of North and South America,
northern Europe, and northern and central Asia. However, it
has decreased in parts of Africa, the Mediterranean, and
parts of southern Asia.
Impact on Environment in Egypt:
The future predictions of average temperature in Egypt, as a
result of global warming to an increase by 4 OC in Cairo
and by 3.1 to 4.7 OC in the rest of Egypt by 2060. The
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) projected
75
a further 2-11 degree Fahrenheit (1.4 to 5.8 OC) rise in
average global surface temperature during the 21st
century72.
The impact of the Global warming on environmental and
socio-economic aspects in Egypt From the World Bank
(WB) report, Dasgupta has noted that Egypt is considered
one of the top five countries expected to be mostly impacted
with a 1-m sea level rise (SLR) in the world73. Several
general analyses of the potential impact of SLR on the Nile
delta coast have been carried out. As a result, areas of high
vulnerability in the Nile delta and possible socio-economic
impacts have been generally defined. These high risk areas
include parts of Alexandria and Beheira governorates, Port
Said and Damietta governorates, and Suez governorate. In
addition, several other smaller areas, such as those near
Matruh governorate and north of Lake Bardaweel, have also
been identified as risked zones.
72
http://EzineArticles.com/1079061
73
Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, C. Meisner, D. Wheeler, and J. Yan (2007) The Impact
of Sea Level Rise on Developing Countries; A Comparative Analysis. World Bank
Policy Research Working Paper 4136, Washington: Development Research Group,
World Bank.
76
Satellite maps of Nile delta, showing the
Potential impact of SLR of about 1 meter74
Different Scenarios of the Impact of SLR on Nile delta

Source: Alaa AlNahry, presentation on Global warming and its negative
impact on Egypt, 2010.
74
Simonett, Otto (2002) “Nile Delta: Potential Impact of Sea Level Rise”,
UNEP/GRID-Arendal,
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/nile_delta_potential_impact_of_sea_level_rise .
77
Impact on Water resources in Egypt75:
Egypt is one of the African countries that has proved
vulnerable to water stress caused by climate change. The
water used in 2000 was estimated at about 70 km3 which is
already far greater than the available resources76. Both
water supply and demand are expected to be affected by
climate change and SLR. A combination of salt water
intrusion due to SLR and increased soil salinity due to
increased evaporation is shown on the Satellite map of Nile
delta, the coastal inundation with a 1m SLR77 expected to
reduce the quality of shallow groundwater supplies in the
coastal areas. Rainfall measurements in coastal areas are
unpredictable and it is difficult to expect whether rainfall is
increasing or decreasing. The demand for water in Egypt is
dominated by three major user groups: agricultural
irrigation, domestic use, and industry. The agricultural
sector consumes about 85% of the annual total water
resource. It is therefore likely that any effects of climate
change on water supply and demand will be dwarfed by a
much larger increase in demand due to population growth78.
75
Elsharkawy H., Rashed H., & Rached I., The impacts of SLR on Egypt, 45th
ISOCARP Congress 2009
76
Gueye, L, Bzioul M., and Johnson O. (2005) ―Water and sustainable development
in the countries of Northern Africa: coping with challenges and scarcity‖, Assessing
sustainabledevelopment in Africa,. AddisAbaba,: Africa‘s Sustainable Development
Bulletin, Economic Commission for Africa,, 24-28.
77
Simonett, Otto (2002) ―Nile Delta: Potential Impact of Sea Level Rise‖,
NEP/GRID-Arendal,
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/nile_delta_potential_impact_of_sea_level_rise
78
El-Gindy, A., A.A. Abdel Azziz, and E.A. El-Sahaar (2001) Design of Irrigation
and Drainage Networks, (in Arabic), Egypt: Faculty of Agriculture lectures,Ain
Shams University.
78
The experts warn that Egypt could be on the receiving end
of a natural disaster of substantial proportions. Although
numerous scenarios are being studied by scientists, two
things appear certain in all of them: Alexandria, Egypt's
second largest city on the Mediterranean Sea coast is
expected to disappear and North Africa will be facing
trouble for years ahead. The Egyptian Minister of State for
Environmental Affairs, stated to a parliamentary committee
in Cairo that many of the towns and urban areas in the north
of the Nile delta will suffer from a rise in the level of the
Mediterranean with effect from 2020, and about 15 percent
of delta land is under threat from the rising sea level and its
seepage into the ground water. He said that joint studies by
his ministry and the United Nations have assessed the
situation is urgent, adding that Egypt is planning to start an
international campaign to look for proper solutions79.
Impact on Agricultural and Food Resources80

In the Policy Research Working Paper published by the
WB81 in April 2009, it was deduced that the large
incremental impact of storm surges on ―agricultural areas‖
in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region arises
mostly in Egypt (326%) and Algeria (143%). The increase
of impact on agricultural areas is significant for this region,
79
Thomas, B. (2008) ―Egypt heading toward natural disaster‖, Carbon-Based
Climate Change Adaptation, http://carbon-based-ghg.blogspot.com/2008/03/egypt-
heading-toward-naturaldisaster.html
80
Elsharkawy H., Rashed H., & Rached I., The impacts of SLR on Egypt, 45th
ISOCARP Congress 2009
81
World Bank report, report on the Impact of the Global Warming in Middle East
and Africa (MENA region), April 2009.
79
mainly because Egyptian and Algerian cropland in surge
zones would increase from the existing estimated 212 km2
to approximately 900 km2 with SLR and intensified storm
surges. It was also noted that in the MENA region, the
percentage increase in surge zones when compared to
current surge zones is largest for Egypt (83.6%). The surge
zones of Egypt will almost double as a result of SLR and
intensified storm surges, increasing from (7.4%) of the
coastal area at present to (13.6%)82 .
Another aspect which affects agriculture is that precipitation
in Egypt is only significant in the northern Mediterranean
coast, where average annual rainfall is roughly 180mm, and
is extremely low in the rest of the country‘s desert territory
as with the impacts of climate change, Egypt‘s climate is
expected to get drier and warmer thus pressures on
agriculture will definitely intensify83. Agriculture is
restricted to the fertile lands of the narrow Nile Valley the
flat Nile delta characterized by high-production agriculture,
high urban water demands, and rapidly growing population.
Water for irrigation, supplied entirely through the river Nile,
varies due to changes in freshwater availability and to
competition among water users84. Moreover, climate change
82
Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, S Murray, and D. Wheeler (2009) Sea-Level Rise and
Storm Surges Policy Research Working Paper 4901, Washington: The World Bank-
Development Research Group- Environment and Energy Team.
83
Abou-Hadid, A. (2006) Assessment of Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability to
Climate Change in North Africa: Food Production and Water Resources, Project
No. AF 90, Washington, District of Columbia: Assessments of Impacts and
Adaptations to Climate Change (AIACC).
84
Leary, N., Adejuwon J., and Barros V. (2008) Climate Change and Adaptation,
London: Earthscan.
80
will probably affect water resources requiring reduction in
irrigation water and that might pose another problem for
agricultural production85.
Demand is expected to increase on crop yields, making the
country more open to deficits in food production resulting
from climate change. Also, expected higher prices for food
imported from developed countries will exacerbate the
situation86.
In summary, expected climatic change, population increase,
urbanization and industrial development as well as irrigation
intensification constantly increase water demand and can
intensify the vulnerability of agriculture in Egypt87. Also,
the increase of temperature and frequency of extreme events
will reduce crop yield as well as causing changes in the
agricultural distribution of crops. Furthermore, it will
negatively affect marginal land and force farmers to
abandon them increasing desertification and unemployment
associated with loss of income consequently political unrest.
85
Eid, H., S. El-Marsafawy, and S. Ouda (2007) Assessing the Economic Impacts of
Climate Change on Agriculture in Egypt. Policy Research Working Paper 4293, The
World Bank Development Research Group.
86
El-Raey, M. (1999) ―Impact of Climate Change on Egypt‖, Environmental
Software andServices. http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/EGY/impact.html
87
Abou-Hadid, A. (2006) Assessment of Impacts, Adaptation,and Vulnerability to
Climate Changein North Africa: Food Production and Water Resources, Project No.
AF 90, Washington, District of Columbia: Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations
to Climate Change (AIACC).
81
Impact on Population and Health88:
Climate change is expected to have adverse impacts on
human health in Egypt, which will be aggravated by high
population densities. These may include increases in the
prevalence and severity of asthma, and infectious diseases,
vector borne diseases, skin cancer, eye cataracts, and heat
strokes. Extra deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory
illness, diarrhea and dysenteric infections are expected.
Children mortality rate and malnutrition cases are expected
to be more frequent.
Egypt ranked as the 31st in total emissions with 221.1
million tons of carbon dioxide CO2 emitted yearly, making
Egypt is responsible for 0.6% of global emissions. Egypt
ranked as 94th in terms of per capita emissions with 3 tons
of CO2 per person. The World Bank categorizes Egypt as
one of the top level of countries in terms of growth in
emissions and states ―under usual business conditions,
Egypt could face a 50% increase in greenhouse gas
emissions (from 2007 level) in the electricity sector alone‖.
Climate change will affect the population‘s economic
activities. Just a 0.25m rise in sea level would devastate the
populous cities that drive Egypt‘s economy. Forty percent
of Egyptian industry is located in Alexandria alone; a 0.25m
rise in sea level would put 60% of Alexandria‘s population
of 4 million below sea level, as well as 56.1% of
88
Khaled El-Sayed Hassan, The Future Impacts of Climate Change on Egyptian
Population,
http://iussp.org/sites/default/files/event_call_for_papers/Extended%20abstract_Climate%20ch
ange%20in%20Egypt_Khaled%20Hassan_0.pdf
82
Alexandria‘s industrial sector. A rise of 0.5m would be even
more disastrous, placing 67% of the population, 65.9% of
the industrial sector, and 75.9% of the service sector below
sea level. Thirty percent of the city‘s area would be
destroyed, 1.5 million people would have to be evacuated,
and over 195,000 jobs would be lost. Alexandria is not the
only Egyptian city that would be devastated by even a 0.5m
rise in sea level. A 0.5m rise would cost over 2 billion
dollars and eliminate over one third of the jobs located in
Rosetta, another city in the Delta. The Egyptian Report to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in 1999 estimated that sea level rise
would force the migration of 2 million people currently
living in the Nile Delta. Other cities threatened by a rising
sea level in the delta include Port Said, Matruh City, and
Arish City89.
Impact on Beach erosion90:
The projections of the Nile Delta, Rosetta and Damietta are

currently undergoing extensive change from both natural
and anthropogenic pressures. The highest rate of erosion
occurs along the outer margins of these projections. This
erosion is a result of the combined effects of cut-off of
89
Agrawala, Shardul et al, 2004, DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE
IN EGYPT: FOCUS ON COASTAL RESOURCES AND THE NILE, Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development Organization,
http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/33330510.pdf
90
Wadi Environmental Science Center, www.wesc.org
83
River Nile sediment discharge by the Aswan High Dam and
prevailing coastal processes.
Erosion along the tip of the Damietta projection has

adversely affected homes and condominiums to the east at
Ras El Bar, and it has destroyed the old coastal road from
Damietta to Port Said and the lighthouse west of the river91.
However, a number of protective structures have been
constructed along this projection to reduce shoaling in the
river entrance.
Worldwide efforts92:
Reducing our greenhouse gas emissions is a critical step in
slowing the global warming trend. Many governments
around the world are working toward this goal. The biggest
effort so far has been the Kyoto Protocol, which was
adopted in 1997 and went into effect in 2005. By the end of
2009, 187 countries had signed and ratified the agreement.
Under the protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the
European Union have committed to reducing their
greenhouse gas emissions.
There are several ways that governments, industries, and
individuals can reduce greenhouse gases. We can improve
energy efficiency in homes and businesses. We can improve
the fuel efficiency of cars and other vehicles. We can also
support development of alternative energy sources, such as
91
Frihy, et al , 1996, some proposal for costal management of the Nile Delta coast,
ocean and coastal management, 30, 1, 43-59.
92
http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/global-warming/
84
solar power and bio-fuels, that don‘t involve burning fossil
fuels.
Some scientists are working to capture carbon dioxide and
store it underground, rather than let it go into the
atmosphere. This process is called carbon sequestration.
Trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide as they grow.
Protecting existing 6 of 14 forests and planting new ones
can help balance greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Changes in farming practices could also reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. For example, farms use large amounts of
nitrogen-based fertilizers, which increase nitrogen oxide
emissions from the soil. Reducing the use of these fertilizers
would reduce the amount of this greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere.
The way farmers handle animal manure can also have an
effect on global warming. When manure is stored as liquid
or slurry in ponds or tanks, it releases methane. When it
dries as a solid, however, it does not. Reducing greenhouse
gas emissions is vitally important. However, the global
temperature has already changed and will most likely
continue to change for years to come. The IPCC suggests
that people explore ways to adapt to global warming as well
as try to slow or stop it. Some of the suggestions for
adapting include:
 Expanding water supplies through rain catchment,
conservation, reuse, and desalination.
 Adjusting crop locations, variety, and planting dates.
85
 Building seawalls and storm surge barriers and
creating marshes and wetlands as buffers against
rising sea levels.
 Creating heat-health action plans, boosting
emergency medical services, and improving disease
surveillance and control.
 Diversifying tourism attractions, because existing
attractions like ski resorts and coral reefs may
disappear.
 Planning for roads and rail lines to cope with
warming and/or flooding.
 Strengthening energy infrastructure, improving
energy efficiency, and reducing dependence on single
sources of energy.
Egyptian efforts93:
The main objective of Egypt‘s National Strategy for

Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction
is to increase the flexibility of the Egyptian community
when dealing with the risks and disasters that might be
caused by climate change and its impact on different sectors
and activities. It also aims at strengthening the capacity to
absorb and reduce the risks and disasters to be caused by
such changes.
In essence, the strategy adopts accommodation and
protection as the two basic means of defense, taking into
93
Egypt‘s National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk
Reduction. http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/egy141200.pdf
86
consideration systematic retreat based upon predefined
plans, in case the coastal zones are exposed to cyclones,
tsunamis or any other extreme event. The global concepts
agreed upon in the Copenhagen Accord (2010) refer to a
minimum temperature increase of no more than two degrees
Celsius as well as two sea level rise scenarios of 0.5 meters
and 1 meter until the end of the 21st century.
coastal protection works (Mohammad
Ali Sea Wall, the banks of coastal lakes, shore protection works, etc).
87
8. Geography
of Water Resources
88
8. Geography of Water Resources
Geography of Water resources is a subfield of physical
Geography that focuses on the geographic distribution of
Water resources and its volumes comparing to human
activities.
Water resources are very unevenly distributed, with some
countries having an abundance of water while many manage
conditions of extreme scarcity. In addition, even where
water may appear abundant, much of it is not accessible or
is very expensive to develop, or is not close to lands that can
be developed for agriculture94.
Water scarcity has three dimensions: physical -when the
available supply does not satisfy the demand-,
infrastructural -when the infrastructure in place does not
allow for satisfaction of water demand by all users- and
institutional -when institutions and legislations fail to ensure
reliable, secure and equitable supply of water to users-.
In some regions, the competition for water and the growing
water scarcity are constraining both current availability of
water for irrigation and further expansion of the irrigated
area. There are already very severe water shortages, in
particular in Western, Central and South Asia, which use
half or more of their water resources in irrigation, and in
Northern Africa, where withdrawals for irrigation exceed
renewable resources due to groundwater overdraft and
recycling. By contrast, Southern America barely uses 1
percent of its resources. In many parts of the Middle East,
94
Caponera, D.A., 1992. Principles of water law and administration: national and
international.Rotterdam/Den Haag, Balkema.
89
North Africa, China and elsewhere, water tables are
declining as farmers abstract over and above rates of
replenishment from recharge and aquifer leakage95.
In terms of physical water scarcity, it is estimated that on
average a withdrawal rate above 20 percent of renewable
water resources represents substantial pressure on water
resources – and more than 40 percent is ‗critical‘. In some
regions, particularly in the Middle East, Northern Africa and
Central Asia, countries are already withdrawing in excess of
critical thresholds. The resultant stresses on the functions of
ecosystems are increasingly apparent. It is now estimated
that more than 40 percent of the world‘s rural population
lives in river basins that are physically water scarce96.
At the country level, variations are even higher. In 2005–7,

four countries (Libyan, Arab Jamahiriya, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen and Egypt) used volumes of water for irrigation that
were larger than their annual renewable water resources.
Overall, eleven countries used more than 40 percent of their
water resources for irrigation, the threshold that is
considered critical. An additional eight countries withdrew
95
FAO 2004, Water charging in irrigated agriculture. An analysis of international
experience.Rome, FAO Water Report 28. (Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/aglw/
docs/wr28e.pdf)
96
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (VAO), 2011, The
State of the World‘s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture, Chapter
1. Status and trends in land and water resources, p.28
90
more than 20 percent of their water resources, indicating
substantial pressure and impending water scarcity97.
For several countries, relatively low overall figures may
give an overly optimistic impression of the level of water
stress: China, for instance, is facing severe water shortage in
the north while the south still has abundant water resources.
Groundwater mining also occurs in certain parts of some
other countries of the Near East, and in South and East Asia,
Central America and in the Caribbean, even if at the
national level the water balance may still be positive98.
Water resources in Egypt:

More than 96 percent of all the Egyptian fresh water
resources are supplied by the river Nile, which originates
from outside the country boundaries and supplies ten
countries among which Egypt. Egypt's share of Nile water is
limited according to the 1959 international agreement
between Sudan and Egypt at 55.5 BCM99. The rest of the
water requirements is met by a renewable groundwater with
4.8 BCM/year and a drainage water reuse, which is
estimated at 4.5 BCM. Treated municipal and industrial
wastewater water returns to the closed water system 0.7 and
97
FAO 2007, Irrigation management transfer: worldwide efforts and results. FAO
Water Reports 32. Rome, FAO. (Available at:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a1520e/a1520e00.htm)
98
European Commission, 2010. EU Water Framework Directive. (Available at:
http:// ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html)
99
Abu-Zeid M., 1991. .Water Resources Assessment for Egypt., Ministry of water
resources and irrigation, Egypt.
91
6.5 BCM, respectively100. On the other hand, about 3 BCM,
from the 55.5 BCM, is lost through surface evaporation
from the irrigation system101.
Water Resources and Extraction in Egypt
Type of Quantity in billion
Water resources m³ per year
Nile River 55.5
Precipitation 1
Fossil Groundwater 0,8
Extraction
Sea Water Desalination 0.1
Sum 56.3
Reuse of Spilled Water Resources
Renewable 2.3
Groundwater Extraction
Wastewater Reuse 2.9
Agricultural Drainage 7.5
Reuse
Sum 12.7
102
Water resources in Egypt
These limited quantities of water have to fulill the Egyptian

requirements in the fields of agriculture, which is the largest
consumer of water (85%), industry and domestic uses.
Increased population needs more water for domestic use as
well as horizontal expansion to maintain the per capita of
100
UN CCA., 2001. United Nation's Common Country Assessment-Egypt, Cairo,
Egypt
101
MWRI, 2002. .Adopted measures to trace major challenges in the Egyptian water
sector., A report submitted at the request of world water council for 3rd world water forum.
Cairo, Egypt.
102
The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation; Arab Republic of Egypt (2005),
Integrated Water Resources Management Plan , Retrieved on November 7, 2009.
92
cultivated land. This reclaimed area either will increase the
agriculture share of water or will reduce the quantity of
water allocated per feddan which in return decrease the
crops yield. Also development of industry will consume
more water which will affect the Egyptian water balance103.
There is the most important challenge that facing Egypt
Population Growth and Water availability in Egypt

Source: MWRI National Water Resources Plan for 2017, p.1
103
Alaa El-Din Abdin and Ibrahim Gaafar, Rational water use in Egypt, Options
Méditerranéennes, A n° 88, 2009 - Technological Perspectives for Rational Use
of Water Resources in the Mediterranean Region, p.13.
93
Conventional Water Resources of Egypt104
Non-Conventional Water Resources of Egypt105
104
105
94
Nile water
Water resources are the critical factor affecting production,
services, and sustainable development in Egypt. The
country is dependent on the Nile River as the major source
of its water supply for all economic and service activities.
The supply of Nile water is allocated by the Nile Water
Agreement, signed with the Sudan in 1959 prior to the
construction of the Aswan High Dam; Egypt‘s quota is
fixed at 55.5 billion m3/year. This quota constitutes about
90% of the country‘s water budget; the remaining 10%
represents minor quantities of renewable and fossil
groundwater, and a few showers of rainfall. Since
completion of the dam in the early 1970s, Egypt has never
released less than the allocated quantity, with the exception
of 1988 when the water level in Lake Nasser fell to
alarming levels.
Rainfall
Rainfall is limited to the coastal strip running parallel to the
Mediterranean Sea. The amount is small – ranging between
80 to 280 mm/year – and provides an overall volume of 1.3
billion m3/year. Rain is also erratic with respect to space and
time. A number of water harvesting techniques are practiced
in some regions. Conjunctive use of rain and groundwater
enable some farmers to raise barley and wheat as well as
peaches and cantaloupes in the east (the Sinai Peninsula)
and olives and figs in the west. In addition, torrents and
flashfloods occasionally occur on higher ground along the
Red Sea coast.
95
However, this water is not commonly used for agriculture
because these weather patterns occur only once every 5 to
10 years and always take people by surprise. The
establishment of high‐cost infrastructure to dissipate the
energy of this water and divert its direction for storage on
both the surface and in groundwater aquifers is taking place,
but not at a significant rate.
Groundwater
Although there is less groundwater than Nile water, the
existence of aquifers in the desert, where no Nile water can
be conveyed, makes this resource extremely precious.
Desert aquifers are mostly deep and non‐renewable,
meaning that they are mined and the cost of exploitation is
high. The average pumping rate from these aquifers at the
present time is about 1.5 to 1.85 billion m3/year – although
the actual potential is 3.5 billion m3/year.
However, there is strong resistance towards the use of fossil
water for agricultural activities from environmentalists, and
the government has been recommended to use this water for
domestic purposes and bottling only.
The second source of groundwater is the Nile aquifer, which
lies below cultivated land in the Valley and Delta. The
reservoir is fed by surplus irrigation water and seepage from
the Nile and its branches. Obviously, water in the reservoir
is shallow and renewable and the quality is not as good as
the deep groundwater in the desert. The average pumping
rate from the Nile aquifer is about 3 billion m3/year,
although the potential is estimated to be between 5 and 6
billion m3/year.
96
The third, smaller groundwater reservoir is the coastal
aquifer, which is fed by rain falling on the coastal strip,
forming lenses of freshwater, which sit above the saline
groundwater and run parallel to the shoreline. Local
inhabitants are aware that over‐pumping of this groundwater
would immediately cause water depression and, in turn,
saltwater intrusion; therefore, they carefully pump it for
domestic purposes only.
Non‐conventional water sources
In countries where conventional (renewable) water
resources are extremely scarce, nonconventional water
sources provide highly valued supplies. This water is
generally used for agriculture, landscaping, and industrial
uses through specialized processes. These processes include
 The desalination of seawater and highly brackish
water
 The harvesting of rainwater that is otherwise lost to
the saline sink
 The collection, treatment, and use of wastewater
 The capture and reuse of agricultural drainage water
 The extraction of groundwater containing a variety of
salts.
However, appropriate strategies are needed for managing
soil, water, and crops when these resources are used for
irrigation.
Given the continuous need to increase water resources and
bridge the gap between supply and demand, Egypt has a
long history of water reuse. The first pumping station, used
97
to lift agricultural land drainage water to the Damietta
branch of the Nile, was constructed near El‐Serw city,
Damietta governorate, in 1928. Since then the reuse of
drainage water has been a fixed policy of successive
Ministries of Irrigation. The reuse of treated sewage water
was practiced even earlier than the reuse of land drainage
water. Historical investigations reveal the use of treated
domestic liquid waste in the irrigation of citrus farms in
Al‐Gabal Al‐Asfar, east of Cairo. Recently, it was realized
that the desalination of saline and brackish water is less
expensive than transporting Nile water to tourist areas
around the Sinai, Red Sea, and northwestern coast. A
number of desalination plants have, therefore, been
established in these areas. The potential for desalination is
growing at a fast rate, especially when renewable energy is
used to replace conventional fossil fuel and brackish
groundwater is targeted rather than extremely saline
seawater.
Water allocation
Agriculture is the major consumer of water in Egypt,
accounting for about 80 to 85% of the total net demand in
the country. Because of Egypt‘s arid climate, nearly all
agriculture depends on irrigation water. Any remaining
water is used for municipal and industrial purposes, fish
ponds, and other requirements. Since 1990, Egypt has been
at the ‗water poverty line‘ with respect to its per capita share
of water; it fell to almost 1000 m3/year. In 2011, however,
this share decreased again to just about 700 m3/capita/year,
and is expected to fall to 500 m3/capita/year before 2030.
98
Population growth, and the essential need for horizontal
expansion of the cultivated land, which is vital to feed
Egypt‘s growing population and ensure social and political
stability, will increase demand for irrigation water.
Improving the use of its limited water resources and saving
considerable quantities of water to meet the needs of the
horizontal extension of the cultivated area, is a major
challenge for Egypt.
Develop New Water Resources106

• Reevaluate in light of impacts of climate change previous
upper Nile conservation projects to increase Nile flows.
• Explore deep groundwater reservoirs in the Sinai
Peninsula and the Western desert as potential sources of
water if needed.
• Promote rain harvesting as a possible solution to
destructive Red Sea area flash floods.
• Desalinate brackish groundwater.
• Increase recycling of treated wastewater (both domestic
and industrial).
• Increase reuse of land drainage water.
106
Gamal Elsaeed, 2005, Effects of Climate Change on Egypt‘s Water Supply,
chapter 30, Cairo, Faculty of Engineering, Shobra.
99
Examples of Water resources Development:
Fayoum Water Management Project (FWMP)107
Fayoum Water Management Project, sponsored by the
Government of Netherlands, started in 1993108. Eventually,
the project support has shifted from technical interventions
and infrastructural improvements towards institutional
development to encourage farmer's participation in specific
governmental water management tasks. Since 1995, a
number of 32 pilot Water Boards (WBs) was initiated in
Fayoum participating in irrigation and drainage activities.
The project formed of a federation of water boards in order
to improve water distribution for a larger command area109.
Allam110 reviewed the activities of water boards which
include joint planning and monitoring of construction,
rehabilitation, and maintenance works executed by MWRI
as well as execution of maintenance works by the WB. A
major activity of WBs is weed control. By contract, WBs
maintain the canals on a monthly basis. Not only is this
method very efficient, it is also an excellent tool for the
development of WBs as it is a recurring activity requiring
planning, organization, and financial accountability. The
107
Abdelgawad, M. et al., Integrated Water resources management practices in
Egypt, a critical review and analysis, Fourteenth International Water Technology
conference, IWTC 14 2010, Cairo, Egypt, p.755.
108
Egyptian-Dutch Advisory Panel Project, APP, 2003.
109
Abdelgawad, M. et al., Integrated Water resources management practices in
conference, IWTC 14 2010, Cairo, Egypt, p.755.
110
Allam, M.N., Participatory Irrigation Water Management in Egypt: Review and
Analysis, Workshop on Participatory Water Saving Management and Water Cultural
Heritage, Options Méditerranéennes, Série B No. 48, Turkey, 2003.
100
development of WBs has had positive effects on the water
distribution within the secondary canal system. This is most
notable from changes in cropping patterns. There is a
marked decrease in the areas under fallow, especially during
the summer seasons. Other major effects, though more
difficult to quantify, are improved relations between
engineers and farmers and diminishing conflicts between
farmers in the area.
Existing 32 water boards in Fayoum

