Biology

Introduction To Biology

• The study of biology is the study of life and the molecules that make up life

• What makes something a living entity?

- Made up of at least one cell

- Contains DNA, the molecule with the instructions for life

- Growth and development; build molecules and cells

- Respond to stimuli in environment

- Require nutrients and energy

- Eliminates waste (including digestion and gas exchange)

- Reproduce via sexual or asexual reproduction

The Cell Theory

• All living things are made up of at least one or more cells

• Cells contain DNA, which holds the instructions for life, and as a result, they are the simplest
structural and functional units that can carry out all life processes

• New cells are formed from pre-existing cells

Key Terms

• Cell - the smallest unit of life and is the basic structural and functional

• Organisms - living thing/biotic entity that carries out the functions of life

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 • Organelles - subunits found within cells that carry out specific jobs so the cell can carry out
its functions

Cell Classification

• Prokaryotic

- smaller and simpler, lacking most organelles and a membrane bound nucleus

- bacterial cells

• Eukaryotic

- larger with a more complex internal organization including membrane bound organelle
(eg. a distinct nucleus)

- Single celled

• Protist cells (amoeba)

- Multi celled

• Fungal cells

• Animal cells

• Plant cells
Function Reason

To make energy • we need energy for all active

• need to clean up waste produced when