Source: Abdelgawad, M. et al., Integrated Water resources management practices in
conference, IWTC 14 2010, Cairo, Egypt, p.756
101
Federation of 22 WBs in Fayoum
Source: Abdelgawad, M. et al., Integrated Water resources management practices in
conference, IWTC 14 2010, Cairo, Egypt, p.756
102
9. Soil Geography:
Basics and Classifications
103
9. Soil Geography: Basics and Classifications:
Definition:
The geography of soil is concerned with the distribution and

variability of soils on terrestrial landscapes ranging from
local to global scales111.
Soil Geography is a branch of soil science that studies the
pattern of distribution of soils on the earth‘s surface for the
purpose of soil-geographic regionalization. There is general
and regional soil geography. General soil geography
studies the factors that influence soil formation and the most
general laws of the geographic distribution of soils and
types of soil structure. Regional soil geography is
concerned with regionalization and with the description of
the soils in individual regions. Soil geography relies
principally on the comparative geographic method to study
the distribution of soils in relation to the factors influencing
soil formation. Extensive use is made of cartography in the
compilation of soil maps112.
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids,

and countless organisms that together support life on Earth.
Soil is a natural body called the pedosphere which has four
important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a
means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a
111
Birkeland, P., 1999. Soils and Geomorphology. New York: Oxford University
Press, 430 pp.
112
Bridges, E.M. and Davison, D.A., 1986, Priciples and Applications of Soil
Geography, 2nd edition, Longman, London.
104
modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms;
all of which, in turn, modify the soil. Soil is called the "Skin
of the Earth" and interfaces with its lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere 113. The term
pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally
translates 'level stone'. Soil consists of a solid phase of
minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that
holds gases and water. Accordingly, soils are often treated
as a three-state system of solids, liquids, and gases114.
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The
world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the
processes carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and
global warming, to rainforest destruction and water
pollution. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next
largest carbon reservoir on Earth, and it is potentially one of
the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change.
As the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher
temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a large
positive feedback response to global warming115.
In fact, because soils integrate the major subsystems of
Earth so well, they are sometimes considered a separate
system called the pedosphere (from Greek: pedon, ground).
Soil development and characteristics depend on a great
113
Chesworth, Ward, ed. (2008). Encyclopedia of soil science. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Springer. xxiv. ISBN 1-4020-3994-8.
114
McCarthy, David F. (1982). Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Basic
Geotechnics (2nd ed.). Reston, Virginia: Reston Publishing. ISBN 9780835917810.
115
Powlson, David (20 January 2005). "Climatology: Will soil amplify climate
change?". Nature. 433 (433): 204–205. doi:10.1038/433204a.
105
number of factors. But when soils are viewed on a world
regional scale, the dominant influence is climate. The
relationships between climates and soil types, as well as the
association of soils with climate controlled vegetation116.
The Integration between soil and the major Earth

subsystems.
116
Ashman, M. and Purl, G. 2002, Essential Soil Science, Malden Mass, Blackwell.
106
Soil Classification:
There are 12 soil types in the USDA117 . The criteria for the
different soil orders include properties that reflect major
differences in the genesis of soils. The soil classes are118:
1) Alfisol : soils with aluminium and iron. They have

horizons of clay accumulation, and form where there is
enough moisture and warmth for at least three months of
plant growth. They constitute 10.1% of soils worldwide.
2) Andisol: volcanic ash soils. They are young and very

fertile. They cover 1% of the world's ice-free surface.
3) Aridisol: dry soils forming under desert conditions which

have fewer than 90 consecutive days of moisture during the
growing season and are nonleached. They include nearly
12% of soils on Earth. Soil formation is slow, and
accumulated organic matter is scarce.
4) Entisol: recently formed soils that lack well-developed

horizons. Commonly found on unconsolidated river and
beach sediments of sand and clay or volcanic ash, some
have an A horizon on top of bedrock. They are 18% of soils
worldwide.
117
USDA Soil classification developed by United States Department of Agriculture
and the National Cooperative Soil Survey provides an elaborate classification of soil
types according to several parameters (most commonly their properties) and in
several levels: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
118
Soil Survey Staff. 1996. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. Seventh Edition. 644 pp. SDA
Natural Resource Conservation Service, Washington DC.
107
5) Gelisol: permafrost soils with permafrost within two
meters of the surface or gelic materials and permafrost
within one meter. They constitute 9.1% of soils worldwide.
6) Histosol: organic soils, formerly called bog soils, are

1.2% of soils worldwide.
7) Inceptisol: young soils. They have subsurface horizon

formation but show little eluviation and illuviation. They
constitute 15% of soils worldwide.
8) Mollisol: soft, deep, dark fertile soil formed in grasslands

and some hardwood forests with very thick A horizons.
They are 7% of soils worldwide.
9) Oxisol: are heavily weathered, are rich in iron and

aluminum oxides or kaolin but low in silica. They have only
trace nutrients due to heavy tropical rainfall and high
temperatures and low CEC of the remaining clays. They are
7.5% of soils worldwide.
10) Spodosol: acid soils with organic colloid layer

complexed with iron and aluminum leached from a layer
above. They are typical soils of coniferous and deciduous
forests in cooler climates. They constitute 4% of soils
worldwide.
11) Ultisol: acid soils in the humid tropics and subtropics,

which are depleted in calcium, magnesium and potassium
(important plant nutrients). They are highly weathered, but
108
not as weathered as Oxisols. They make up 8% of the soil
worldwide.
12) Vertisol: inverted soils. They are clay-rich and tend to

swell when wet and shrink upon drying, often forming deep
cracks into which surface layers can fall. They are difficult
to farm or to construct roads and buildings due to their high
expansion rate. They constitute 2.4% of soils worldwide.
USDA Soil Classification

Source: https://search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?hspart=Lkry&hsimp=yhs-
newtab&ts=sy&type=YHS_IM_200&p=world+map+for+soil+classification.
109
Soil Analysis:
A Geographer is able to expertise soil analysis in the field
based on basic knowledge and observations. Without any
equipment required, can a Geographer make analyses; based
on visual and hands-on examinations. He needs for this
visual soil analysis, basic of knowledge as follows:
a) Soil Color:
Soil color can hold clues to the composition and/or the
formation processes of that soil. There is a standard guide
for matching and recognizing precise colors of soil types.
The guide includes common soil colors, but each color can
also appear in a wide variety of tones. Here are keynote for
soil analysis based on its color119:
 Red: Reddish soil usually indicates that oxidation
has been an active process—oxygen has chemically
reacted with the soil minerals. Red also indicates that
iron is in the soil. Just like rusting iron, many iron-
rich minerals turn red when oxidized. The formula for
this process is: FeO 1 O2→Fe2O3 (ferrous oxide 1
oxygen becomes hematite, a reddish iron oxide).
 Blue/Silver/Gray: These tones mean that the soil has
likely been reduced; in other words, oxygen has been
removed from the soil.
119
Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 336.
110
 White: Usually denotes that calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) or salts (such as NaCl) may be present in
the soil.
 Black: A very dark color may indicate a high amount
of organic material present in the soil.
These examples will allow good working hypotheses for
soil characteristics represented by colors. More
sophisticated field or laboratory analyses are required for
absolute identification.
b) Soil Texture:
The particle sizes in a soil determine its texture. Soil texture
is a property that you can feel, and your fingers can help in
the analysis. Sand-sized particles can be easily recognized
because they feel gritty to the touch. Wetting the soil and
working it with your hands can help in this process. If the
sample is not gritty but rather is smooth to the touch, then
the soil contains silt or clay. If the sample feels sticky and
you can squeeze a small soil sample into a ribbon (like with
modeling clay), then clay-sized particles are abundant.
Actual percentages of particle sizes in a soil sample are best
established in a laboratory. Fe2O3 → FeO _ O2 (the above
formula in reverse)120.
Soil texture refers to the size (or distribution of sizes) of
particles that make up a soil and be interpreted as follows121:
120
121
Same reference, p. 337.
111
In clayey soils, the dominant size is clay particles; defined
as having diameters of less than 0.002 millimeter (soil
scientists universally use the metric system). In silty soils,
the dominant silt particles are defined as being between
0.002 and 0.05 millimeter. Sandy soils have mostly sand-
sized particles, with diameters between 0.05 and 2.0
millimeters. Particles larger than 2.0 millimeters are
regarded as pebbles, gravel, or rock fragments and
technically are not soil particles.
The proportion of particles according to size determines a
soil‘s texture. For example, a soil composed of 50% silt
sized particles, 45% clay, and 5% sand would be identified
as a silty clay.A triangular graph is used to plot different
classes of soil texture based on the percentage ranges of
each soil grade (as sand, silt, and clay are called) within
each class. Point A within the silty clay class represents the
example just given. A second soil sample (B) that is 20%
silt, 30% clay, and 50% sand would be referred to as a
sandy clay loam. Loam soils, which occupy the central areas
of the triangular diagram, are those in which none of the
three grades (sizes) of soil particles is greatly dominant. It is
interesting to note that the loam soils are generally best
suited for supporting vegetation growth.
112
Soil Texture
newtab&ts=sy&type=YHS_IM_200&p=Classification+of+Soil+Structure+image
c) Soil Structure:
The shape of clumps that a soil makes when it is broken
apart is called structure and can be examined by breaking up
a handful of soil. The small clumps of soil may take on
some distinctive shapes. Though the pads may form a
variety of shapes, some of the more common are granular
113
(denoting a presence of sand) and platy (showing a presence
of clay)122.
Other soil structures, such as blocky, columnar, or
prismatic, Although these simple procedures will not yield a
complete analysis of a soil sample, they can certainly be the
first steps in the process.
Classification of Soil Structure

newtab&ts=sy&type=YHS_IM_200&p=Classification+of+Soil+Structure+image
122
Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson Brooks/Cole, p. 336
114
Soil of Egypt123:
The soils of Egypt comprise the alluvial soils of the Delta
and Valley, the calcareous soils along the coastal littoral of
Egypt, the soils of the Eastern and Western Deserts as well
as the soils of Sinai Peninsula. The major alluvial soils were
formed from the suspended solid matter of the Nile, which
were deposited every year during the flood season. The
suspended matter of the Nile is formed from the
disintegration of the eruptive and metamorphic rocks of the
Ethiopian plateau through physical, chemical and biological
weathering factors124.
Generally, it could be said that there exist two geomorphic
units in the central part of the Delta, namely the young
deltaic plain and the Mediterranean coastal plain. The
following soil units are distinguished as young deltaic plain
and Aeolian deposits.
The deposited gravel and sands were laid down in the
Pleistocene and recent geological eras. These types of gravel
are to be seen in many parts of the Nile Valley where they
form a series of terraces at various heights above the valley
floor. These terraces were formed by the river at
successively lower levels as it gradually deepened its bed
channel.
123
Hamdi H., Abdelh afez S. 2001, Agriculture an d soil survey in Egypt. In : Zdru
li P. (ed.), Stedu to P. (ed.), Lacirign ola C. (ed.), Mon tan arella L. (ed.). Soil
resources of Southern and Eastern Mediterranean c ountr ies . Bari : CIHEAM,
2001 . p. 111 -1 2 5 (Option s Méditerran éen n es : Série B. Etu des et Rech erch es;
n . 34)
124
Hamdi, H. 1985. The Soil Map of Egypt. Final Report of the Academy of
Scientific Research and Technology.
115
The clay that covers the flat floor of the valley and most
surface of the Delta forming the arable land of Egypt has all
been deposited by the floodwater in the course of the recent
geological period. Sedimentation of the Nile suspended
matter took place mainly during the flood period (August,
September and October). However, after the construction of
the High Aswan Dam, the suspended matter has enormously
decreased all the year around.
Soil Classification of Egypt:

Based on the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, the
main Egyptian major soil groups are: Arenosols (AR),
Calcisols (CL) interfered with Gypsisols (GY), Calcisols
(CL), Fluvisols (FL), Leptosolos (LP), Regosols (RG),
Solonchaks (SC) and Vertisolos (VR)- Table (1), and
attached maps show the Egyptian soil major groups.
Egypt, Major Soil Groups125 and Non Soil Land Covers (%)
125
FAO, 1998. World Soil Resources Report 84 "World Reference Base for soil
Resources". Rep.84. FAO, Rome
116
Soil map of Egypt
newtab&ts=sy&type=YHS_IM_200&p=Soil+map+of+Egypt.
Status of soil survey in Egypt:

Soil survey in Egypt has been established since 1958
within the Ministry of Agriculture, particularly in the Soil
and Water Research Institute. The persistent need for the
pedogenic classification of alluvial soils of the country was
repeatedly emphasized by a number of recommendations
and resolutions at different local congresses and
conferences. An association map for the soils of Egypt has
been published by Ghaith and Tanios126. The map has been
initiated through the compilation of a number of studies
carried out by the staff members of the Soil Survey
Department of the Institute, particularly by Dr. Ghaith and
126
Ghaith, A and Tanios, M. 1965. Preliminary soil association map of the United
Arab Republic, General Organisation for Government Printing Office, Cairo, Egypt.
117
his collaborators. The map was prepared using the
reconnaissance survey carried out by the FAO in association
with the Soil and Water Research Institute as well as with
the Egyptian General Desert Development Organization.
The delineated soil associations are divided as follow:
 Soils on flat or level land.
 Soils on undulating and rolling land.
 Soils on dissected and mountainous land.
The Academy of Scientific Research and Technology has
financed a project for the preparation of the Soil Map of
Egypt at scale 1:100,000 for the cultivated areas. Therefore,
a group of soil experts from the Universities, Ministry of
Agriculture, National Research Centre and the Desert
Research Centre was set up to perform this task. Hence,
colored soil classification maps for the cultivated areas in
Egypt have been published, at scale of 1:100,000 The
accompanying soil report of the map contains127:
 Description of profiles;
 Geology and geomorphology;
 Different soil analyses and methods;
 Morphology and soil formation; and
 Classification of soils according the US-Soil
Taxonomy at the Family Level (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
Following are brief descriptions of the different soil
associations, giving their distribution, formation,
morphology and other characteristics.
127
Hamdi, H. 1985. The Soil Map of Egypt. Final Report of the Academy of
Scientific Research and Technology.
118
Classification of Egyptian Soil Maps:
Hamdy and Abdelhafez128 have introduced the available
Soil maps in Egypt as follows:
a) Maps in different Institutions:
 Soil maps for different areas at scales of 1:2,500,
1:10,000, 1:100,000 showing salinity, texture, soil
and water depth and soil fertility (macro-nutrients).
 A National Soil Association Map, scale 1:5,000,000.
 Soil Classification Maps for certain desert areas,
prepares by using remote sensing techniques and
digital image analysis.
 Computer compatible tapes, covering the whole
country for 1990, 1991, and 1993 are all available at
the Soil and Water Research Institute of the Ministry
of Agriculture.
 Soil Physiographic Maps at scale 1:50,000 (aerial
photographs), covering areas in Upper and Lower
Egypt, as well the area around the Desert Road,
(Cairo-Alexandria), which comprises the reclaimed
lands in the Western Desert. All these maps are
available at the Soils Department, Cairo University.
 Collection of Soil Classification Maps at scale of
1:100,000, covering 48 colored sheets for the
cultivated areas. This collection is available at the
Academy of Scientific Research and Technology.
128
Hamdi H., Abdelh afez, 2001, S. Agriculture an d soil survey in Egypt. In : Zdru
li P. (ed.), Stedu to P. (ed.), Lacirign ola C. (ed.), Mon tan arella L. (ed.). Soil
resources of Southern and Eastern Mediterranean c ountr ies . Bari : CIHEAM,
2001 . p. 111 -1 2 5 (Option s Méditerran éen n es : Série B. Etu des et Rech erch es;
n . 34)
119
The above maps have been produced using Topographic
Maps of the National Survey Authority, available at scales
of 1:250,000 and 1:100,000. Their compilation is done
using the existing data and a great number of exploratory
field studies all over the country.
b) Maps available at the National Authority for Remote

Sensing and Space Sciences:
 Soil Maps for the Nile valley and the Delta, scale
1:100,000 (hard copy);
 Digital Soil Map for Sinai Peninsula, scale 1:100,000;
 Soil Maps for Siwa Oasis and Toshky, scale 1:25,000
(digital);
 A Soil Map (hard copy) for the Eastern Desert (at
scale of 1:250,000) is actually in preparation;
 Soil Map and Land Use Map for the area of Halayib
and Shalatein as well as for the Siwa Oasis, scale
1:25,000.
 Soil Classification and Land Productivity Maps for
Bahariya Oasis, North Sinai, East Owaynat and some
valleys on the Red Sea area are available at the Soils
Department, Ain Shams University.
 Soil and Land Evaluation Maps for Alexandria and
surrounding areas of the North Coast are available in
digitised version at the Soils and Water Department,
Alexandria University;
120
c) Maps available at the Desert Research Centre:
 Soil maps and Land Capability maps for the soils of
Southern Egypt, Toshky, as well as Kharga and
Dakhla Oases developed in GIS format at scale
1:100,000 and 1:25,000;
 Soil maps and Productivity maps for the north coastal
littoral of Egypt, scale 1:100,000 (digitized);
 Soil maps for the soils of Lake Nasser, Korkor,
Klabsha and Adendan, as well as for the Soils of
Bahariya Oasis (under preparation), scale 1:100,000;
 Soil and Land Capability maps for desert soils of
Egypt, scale 1:100,000.
d) Maps available at EALIP offices in Dokki:
 Digitized information maps representing gypsum
requirement, sub-soiling, salinity, and water table
depth for improved soils in the different
Governorates.
Classification and Distribution of Fayoum Soil:

Gad Abd-Alla129 has introduced the soil classification and
its geographic distribution as follows:
 The sub-great group Vertic Torrifluvents dominates
the soils, covering an area of 701 km2 representing
39.5% of the mapped soils.
 Inclusion of Typic Torrifluvents occurs within the
depression, covering an area of 133 Km2,
129
Abd-Alla Gad, 2010, Developing GIS digital Land resources database of Al -
Fayoum desert depression, Egypt, for sustainable agricultural management.
International Journal of Digital Earth, URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ijde
121
representing 7.5% of the mapped soils. These soils
are associated with the recent terraces of the flood
plain.
 The sub-great group of Typic calciorthids covers an
area of 390 Km2 representing 22% of soil units area.
Its geographic distribution is located on the edges of
the depression, exhibiting the old river terraces.
 The Gypsic soils (i.e. Typic Haplogypsids) exist on
the eastern borders of the Fayioum depression,
covering an area of 85 Km2, representing 4.8 %. The
geographic location of this soil unit may be explained
by the transgression of the Qaroun Lake to the
northwest.
Soil Types distribution in Fayoum

Source: Abd-Alla Gad, 2010, p.9
122
Soil types distribution percentage in Fayoum
Source: Source: Abd-Alla Gad, 2010, p.9
 Both Typic Quartizipsamments and Typic

Torripsamments cover small spots in the desert
fringes of Al-Fayoum depression, covering areas of 5
and 20 Km2 representing 0.03and 1.1% respectively.
 A patch of the sub-great group Typic Haplosalids
exist in the south east of the depression, exhibiting an
area of 56 Km2 representing 3.2% of the mapped
soils. It should be noticed that such variability of sub-
great groups is unique for Al-Fayoum Governorate
due to its location, altitude, and formation processes
pattern of agricultural practices.
123
10. Biogeography:
Basics and Classifications
124
10. Biogeography: Basics and Classifications:
Definition:
Biogeographers are those physical geographers who
specialize in the study of natural and human modified
environments and the ecological processes that influence
each environment‘s nature and distribution. Along with
ecologists from a host of other science disciplines,
biogeographers often focus their research on ecosystems—
communities of organisms that function together in an
interdependent relationship with the environments that they
occupy130.
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and
ecosystems in geographic space and through time.
Organisms and biological communities often vary in a
regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude,
elevation, isolation and habitat area131. Phytogeography is
the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of
plants. Zoogeography is the branch that studies distribution
of animals.
Knowledge of spatial variation in the numbers and types of
organisms is as vital to us today as it was to our early
human ancestors, as we adapt to heterogeneous but
geographically predictable environments. Biogeography is
an integrative field of inquiry that unites concepts and
130
131
Brown University, "Biogeography."
http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/29.Biogeography.HTML
125
information from ecology, evolutionary biology, geology,
and physical geography132.
Modern biogeographic research combines information and
ideas from many fields, from the physiological and
ecological constraints on organismal dispersal to geological
and climatological phenomena operating at global spatial
scales and evolutionary time frames133.
The short-term interactions within a habitat and species of
organisms describe the ecological application of
biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-
term, evolutionary periods of time for broader
classifications of organisms134. Early scientists, beginning
with Carl Linnaeus, contributed theories to the contributions
of the development of biogeography as a science. Beginning
in the mid-18th century, Europeans explored the world and
discovered the biodiversity of life. Linnaeus initiated the
ways to classify organisms through his exploration of
undiscovered territories.
Biogeography now incorporates many different fields
including but not limited to physical geography, geology,
botany and plant biology, zoology, and general biology. A
biogeographer‘s main focus is on what environmental
factors and what the influence of humans do to the
distribution of the specific species of study. In terms of
applications of biogeography as a science today,
132
Dansereau, Pierre. 1957. Biogeography; an ecological perspective. New York:
Ronald Press Co.
133
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography
134
Cox, C Barry, and Peter Moore. Biogeography : an ecological and evolutionary
approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publications, 2005.
126
technological advances have allowed satellite imaging and
processing of the Earth135. Two main types of satellite
imaging that are important within modern biogeography are
Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and
General Information Sensing (GIS). GLO-PEM uses
satellite-imaging gives ―repetitive, spatially contiguous, and
time specific observations of vegetation.‖ These
observations are on a global scale136. GIS can show certain
processes on the earth‘s surface like whale locations, sea
surface temperatures, and bathymetry137. Current scientists
also use coral reefs to delve into the history of biogeography
through the fossilized reefs.
Types of Biogeography:
There are different types of biogeography as follows:
a) Ecological biogeography:
It is the Study of biogeographic relationships between
organisms and their environment and the biotic interactions
among organisms. Ecological biogeography as a discipline
can extend back in time given the evidence available and the
tools and methods that can be used to reconstruct ecological
interactions and environmental controls.
135
The New Biogeography and its Niche in Physical Geography. D. WATTS
Geography, Vol. 63, No. 4, ANNUAL CONFERENCE 1978 (November 1978), pp.
324-337
136
Stephen D. Prince and Samuel N. Goward. "Global Primary Production: A
Remote Sensing Approach" Journal of Biogeography, Vol. 22, No. 4/5, Terrestrial
Ecosystem Interactions with Global Change, Volume 2 (Jul. - Sep., 1995), pp. 815-
835
137
Remote Sensing Data and Information." Remote Sensing Data and Information.
http://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/rsd/RemoteSensing.html .
127
b) Historical biogeography:
It is the Study that focused more on past organism
distributions and the evolution of life. Where an organism is
distributed is a function of evolutionary change.
The main Goal of historical biogeography is often to
reconstruct the origin, dispersal, and extinction of taxa.
World Natural Vegetation

Source:
ttps://search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=A0LEVjTPLu1XNeIANmoPxQt.?p=World
+map+for+natural+vegetation+regions+image.
Classification of World Natural Vegetation:

There are many approaches for the classification of
vegetation138 such as physiognomy, flora, ecology, etc.
Much of the work on vegetation classification comes from
European and North American ecologists, and they have
138
de Laubenfels, D. J. 1975. Mapping the World's Vegetation: Regionalization of
Formation and Flora. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse, NY.
128
fundamentally different approaches. In North America139,
vegetation types are based on a combination of the
following criteria: climate pattern, plant habit, phenology
and/or growth form, and dominant species. In the current
US standard (adopted by the Federal Geographic Data
Committee (FGDC), and originally developed by UNESCO
and The Nature Conservancy), the classification is
hierarchical and incorporates the non-floristic criteria into
the upper five levels and limited floristic criteria only into
the lower two levels140. In Europe, classification often relies
much more heavily, sometimes entirely, on floristic
(species) composition alone, without explicit reference to
climate, phenology or growth forms. It often emphasizes
indicator or diagnostic species which may distinguish one
classification from another141.
In the FGDC standard, the hierarchy levels, from most
general to most specific, are: system, class, subclass, group,
formation, alliance, and association. The lowest level, or
association, is thus the most precisely defined, and
incorporates the names of the dominant one to three (usually
two) species of a type. An example of a vegetation type
defined at the level of class might be "Forest, canopy cover
> 60%"; at the level of a formation as "Winter-rain, broad-
leaved, evergreen, sclerophyllous, closed-canopy forest"; at
139
Barbour, M. G. and W. D. Billings (editors). North American Terrestrial
Vegetation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
140
de Laubenfels, D. J. 1975. Mapping the World's Vegetation: Regionalization of
Formation and Flora. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse, NY.
141
Küchler, A.W. (1988). The classification of vegetation. In: Küchler, A.W.,
Zonneveld, I.S. (eds). Vegetation mapping. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp 67–80,
[21
129
the level of alliance as "Arbutus menziesii forest"; and at the
level of association as "Arbutus menziesii-Lithocarpus
densiflora forest", referring to Pacific madrone-tanoak
forests which occur in California and Oregon, USA. In
practice, the levels of the alliance and/or association are the
most often used, particularly in vegetation mapping, just as
the Latin binomial is most often used in discussing
particular species in taxonomy and in general
communication.
Victoria in Australia142 classifies its vegetation by
Ecological Vegetation Class. An ecological vegetation class
(EVC) is a component of the vegetation classification
system developed and used by the state of Victoria,
Australia, since 1994, for mapping floristic biodiversity.
Ecological vegetation classes are groupings of vegetation
communities based on floristic, structural, and ecological
features. The Victorian Department of Sustainability and
Environment has defined all of the EVCs within Victoria.
An EVC consists of one or a number of floristic
communities that appear to be associated with a
recognizable environmental niche, and which can be
characterized by a number of their adaptive responses to
ecological processes that operate at the landscape scale
level. Each ecological vegetation class is described through
a combination of its floristic, life-form, and reproductive
142
Victoria. Department of Natural Resources and Environment; Joint
Commonwealth and Victorian Regional Forest Agreement Steering Committee
(1996). Comprehensive regional assessment East Gippsland : environment and
heritage report. East Melbourne: Department of Natural Resources and
Environment. ISBN 0642254583.
130
strategy profiles, and through an inferred fidelity to
particular environmental attributes143.
Distribution of Vegetation Regions:
Major types of biome across the world include144:

forest and woodland
 grassland
 desert
 tundra
 alpine.
a) Tropical forests145
Tropical forests are distributed in areas of the world near the
equator and between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic
of Cancer. They are characterized by very hot temperatures
and high average annual rainfall (greater than 1500 mm per
annum). Regions which receive heavy rainfall all year
round, with no distinct dry season, are referred to as tropical
rainforests. Here the trees grow to over 40 meters high and
their branches interlock to form a continuous canopy. They
have higher productivity than any other biome. Regions
which receive seasonal rainfall, influenced by changing
monsoon winds, are referred to as monsoon forests. They
143
DSE Website-EVC Benchmarks for each Bioregion,
http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/conservation-and-environment/native-vegetation-groups-
for-victoria/ecological-vegetation-class-evc-benchmarks-by-bioregion
144
Australian Geography Teacher Association, 2013 Education Services Australia
Ltd. http://www.agta.asn.au/
145
http://www.srl.caltech.edu/personnel/krubal/rainforest/Edit560s6/www/plants.htm
131
are also characterized by trees more than 40 meters high
forming an almost continuous canopy.
b) Temperate forests146
There are two types of temperate forests – warm temperate
forests and cool temperate forests. Both receive high
average annual rainfall (greater than 1500 mm per year).
The warm temperate forest biome occurs in mid-latitude
regions experiencing hot summers; cool to mild winters and
moist conditions all year round. Examples of these areas
include south-eastern USA, central-eastern China, southern
Japan, southern Brazil and south-eastern Australia. Warm
temperate forest plants have adapted into broad-leafed
evergreen trees in response to the plentiful and evenly
distributed rainfall. Forests in the northern hemisphere are
dominated by oaks, laurels and camphor, while species of
southern beech and eucalypts dominate the south.
The cool temperate forest biomes occur mainly in the mid to
high latitude regions of the northern hemisphere. They are
typical of areas including north-west Europe, north-east
China and north-east USA. These regions have high rainfall
with very cold winters. The trees have therefore adapted to
losing their leaves and lying dormant during this time.
Deciduous species include oak, maple, elm, ash, birch and
chestnut.
146
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/habitats/te
mperate_forests/
132
c) Taiga forests147
Also known as boreal or coniferous forest, the taiga biome
occurs between 50 and 60 degrees latitude in the northern
hemisphere. Taiga forests can be found in Eurasia, North
America, Siberia, Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada.
Summers are moderately warm and wet with around 400 to
1000 mm of precipitation per year (including snow).
Winters are long, cold, and dry. The length of the growing
season in the taiga is approximately 130 days. Vegetation
consists mostly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with
needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir and spruce. Soils are
thin, nutrient-poor and acidic.
Woodlands148
Open canopy woodlands have evolved in parts of the world
characterized by moderate and often seasonal rainfall (700–
1200 mm per annum). They often form the transitional zone
between areas of forests and shrub lands or grasslands. Two
types of woodland are referred to in this text. Savanna
woodlands are found in tropical regions characterized by
hot, wet summers and warm, dry winters. Mediterranean
woodlands are found in regions between 30 and 40 degrees
north and south of the equator, characterized by warm to hot
dry summers and cool to mild wet winters. Areas with
savanna woodland include east Africa and central America.
Mediterranean woodlands include places bordering the
Mediterranean Sea and all places with similar latitudes, such
147
http://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/taiga/
148
http://www.fs.fed.us/rmrs/science-program-areas/forest-and-woodland-
ecosystems
133
as southern California, central Chile, the cape of South
Africa and the south-west of Western Australia.
Woodland plants are generally adapted to periods of
seasonal drought. Most trees have evolved as evergreen
species such as oaks, olives and eucalypts. They have
developed waxy, leathery leaves to reduce water loss
through transpiration and have thick, rough barks to insulate
themselves against the heat and protect them from fires.
Laterisation appears to be the main soil-forming process,
and soils tend to have a hard, gravelly upper horizon which
plants have also adapted to. Some species have wide-
spreading roots to gather as much water as possible when
rain falls, while others have thick, strong tap roots which
enable them to penetrate through the rock and access the
water table.
d) Grassland biomes149
Grassland areas are found in the moderately drier parts of
the world. The two main divisions of grasslands include
savanna grasslands and temperate grasslands.
1) Savanna grasslands150
Savanna grasslands cover almost half the surface of Africa
and large areas of Australia, South America and India. They
are always found in climates with relatively hot, wet
summers and warm, dry winters where the annual rainfall
ranges from approximately 500 to 1000 mm per year.
Different savannas support different grasses depending on
the amount of rainfall received and soil conditions. For
149
http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/grasslands.htm
150
http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/savanna.htm
134
example, in drier areas such as the Serengeti plains or
Kenya's Laikipia plateau, the dominant grasses are Rhodes
grass and red oat grass. Throughout the East African region,
star grasses are dominant. The soil of the savannah
grasslands is porous, with rapid drainage of water. It has
only a thin layer of humus (the organic portion of the soil
created by partial decomposition of plant or animal matter)
which provides vegetation with nutrients.
2) Temperate grasslands151
Major temperate grassland areas occur in the veldts of South
Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and
Uruguay, the steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies
of central North America. They are characterised by hot
summers and cold winters with moderate seasonal rainfall.
The amount of rainfall received influences the height of
grassland vegetation, with taller grasses (prairies) in wetter
regions and short grasses (steppes) in the drier regions.
Examples of grass species include purple needlegrass, blue
grama, buffalo grass, and galleta.
The soil of the temperate grasslands is deep and dark, with
fertile upper layers. It is nutrient-rich from the growth and
decay of deep, multi-branched grass roots. The rotted roots
hold the soil together and provide a food source for living
plants.
e) Desert biomes152
Desert biomes have very dry, arid climates and are usually
characterized as receiving less than 250 mm of rainfall per
151
http://www.defenders.org/grasslands/temperate-grasslands
152
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/deserts.php
135
year. Hot deserts (such as the Sahara) are found around the
tropics while cold deserts (such as Antarctica) are found in
higher latitudes. The main focus of this section will be on
the hot deserts.
The inland location and continental effect of deserts means
that seasonal temperature ranges are quite high. While
daytime temperatures are very high (encouraging high rates
of evaporation) night temperatures are relatively low. As
evaporation exceeds precipitation in the desert biome,
upward movement of minerals means that soils are usually
poorly developed and very shallow. They lack humus, are
salty and are generally infertile.
Desert vegetation tends to be stunted and widely spaced,
having adapted to both limited moisture and poorly
developed soils. Plants known as xerophytes have evolved
to suit severe drought conditions and can be categorized into
four main groups: drought evaders, drought escapers,
drought resisters and water conservers.
f) Tundra biomes153
The tundra biome is found in the very cold regions of the
northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to the North
Pole. It is bound to the south by the coniferous forests of the
taiga biome. Extremely low temperatures, little
precipitation, poor nutrients and short growing seasons are
all factors which have contributed to this treeless landscape.
The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The
average winter temperature is -34° C, and the average
153
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/tundra.html
136
summer temperature is approximately 12° C which enables
this biome to sustain life. Rainfall varies in different regions
of the arctic with annual precipitation ranging from 150 to
250 mm. The growing season lasts between 50 to 60 days.
g) Alpine biomes154
As you travel up a mountain you will experience a number
of different biomes as temperatures drop with altitude. For
example the North American Rockies are characterized by a
desert biome at the base, but as you move progressively
higher you will experience the deciduous forest, grasslands,
steppe and taiga before reaching the alpine biome at the top.
Alpine biomes throughout the world are located at high
altitudes on mountains just below the snowline.
Temperatures vary according to latitude, altitude and aspect
(direction in which the slope faces) but in general, are below
freezing in the winter and rise to approximately 10o C in the
summer, making them too cold to support trees.
Plants of the alpine region have adapted to both high

altitudes and extreme climate. For example, many plants are
still able to photosynthesise even though the amount of
carbon dioxide is significantly lower at these heights. Most
plants include low perennial groundcover, small-leafed
shrubs and heaths. They protect themselves from the cold
and wind by growing close to the ground. When plants die
in the region they don't decompose very quickly because of
the cold.
154
http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/alpine.htm
137
11.) Appendices
11.a) Top 10 Journals for Physical Geography.
11.b)Resources for Physical Geography
11.c) Glossary of Physical Geography
11.d) Citations and References
138
11.a) Top 10 Journals for Physical Geography:
a.1) The Geography (physical) top ten list:
1. Global Ecology and Biogeography (IF 5.913)
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1466-
8238
2. Quaternary Science Reviews (IF 4.245)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/quaternary-science-
reviews/
3. Journal of Biogeography (IF 4.087)
2699
4. Landscape Ecology (IF 3.293)
http://www.journaloflandscapeecology.cz/
5. Global Planet Change (IF 3.272)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-and-planetary-
change
6. Boreas (IF 2.813)
3885
7. Quaternary Research (IF 2.675)
139
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/quaternary-research/
8. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology (IF

2.646)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/palaeogeography-
palaeoclimatology-palaeoecology/
9. Holocene (IF 2.481)
http://hol.sagepub.com/
10. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

(IF 2.308)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/isprs-journal-of-
photogrammetry-and-remote-sensing/
a.2) The Environmental Studies top ten list
1. Annual Review of Environment and Resources (IF 3.657)
http://www.annualreviews.org/journal/energy
2. Review of Environmental Economics and Management

(IF 3.645)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-environmental-
economics-and-management
3. Global Change Biology (IF 3.340)
2486
140
4. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
(IF 2.581)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-environmental-
economics-and-management
5. Energy Policy (IF 2.436)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/energy-policy/
6. Ecological Economics (IF 2.422)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-economics/
7. Land Use Policy (IF 2.355)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/land-use-policy
8. Landscape and Urban Planning (IF 2.170)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/landscape-and-urban-
planning
9. Environment (IF 1.918)
https://www.elsevier.com/journals/subjects/environmental-
sciences
10. Tourism Management (IF 1.882)
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/tourism-management
141
11.b) Resources for Physical Geography
http://www.physicalgeography.net/
http://researchguides.library.syr.edu/physical_geography
142
http://www.lib.sfu.ca/help/research-
assistance/subject/geography/phyiscal-geography
http://researchguides.dartmouth.edu/physical_geography
143
11.c) Glossary of Physical Geography155
abiotic natural, nonliving component of an ecosystem.
ablation loss of glacial ice and snow cover by means of
melting, evaporation, and sublimation.
abrasion (corrasion) erosion of a stream by the grinding
and rolling of rock particles and boulders carried by a
stream, or by wave action, wind, or glacial ice.
absolute humidity mass of water vapor present per unit
volume of air, expressed as grams per cubic meter, or grains
per cubic foot.
acid rain rain with a pH value of less than 5.6, the pH of
natural rain; often linked to the pollution associated with the
burning of fossil fuels.
active-margin coast coastal region characterized by active
volcanic and tectonic activity.
actual evapotranspiration the actual amount of moisture
loss through evapotranspiration measured from a surface.
air mass large portion of the atmosphere, sometimes
subcontinental in size, that may move over Earth‘s surface
as a distinct, relatively homogeneous entity.
air mass analysis explanation of weather phenomena by a
study of the actions and interactions of major portions of the
atmosphere.
155
Selected Terminologies from: Robert E. Gabler, James F. Petersen, L. Michael
Trapasso, 2007, Essentials of Physical Geography, Eighth Edition, Thomson
Brooks/Cole, p. 626-642.
144
albedo proportion of solar radiation reflected back from a
surface, expressed as a percentage of radiation received on
that surface.
alluvial plain a low-relief land surface formed through the
deposition of sediment by running water.
alpine glacier moving glacial ice accumulated in high
sheltered mountain valleys; also called valley glacier.
angle of inclination tilt of Earth‘s polar axis at an angle of
23 1⁄2° from the vertical to the plane of the ecliptic.
annual temperature range difference between the mean
daily temperatures for the warmest and coolest months of
the year.
atmosphere blanket of air, composed of various gases, that
envelops Earth.
atmospheric air pressure (barometric pressure) force per
unit area that the atmosphere exerts on any surface at a
particular elevation.
atmospheric controls geographic features that affect
climate and weather patterns; e.g., distance from the ocean,
wind direction, altitude.
atmospheric disturbance refers to variation in the
secondary circulation of the atmosphere that cannot
correctly be classified as a storm; e.g., front, air mass.
atmospheric effect the absorption of long-wave Earth
radiation by water vapor, carbon dioxide, and dust in the
atmosphere so that Earth temperatures are moderated.
barrier reef an extensive reef that parallels a coastline.
basalt plateaus high areas of low relief consisting of
horizontal layers of basaltic lava.
145
base flow the ―normal‖ level of a stream or river between
events of greater discharge.
base level elevation below which a river or stream cannot
erode; although sea level is the ultimate base level, basins or
lakes may be local base levels.
bathymetry the science of mapping and measuring the
ocean depths.
baymouth bar low depositional ridge extending across the
mouth of a bay.
beach coastal region of unconsolidated sediments between
the low tide line and the upper limit of wave action.
bearing an angular direction of a line, point, or route
measured from north or from a current location to a desired
location (often in 90° compass quadrants).
biomass amount of living material or standing crop in an
ecosystem or at a particular trophic level within an
ecosystem.
biome one of Earth‘s major terrestrial ecosystems, classified
by the vegetation types that dominate the plant communities
within the ecosystem.
biosphere the life forms, human, animal, or plant, of Earth
that form one of the major Earth subsystems.
boreal forest (taiga) coniferous forest dominated by spruce,
fir, and pine found growing in subarctic conditions around
the world north of the 50th parallel of North latitude.
calorie amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of
one gram of water 1 degree Celsius.
cap rock a resistant horizontal layer of rock that forms the
flat top of a landform, such as a butte or a mesa.
146
carbonate a mineral group characterized by carbon‘s ability
to form complex compounds of organic and inorganic
origins.
catastrophism once-popular theory that all Earth‘s
landforms developed in a relatively short time in a
catastrophic fashion.
cave (cavern) a naturally formed opening in rocks that is
large enough for humans to enter.
Celsius (or centigrade) scale temperature scale in which 0°
is the freezing point of water and 100° its boiling point at
standard sea level pressure.
chemical weathering the breakdown of rocks into smaller
fragments through chemical processes that change the
rocks‘ mineral composition.
classification process of systematically arranging
phenomena into groups, classes, or categories based on
some established criteria.
climatology scientific study of climates of Earth and their
distribution.
climograph graphic means of giving information on mean
monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or
station.
cloud mass of suspended water droplets (or at high
altitudes, ice particles) in air above ground level.
coastal zone region of local interaction between land and a
sea or ocean.
coastline of emergence coast with formerly submerged
land that has risen above sea level, either by uplift or by a
drop in sea level.
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cold front leading edge of a relatively cooler, denser air
mass that advances upon a warmer, less dense air mass.
comet a small body of icy and dusty matter that revolves
about the sun.When a comet comes near the sun, some of its
material vaporizes, forming a large head and often a tail.
conceptual model image in the mind of an Earth feature or
landscape as derived from personal experiences.
continental crust the less dense (av. 2.7 gm/cm3) portion
of Earth‘s crust that underlies all the continents.
continental slope steeply sloping submarine surface that is
seaward of the continental shelf.
convectional precipitation precipitation resulting from
condensation of water vapor in an air mass that is rising
convectionally as it is heated from below.
convective thunderstorm a thunderstorm produced by the
convective uplift mechanism.
coral reef ridge of limestone built up by accumulation of
skeletal remains of tiny sea animals.
core extremely hot and dense, innermost portion of Earth‘s
interior; the molten outer core is 2400 km (1500 mi) thick;
the solid inner core is 1120 km (700 mi) thick.
cross-bedding thin layers within sedimentary rocks that
were deposited at an angle to the dominant rock layering.
crust relatively thin, approximately 8–64 km (5–40 mi)
deep, lowdensity surface layer of Earth.
declination the latitude on Earth at which the noon sun is
directly overhead.
degradation processes that tend to reduce elevation or
relief, such as erosion and weathering.
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delta depositional landform where a river flows into a still
body of water, such as a sea or lake.
delta plain the part of a delta formed on the land by stream
deposition.
digital terrain model a computer-generated graphic
representation of topography.
disappearing stream a stream that flows into a sinkhole
and into the groundwater system, thus ―disappearing‖ from
the land surface.
discharge (stream discharge) rate of stream flow;
measured as the volume of water flowing past a cross
section of a stream per unit of time (cubic meters or cubic
feet per second).
drainage (stream) pattern the form of a channel network
for a stream or river as viewed from a map (vertical)
perspective.
drainage basin (watershed) total land surface area drained
by a stream system.
drainage density the summed length of all stream channels
per unit area.
drainage divide the outside boundary of a watershed or
drainage basin.
dune (sand dune) mound of sand-sized materials deposited
and shaped by the wind.
dust storm a moving cloud of wind-blown dust (typically
silt).
Earth system set of interrelated components or variables
(e.g., atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere),
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which interact and function together to make up Earth as it
is currently constituted.
earthflow linear movement downslope of moist, clay-rich
soil and regolith, usually exhibiting a tongue-like shape.
ecology science that studies the interactions between
organisms and their environment.
ecosystem community of organisms functioning together in
an interdependent relationship with the environment which
they occupy.
El Nino warm countercurrent that influences the central and
eastern Pacific.
end moraine accumulation of rocks and fine glacial
material at the terminus or snout of a glacier.
environment surroundings, whether of man or of any other
living organism; includes physical, social, and cultural
conditions that affect the development of that organism.
eolian (aeolian) referring to the work of wind; associated
with wind erosion, transportation, and deposition.
equator great circle of Earth midway between the poles; the
zero degree parallel of latitude that divides Earth into the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
erosion removal of Earth materials by water, wind, or
glacial ice.
evaporation process by which a liquid is converted to the
gaseous (or vapor) state by the addition of latent heat.
evaporite mineral salts that are soluble in water and
accumulate when water evaporates.
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evapotranspiration combined water loss to the atmosphere
from ground and water surfaces by evaporation and, from
plants, by transpiration.
exotic stream (or river) stream that originates in a humid
region and has sufficient water volume to flow across a
desert region.
Fahrenheit scale temperature scale in which 32° is the
freezing point of water, and 212° its boiling point, at
standard sea level pressure.
flood basalts massive outpourings of basaltic lava.
floodplain the area along a stream or river that is subject to
flooding.
fluvial term used to describe landform processes associated
with the work of streams and rivers.
focus point within Earth‘s crust where an earthquake
originates.
fog mass of suspended water droplets within the atmosphere
that is in contact with the ground.
food chain sequence of levels in the feeding pattern of an
ecosystem.
food web feeding mosaic formed by the interrelated and
overlapping food chains of an ecosystem.
freezing rain rainfall that freezes into ice upon coming in
contact with a surface or object that is colder than 0°C
(32°F).
friction force that acts opposite to the direction of
movement or flow; for example, turbulent resistance of
Earth‘s surface on the flow of the atmosphere.
fringing reef a reef formed along the margins of an island.
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front sloping boundary or contact surface between air
masses with different properties of temperature, moisture
content, density, and atmospheric pressure.
frontal lifting lifting or rising of warmer, lighter air above
cooler, denser air along a frontal boundary.
frontal precipitation precipitation resulting from
condensation of water vapor in an air mass that is rising
over another mass along a front.
frost wedging breaking apart of bedrock by the expansive
power of water freezing, melting, and refreezing in joints,
cracks, and crevices.
galaxy a large assemblage of stars; a typical galaxy contains
millions to hundreds of billions of stars.
gap an area within the territory occupied by a plant
community when the climax vegetation has been destroyed
or damaged by some natural process, such as a hurricane,
forest fire, or landslide.
General Circulation Model (GCM) complex computer
simulations based on the relationships of selected variables
within the Earth system that are used in attempts to predict
future climates.
genetic classification classification process based on the
causes, theory, or origins of phenomena; generally ignoring
their statistical, physical, or observable characteristics.
geography study of Earth phenomena; includes an analysis
of distributional patterns and interrelationships among these
phenomena.
geomorphology the study of the origin and development of
landforms.
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geostationary orbit an orbit that synchronizes a satellite‘s
position and speed with Earth rotation so that it continually
images the same location.
giant planets the four largest planets—Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
glacial plucking erosive pulling away of rock material
underneath a glacier by glacial ice flowing away from a
bedrock obstruction.
glacial trough a u-shaped valley carved by glacial erosion.
glacier a mass of ice that is flowing as a plastic solid.
glaciofluvial deposit sorted glacial drift deposited by
meltwater.
glaze (freezing rain) translucent coating of ice that
develops when rain strikes a freezing surface.
Global Positioning System (GPS) GPS uses satellites and
computers to compute positions anywhere on Earth to
within a few centimeters of their true location.
graded stream stream where slope and channel size
provide velocity just sufficient to transport the load supplied
by the drainage basin; a theoretical balanced state averaged
over a period of many years.
gradient a term for slope often used to describe the angle of
a streambed.
gravity the mutual attraction of bodies or particles.
great circle any circle formed by a full circumference of the
globe; the plane of a great circle passes through the center of
the globe.
greenhouse effect warming of the atmosphere that occurs
because short-wave solar radiation heats the planet‘s
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surface, but the loss of long-wave heat radiation is hindered
by the release of gases associated with human activity (e.g.,
CO2).
ground moraine glacial till deposited on Earth‘s surface
beneath a melting glacier.
groundwater (underground water) all subsurface water,
especially in the zone of saturation.
habitat location within an ecosystem occupied by a
particular organism.
headward erosion gullying and valley cutting that extends
a stream channel in an upstream direction.
heat the total kinetic energy of all the atoms that make up a
substance.
hemisphere half of a sphere; for example, the northern or
southern half of Earth divided by the equator or the eastern
and western half divided by 2 meridians, the 0° and 180°
meridians.
heterotroph organism that is incapable of producing its
own food and that must survive by consuming other
organisms.
highland climates a general climate classification for
regions of high, yet varying, elevations.
Holocene the most recent time interval of warm, relatively
stable climate that began with the retreat of major glaciers
about 10,000 years ago.
horizon the visual boundary between Earth and sky.
human geography specialization in the systematic study of
geography that focuses on the location, distribution, and
spatial interaction of human (cultural) phenomena.
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humidity amount of water vapor in an air mass at a given
time.
humus organic matter found in the surface soil layers that is
in various stages of decomposition as a result of bacterial
action.
hurricane severe tropical cyclone of great size with nearly
concentric isobars. Its torrential rains and high-velocity
winds create unusually high seas and extensive coastal
flooding; also called willywillies, tropical cyclones,
baguios, and typhoons.
hydrosphere major Earth subsystem consisting of the
waters of Earth, including oceans, ice, freshwater bodies,
groundwater, and water within the atmosphere and biomass.
hygroscopic water water in the soil that adheres to mineral
particles.
ice age period of Earth history when much of Earth‘s
surface was covered with massive continental glaciers.The
most recent ice age is referred to as the Pleistocene Epoch.
ice cap small ice sheet found in highland areas that usually
covers all but the highest mountain peaks.
ice shelf large flat-topped plate of ice from the Antarctic ice
cap, which overlies Antarctic waters and is a source of
icebergs. iceberg free-floating mass of glacier broken off by
melting, tidal, and wave action.
infiltration water seeping downward into the soil or other
surface materials.
instability condition of air when it is warmer than the
surrounding atmosphere and is buoyant with a tendency to
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rise; the lapse rate of the surrounding atmosphere is greater
than that of unstable air.
isobar line drawn on a map to connect all points with the
same atmospheric pressure.
isoline a line on a map that represents equal values of some
numerical measurement such as lines of equal temperature
or elevation contours.
isotherm line drawn on a map to connect all points with the
same temperature.
karst unique landforms developed as a result of the
dissolving of limestone by groundwater.
katabatic wind downslope flow of cold, dense air that has
accumulated in a high mountain valley or over an elevated
plateau or ice cap.
Kelvin scale temperature scale developed by Lord Kelvin,
equal to Celsius scale plus 273; no temperature can drop
below absolute zero, or 0 degrees Kelvin.
Koeppen system climate classification based on monthly
and annual averages of temperature and precipitation;
boundaries between climate classes are designed so that
climate types coincide with vegetation regions.
La Nina cold sea-surface temperature anomaly in the
Equatorial Pacific (opposite of El Nino).
Landsat a family of U.S. satellites that have been returning
digital images since the 1970s.
landslide mass of Earth material, including all loose debris
and often portions of bedrock, moving as a unit rapidly
downslope.
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latent heat of evaporation amount of heat absorbed by
water to evaporate from a surface (i.e., 590 calories/gram of
water).
latitude angular distance (distance measured in degrees)
north or south of the equator.
lava molten Earth material expelled at the surface from
volcanoes or fissures. From this material extrusive igneous
rock is formed.
light year the distance light travels in one year—6 trillion
miles.
lightning visible electrical discharge produced within a
thunderstorm.
lithosphere solid crust of Earth that forms one of the major
Earth subsystems. In a more technical definition related to
tectonic plate theory, the lithosphere consists of Earth‘s
crust and the uppermost rigid zone of the mantle, which is
divided into individual plates that move independently on
the plastic material of the asthenosphere.
lithospheric plates huge slab-like segments of Earth‘s
exterior including the crust and solid part of the upper
mantle.
Little Ice Age an especially cold interval of time during the
early 14th century that had major impacts on civilizations in
the Northern Hemisphere.
marine terrace horizontal land surface, now above sea
level, that was either wave-cut or wave-built by shoreline.
maritime relating to weather, climate, or atmospheric
conditions in coastal or oceanic areas.
mass a measure of the total amount of matter in a body.
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mass wasting (mass movement) movement of surface
materials downslope as a result of Earth gravitation.
mathematical/statistical model computer-generated
representation of an area or Earth system using statistical
data.
mental map conceptual model of special significance in
geography because it consists of spatial information.
Mercalli Scale, modified an earthquake intensity scale with
Roman numerals from I–XII used to assess spatial
variations in the degree of impact that a tremor generates.
Mercator projection mathematically produced, conformal
map projection showing true compass bearings as straight
lines.
mercury barometer instrument measuring atmospheric
pressure by balancing it against a column of mercury.
meridian one half of a great circle on the globe connecting
all points of equal longitude; all meridians connect the
North and South Poles.
mesa flat-topped erosional remnant of a tableland
characteristic of arid regions with flat-lying sediments;
typically bordered by steepsided
escarpments and may cover large areas.
mesopause upper limit of mesophere, separating it from the
thermosphere.
mesosphere layer of atmosphere above the stratosphere;
characterized by temperatures that decrease regularly with
altitude.
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mesothermal climates climate regions or conditions with
hot, warm, or mild summers that do not have any months
that average below freezing.
metamorphic rock one of the three major rock types;
formed from other rock within the crust by change induced
by heat and pressure.
meteor the luminous phenomenon observed when a small
piece of solid matter enters Earth‘s atmosphere and burns
up.
meteorology study of the patterns and causes associated
with short-term changes in the elements of the atmosphere.
microclimate climate associated with a small area at or near
Earth‘s surface; the area may range from a few inches to one
mile in size.
microplate terrane material added to continents as they
collide with smaller areas of distinct geology such as
volcanic islands or continent fragments.
microthermal climates climate regions or conditions with
warm or mild summers that have winter months with
temperatures averaging below freezing.
middle-latitude disturbance convergence of cold polar and
warm subtropical air masses over the middle latitudes.
millibar unit of measurement for atmospheric pressure; one
millibar equals a force of 1000 dynes per square centimeter;
1013.2 millibars is standard sea level pressure.
mineral naturally occurring inorganic substance that
possesses fairly definite physical characteristics and unique
chemical composition.
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mistral cold downslope wind in southern France (see
katabatic wind).
model a useful simplification of a more complex reality that
permits prediction.
Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) interface between
Earth‘s crust and the denser mantle.
monadnock erosional remnant of more resistant rock on a
plain of old age; associated with a theoretical cycle of
erosion in humid lands.
monsoon seasonal wind that reverses direction during the
year in response to a reversal of pressure over a large
landmass. The classic monsoons of Southeast Asia blow
onshore in response to low pressure over Eurasia in summer
and offshore in response to high pressure in winter.
moraine unsorted glacial drift deposited beneath and along
the margins of a glacier.
mosaic a plant community and the ecosystem upon which it
is based, viewed as a landscape of interlocking parts by
ecologists.
mountain breeze air flow downslope from mountains
toward valleys during the night.
mud a mix of rock and soil with ample water.
mudflow downslope movement of mud with mixing and
tumbling as it moves.
multispectral scanning using a number of energy
wavelength bands to create images.
natural vegetation vegetation that has been allowed to
develop naturally without obvious interference from or
modification by humans.
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navigation the science of location and finding one‘s way,
position, or direction.
neap tide tide of less than average range; occurs at first-
and third-quarter moon.
near-infrared (NIR) film photographic film that makes
pictures using near-infrared light that is not visible to the
human eye.
negative feedback reaction to initial change in a system
that counteracts the initial change and leads to dynamic
equilibrium in the system.
nekton marine organisms that swim freely in the oceans.
nimbo a prefix for cloud types that means rain-producing.
nimbus term used in cloud description to indicate
precipitation; thus cumulonimbus is a cumulus cloud from
which rain is falling.
North Atlantic Oscillation oscillating (see-saw) pressure
tendencies between the Azores High and the Icelandic Low.
North pole maximum north latitude (90° N), at the point
marking the axis of rotation.
oblate spheroid Earth‘s shape—a slightly flattened sphere.
obliquity cycle the change in the tilt of the Earth‘s axis
relative to the plane of the ecliptic over a 41,000 year
period.
oceanic islands volcanic islands that rise from the deep
ocean floor.
oceanic ridge (midocean ridge) linear seismic mountain
range that interconnects through all the major oceans; it is
where new molten crustal material rises through the oceanic
crust.
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oceanic trench (trench) long, narrow depression on the sea
floor usually associated with an island arc.Trenches mark
the deepest portions of the oceans and are associated with
subduction of oceanic crust.
open system system in which energy and/or materials can
freely cross its boundaries.
organic sedimentary rocks rocks that consist of deposits of
abundant organic material such as carbon from plants (coal),
or the shells of sea creatures (some limestones).
orographic precipitation precipitation resulting from
condensation of water vapor in an air mass that is forced to
rise over a mountain range or other raised landform.
orographic thunderstorm a thunderstorm produced by the
orographic uplift mechanism.
outcrop bedrock exposed at Earth‘s surface with no
overlying regolith or soil.
outer core the upper portion of the Earth‘s core; considered
to be composed of molten iron liquefied by the Earth‘s
internal heat.
outlet glacier a valley glacier that flows outward from a
larger glacier, such as an ice sheet.
oxidation chemical union of oxygen with other elements to
form new chemical compounds.
oxide a mineral group composed of oxygen combining with
other Earth elements, especially metallics.
ozone gas with a molecule consisting of three atoms of
oxygen,
(O3); forms a layer in the upper atmosphere that serves to
screen out ultraviolet radiation harmful at Earth‘s surface.
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Pacific high persistent cell of high atmospheric pressure
located in the subtropics of the North Pacific Ocean.
pahoehoe a smooth, ropy surface on a lava flow.
paleogeography the study of past geographic environments,
based on climatic and geologic evidence.
paleomagnetism the historic record of changes in Earth‘s
magnetic field.
Pangaea ancient continent that consisted of all of today‘s
continental landmasses.
parabolic sand dune a hairpin-shaped sand dune, most
common in coastal regions.
parallel circle on the globe connecting all points of equal
latitude.
parallelism tendency of Earth‘s polar axis to remain
parallel to itself at all positions in its orbit around the sun.
parent material residual (derived from bedrock directly
beneath) or transported (by water, wind, or ice) mineral
matter from which soil is formed.
passive-margin coast coastal region that is far removed
from the volcanism and tectonism associated with plate
boundaries.
patch a gap or area within a matrix (territory occupied by a
dominant plant community) where the dominant vegetation
is not supported due to natural causes.
paternoster lakes chain of lakes connected by a post-
glacial stream occupying the trough of a glaciated mountain
valley.
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patterned ground (frost polygons) polygonal shapes
formed on the surface in subarctic and tundra climates,
formed by repeated freezing and thawing of soils.
ped naturally forming soil aggregate or clump with a
distinctive shape that characterizes a soil‘s structure.
permeability characteristic of soil or bedrock that
determines the ease with which water moves through Earth
material.
pH scale scale from 0 to 14 that describes the acidity or
alkalinity of a substance and which is based on a
measurement of hydrogen ions; pH values below 7 indicate
acidic conditions; pH values above 7 indicate alkaline
conditions.
physical (mechanical) weathering the various surface
processes that break rocks into smaller fragments without
causing chemical changes.
physical geography specialization in the systematic study
of geography that focuses on the location, distribution, and
spatial interaction of physical (environmental) phenomena.
physical model three-dimensional representation of all or a
portion of Earth‘s surface.
piedmont glacier glacier that forms where a valley glacier
flows out of its valley and spreads out at the base of a
mountain.
plane of the ecliptic plane of Earth‘s orbit about the sun
and the apparent annual path of the sun along the stars.
planet any of the nine largest bodies revolving about the
sun, or any similar bodies that may orbit other stars.
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plankton passively drifting or weakly swimming marine
organisms, including both phytoplankton (plants) and
zooplankton (animals).
plate tectonics theory that superseded continental drift and
is based on the idea that the lithosphere is composed of a
number of segments or plates that move independently of
one another, at varying speeds, over Earth‘s surface.
plateau an extensive, flat-topped landform or region
characterized by relatively high elevation, but low relief.
playa dry lake bed in a desert basin.
playa lake a temporary lake that forms on a playa from
runoff after a rainstorm or during a wet season.
Pleistocene the name given to the most recent ―ice age‖ or
period of Earth history experiencing cycles of continental
glaciation; it commenced approximately 2.4 million years
ago.
pluvial rainy time period, usually pertaining to glacial
periods when deserts were wetter than at present.
polar highs high pressure systems located near the poles
where air is settling and diverging.
polar jet stream high-velocity air current within the upper
air westerlies.
polar referring to the North or South Polar regions
pollution alteration of the physical, chemical, or biological
balance of the environment that has adverse effects on the
normal functioning of all life forms, including humans.
porosity characteristic of soil or bedrock that relates to the
amount of pore space between individual peds or soil and
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rock particles and which determines the water storage
capacity of Earth material.
positive feedback reaction to initial change in a system that
reinforces the initial change and leads to imbalance in the
system.
potential evapotranspiration hypothetical rate of
evapotranspiration if at all times there is a more than
adequate amount of soil water for growing plants.
precession cycle changes in the time (date) of the year that
perihelion occurs; the date is determined on the basis of a
major period 21,000 years in length and a secondary period
19,000 years in length.
precipitation water in liquid or solid form that falls from
the atmosphere and reaches Earth‘s surface.
pressure belts zones of high or low pressure that tend to
circle Earth parallel to the equator in a theoretical model of
world atmospheric pressure.
pressure gradient rate of change of atmospheric pressure
horizontally with distance, measured along a line
perpendicular to the isobars on a map of pressure
distribution.
primary coastline coast that has primarily developed its
current form and shape from land-based processes (fluvial
or glacial, erosion
or deposition, tectonism), and is only moderately modified
by coastal processes.
radiation fog fog produced by cooling of air in contact with
a cold ground surface.
rain falling droplets of liquid water.
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rain shadow dry, leeward side of a mountain range,
resulting from the adiabatic warming of descending air.
recumbent fold a fold in rock that has been completely
overturned.
regions areas identified by certain characteristics they
contain that make them distinctive and separates them from
surrounding areas.
relative humidity ratio between the amount of water vapor
in air of a given temperature and the maximum amount of
water vapor that the air could hold at that temperature, if
saturated; usually expressed as a percentage.
relative location location of an object in respect to its
position relative to some other object or feature.
relief a measurement or expression of the difference
between the highest and lowest location in a specified area.
representative fraction (RF) scale A map scale presented
as a fraction or ratio between the size of a unit on the map to
the size of the same unit on the ground, as in 1/24,000 or
1:24,000.
rime ice crystals formed along the windward side of tree
branches, airplane wings, etc., under conditions of
supercooling.
rip current strong, narrow surface current flowing away
from shore. It is produced by the return flow of water piled
up near shore by incoming waves.
roche moutonnée bedrock hill subjected to intense glacial
abrasion on its upstream side, with some plucking evident
on the downstream side.
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rock a naturally formed aggregate of minerals or of particles
of other rocks.
rock cycle a circular sequence of the processes that form the
different kinds of rocks.
rock flour rock fragments finely ground between the base
of a glacier and the underlying bedrock surface.
salt flat a low-relief deposit of saline minerals, typically in
desert regions.
salt weathering (salt wedging) rock weathering caused by
the growth of salt crystals in tiny rock fractures, common in
arid and coastal regions.
sand sediment particles ranging in size from about .05 mm
to 2.0 mm.
sandstorm strong winds blowing sand along the ground
surface.
Santa Ana very dry foehn wind occurring in southern
California.
savanna tropical vegetation consisting primarily of coarse
grasses, often associated with scattered low-growing trees or
patches of bare ground.
secondary coastline coast that has primarily developed its
current form from sea-based processes (erosion or
deposition by waves and currents, reef-building).
sedimentary rock one of the three major rock types;
formed by the accumulation, compaction, and cementation
of fragmented Earth materials, organic remains, or chemical
precipitates.
seismograph scientific instrument utilized to read the
passage of vibratory earthquake and shock waves.
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sextant navigation instrument used to determine latitude by
star and sun positions.
shield volcano gentle-sloped volcano formed by the cooling
and accumulation of successive fluid lava flows extruded
from a central vent or system of vents.
shoreline line of intersection between a water body and a
landmass.
silt sediment particles with a grain size between 0.002 mm
and 0.05 mm.
sinkhole circular surface depression produced by the
dissolving of limestone by groundwater.
slip face the steep, downwind side of a sand dune.
slope aspect direction a mountain slope faces in respect to
the sun‘s rays.
slump mass of soil and regolith that slips or collapses
downslope with a backward rotation.
small circle any circle that is not a full circumference of the
globe.The plane of a small circle does not pass through the
center of the globe.
smog combination of chemical pollutants and particulate
matter in the lower atmosphere, typically over urban
industrial areas.
snow line elevation in mountain regions above which
summer melting is insufficient to prevent the accumulation
of permanent snow or ice.
snow precipitation in the form of ice crystals.
soil a dynamic, natural layer on Earth‘s surface that is a
complex mixture of inorganic minerals, organic materials,
microorganisms, water, and air.
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soil grade classification of soil texture by particle size: clay
(less than 0.002 mm), silt (0.002–0.05 mm), and sand (0.05–
2.0 mm) are soil grades.
soil horizon distinct soil layer characteristic of vertical
zonation in soils; horizons are distinguished by their general
appearances andtheir specific chemical and physical
properties.
soil profile vertical cross section of a soil that displays the
various horizons or soil layers that characterize it; used for
classification.
soil survey a publication of the United States Soil Survey
Division of the Natural Resources Conservation Service
which includes maps showing the distribution of soil within
a given area, usually a county.
soil taxonomy the classification and naming of soils.
soil texture the distribution of particle sizes in a soil that
give it a distinctive ―feel.‖
solar system the system of the sun and the planets, their
satellites, comets, meteoroids, and other objects revolving
around the sun.
solar wind streams of hot ions (protons and electrons)
traveling outward from the sun.
sonar a system that uses sound waves for location and
mapping underwater.
source region nearly homogeneous surface of land or ocean
over which an air mass acquires its temperature and
humidity characteristics.
South pole maximum south latitude (90° S), at the point
marking the axis of rotation.
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Southern Oscillation the systematic variation in
atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western
Pacific Ocean.
spatial distribution location and extent of an area or areas
where a feature exists.
spatial interaction process whereby different phenomena
are linked or interconnected, and, as a result, impact one
another through Earth space.
spatial pattern arrangement of a feature as it is distributed
through Earth space.
spatial science term used when defining geography as the
science that examines phenomena as it is located,
distributed, and interacting with other phenomena
throughout Earth space.
spheroidal weathering a result of various weathering
processes that remove the corners of block-like rocks,
creating a rounded rock mass.
spit beach feature attached to the mainland and built
partially across a bay or inlet by the depositional action of
longshore currents.
spring any surface outflow of groundwater, generally where
the water table intersects the ground surface.
stability condition of air when it is cooler than the
surrounding atmosphere and resists the tendency to rise; the
lapse rate of the surrounding atmosphere is less than that of
stable air.
steppe climate characterized by middle-latitude semiarid
vegetation, treeless and dominated by short bunch grasses.
171
storm local atmospheric disturbance often associated with
rain, hail, snow, sleet, lightning, or strong winds.
storm surge rise in sea level due to wind and reduced air
pressure during a hurricane or other severe storm.
storm track path frequently traveled by a cyclonic storm as
it moves in a generally eastward direction from its point of
origin.
stratopause upper limit of stratosphere, separating it from
the mesosphere.
stratosphere layer of atmosphere lying above the
troposphere and below the mesosphere, characterized by
fairly constant temperatures and ozone concentration.
stream a body of water that is flowing in a channel (a river
is a stream, but generally larger); also a specific reference to
a small river.
stream capacity how much sediment and dissolved load a
stream can carry.
stream competence the largest particle size that a stream
can carry.
stream discharge the volume of water flowing past a point
in a stream or river channel in a given unit of time.
stream gradient the drop of a streambed in a given
distance, generally given in feet per mile or meters per
kilometer.
stream hydrograph a graph of changes in stream flow over
time.
stream load amount of material transported by a stream at a
given instant; includes bed load, suspended load, and
dissolved load.
172
stream order a numerical index of the significance of a
channel (or system of channels) in a stream channel
network.
stream terraces former banks of a stream or river that
today are above the level of the stream.
structure the descriptive physical characteristics and
arrangement of bedrock, such as folded, faulted, layered,
fractured, massive.
submarine canyon steep-sided erosional valley cut into the
continental shelf or continental slope.
subtropical jet stream high-velocity air current flowing
above the sinking air of the subtropical high pressure cells;
most prominent in the winter season.
succession progression of natural vegetation from one plant
community to the next until a final stage of equilibrium has
been reached with the natural environment.
sunspots temporary, dark, cooler, spots on the solar
surface.Their numbers follow an approximate 11-year cycle.
surface of discontinuity three-dimensional surface with
length, width, and height separating two different air
masses; also referred to as a front.
swell regular longer-period sea wave traveling a significant
distance from the area where it was generated by the wind.
syncline trough or downfold in a wave of crustal folding.
system group of interacting and interdependent units that
together form an organized whole.
taiga term used to describe the northern coniferous forest of
subarctic regions on the Eurasian landmass.
tarn mountain lake in a glacial cirque.
173
temperature degree of heat or cold and its measurement.
temperature gradient rate of change of temperature with
distance in any direction from a given point; refers to rate of
change horizontally; a vertical temperature gradient is
referred to as the lapse rate.
temperature inversion reverse of the normal pattern of
vertical distribution of air temperature; in the case of
inversion, temperature increases rather than decreases with
increasing altitude.
terra rossa characteristic calcium-rich (developed over
limestone bedrock) red-brown soils of the climate regions
surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
thermosphere highest layer of atmosphere extending from
the mesopause to outer space.
Thornthwaite system climate classification based on
moisture availability and of greatest use at the local level;
climate types are distinguished by examining and
comparing potential and actual evapotranspiration.
tidal current onshore or offshore flow of water that results
from tidal fluctuation.
tidal interval the time between successive high tides, or
between successive low tides.
tidal range elevation distance between water levels at high
tide and low tide.
tide periodic rise and fall of sea level in response to the
gravitational interaction of the moon, sun, and Earth.
till plain a broad area of low relief covered by glacial
deposits.
174
till unsorted glacial drift, characterized by variation in size
of deposit from clay particles to boulders.
tilted fault block a crustal block that has been uplifted on
one side and down-dropped on the other by faulting.
tolerance ability of a species to survive under specific
environmental conditions.
tombolo wave depositional beach feature connecting an
island to the mainland.
topographic contour line line on a map connecting points
that are the same elevation above mean sea level.
tornado small, intense, funnel-shaped cyclonic storm of
very low pressure, violent updrafts, and converging winds
of enormous velocity.
trace less than a measurable amount of rain or snow (i.e.,
less than 1 mm or 0.01 in.
trade winds consistent surface winds blowing in low
latitudes from the subtropical highs toward the intertropical
convergence zone; labeled northeast trades in the Northern
Hemisphere and southeast trades in the Southern
Hemisphere.
transform movement horizontal sliding of tectonic plates,
alongside each other.
transpiration transfer of moisture from living plants to the
atmosphere by the emission of water vapor, primarily from
leaf pores.
transportation movement of Earth materials from one site
to another as a result of the transporting power of water,
wind, or glacial ice.
175
transverse dune a linear ridge-like sand dune that is
oriented at right angles to the prevailing wind direction.
transverse stream a stream or river that flows across the
general orientation or ―grain‖ of the topography, such as
mountains or ridges.
travertine calcium carbonate (limestone) deposits resulting
from the evaporation in caves or caverns and near surface
openings of groundwater saturated with lime.
tree line elevation in mountain regions above which cold
temperatures and wind stress prohibit tree growth.
tributary a stream or river that flows into another stream or
river.
trophic level number of feeding steps that a given organism
is removed from the autotrophs (e.g., green plant—first
level, herbivore—second level, carnivore—third level, etc.).
trophic structure organization of an ecosystem based on
the feeding patterns of the organisms that comprise the
ecosystem.
Tropic of Cancer parallel of latitude at 231⁄2°N; the
northern limit to the migration of the sun‘s vertical rays
throughout the year.
Tropic of Capricorn parallel of latitude at 231⁄2°S; the
southern limit to the migration of the sun‘s vertical rays
throughout the year.
tropical climates climate regions that are warm all year.
tropical easterlies winds that blow from the east in tropical
regions.
tropical region on Earth lying between the Tropic of Cancer
176
(231⁄2°N latitude), and the Tropic of Capricorn (231⁄2°S
latitude).
tropopause boundary between the troposphere and
stratosphere.
troposphere lowest layer of the atmosphere, exhibiting a
steady decrease in temperature with increasing altitude and
containing virtually all atmospheric dust and water vapor.
tsunami ocean wave produced by submarine earthquake,
volcanic eruption, or landslide; not noticeable in deep ocean
waters, but building to dangerous heights in shallow waters.
tundra high latitude or high altitude environments or
climate regions that are not able to support tree growth
because the growing season is too cold or too short.
tundra climate characterized by treeless vegetation of polar
regions and very high mountains, consisting of mosses,
lichens, and low-growing shrubs and flowering plants.
typhoon a tropical cyclone found in the western Pacific, the
same as a hurricane.
U.S. Public Lands Survey System a method for locating
and dividing land, used in much of the Midwest and western
United States.This system divides land into six by six mile
square townships consisting of thirty-six sections of land
(each one square mile). Sections can also be subdivided into
halves, quarter sections, and quarter-quarter-sections.
uniformitarianism widely accepted theory that Earth‘s
landforms have developed over exceedingly long periods of
time as a result of processes that may be observed in the
present landscape.
177
valley breeze air flow upslope from the valleys toward the
mountains during the day.
valley glacier see alpine glacier.
valley sink (uvala) a karst depression where a stream flows
from the surface into the underground.
valley train outwash deposit from glacial meltwater,
resembling an alluvial fan confined by valley walls.
variable one of a set of objects and/or characteristics of
objects, which are interrelated in such a way that they
function together as a system.
varve a pairing of organic-rich summer sediments and
organic poor winter sediments found in exposed lake beds;
because each pair represents one year of time, counting
varves is useful as a dating technique for recent Earth
history.
vertical exaggeration a technique that stretches the height
representation of terrain in order to emphasize topographic
detail.
vertical rays sun‘s rays that strike Earth‘s surface at a 90
degree angle.
visualization a wide array of computer techniques used to
vividly illustrate a place or concept, or the illustration
produced by one of these techniques.
volcanic ash small fragments of lava (sand to dust sized)
thrown into the atmosphere by a volcano.
volcanic neck the throat or conduit forming the passageway
for molten rock in a volcano.
volcanism the upward movement of molten material
(magma) and its cooling above Earth‘s surface.
178
v-shaped valley the typical shape of a stream valley where
the gradient is steep.
warm front leading edge of a relatively warmer, less dense
air mass advancing upon a cooler, denser air mass.
warping broad and general uplift or settling of Earth‘s crust
with little or no local distortion.
water mining taking more groundwater out of an aquifer
through pumping than is being replaced by natural processes
in the same period of time.
water table upper limit of the zone of saturation below
which all pore spaces are filled with water.
water vapor water in its gaseous form.
wave refraction bending of waves as they approach a
shore, aligning themselves with the bottom contours of the
surf zone.
wave-cut bench gently sloping surface produced by wave
erosion at the base of a sea cliff.
weather atmospheric conditions, at a given time, in a
specific location.
weathering physical (mechanical) fragmentation and
chemical decomposition of rocks and minerals in Earth‘s
crust.
westerlies surface winds flowing from the polar portions of
the subtropical highs, carrying fronts, storms, and variable
weather conditions from west to east through the middle
latitudes.
wet adiabatic lapse rate rate at which a rising mass of air is
cooled by expansion when condensation is taking place.The
rate varies but averages 5°C/1000 m (3.2°F/1000 ft).
179
white frost a heavy coating of white crystalline frost.
wind air in motion from areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure; movement is generally horizontal, relative
to the ground surface.
windward location on the side that faces toward the wind
and is therefore exposed or unprotected; usually refers to
mountain and island locations.
zone of accumulation subsoil or B horizon of a soil,
characterized by deposition or illuviation of soil
components by gravitational water; also the upper portion of
a glacier, above the firn line, where net snow accumulation
exceeds the melting, evaporation, and sublimation of
snowfall.
zone of aeration upper groundwater zone above the water
table where pore spaces may be alternately filled with air or
water.
zone of depletion top layer, or A horizon, of a soil,
characterized by the removal of soluble and insoluble soil
components through leaching and eluviation by
gravitational water.
180
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1

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Alkhuzamy Aziz

Faculty of Arts, Geography Dpt.

Geography has been defined differently through different

Cairo, September 2016.

1) Geography and It's Branches …………………. 8

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main

Physical Geography (or physiography) focuses on

Physical geography can be divided into many broad

Hydrology & hydrography

Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on

Human geography can be divided into many broad

Subfields of Physical Geography

1) Regional geography; is a branch of geography which

Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach

2) Geomatics; is a branch of geography that has emerged

3) Cartography; studies the representation of the Earth's

Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and

4) Geographic information systems (GIS); deal with the

5) Remote sensing; is the science of obtaining information

6) Geostatistics; deal with quantitative data analysis,

Many other examples of overlap exist among the four

The Solar System:

The altitude at which the temperature ceases to drop with

The word geomorphology derives from three Greek words:

Aeolian Process (Wind Erosion)

Related fields to Geomorphology:

Hydrologic System - Stream System

The Drainage Basin:

Aerial Photography of Stream Network

Stream ordering System:

Source: Richard John Huggett, Fundamental of Geomorphology, Routledge

Two first-order streams must meet in order to form a

The Climate System

Simplified Köppen Climate Classes

Climatic regions in Egypt65:

Basic climatic elements in Egypt:

The Effect of Greenhose on Earth's energy balance

The increase in temperature will associated with some

Different Scenarios of the Impact of SLR on Nile delta

Impact on Agricultural and Food Resources80

Impact on Beach erosion90:

The projections of the Nile Delta, Rosetta and Damietta are

Erosion along the tip of the Damietta projection has

The main objective of Egypt‘s National Strategy for

At the country level, variations are even higher. In 2005–7,

Water resources in Egypt:

These limited quantities of water have to fulill the Egyptian

Population Growth and Water availability in Egypt

Non-Conventional Water Resources of Egypt105

Develop New Water Resources106

Existing 32 water boards in Fayoum

The geography of soil is concerned with the distribution and

Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids,

The Integration between soil and the major Earth

1) Alfisol : soils with aluminium and iron. They have

2) Andisol: volcanic ash soils. They are young and very

3) Aridisol: dry soils forming under desert conditions which

4) Entisol: recently formed soils that lack well-developed

6) Histosol: organic soils, formerly called bog soils, are

7) Inceptisol: young soils. They have subsurface horizon

8) Mollisol: soft, deep, dark fertile soil formed in grasslands

9) Oxisol: are heavily weathered, are rich in iron and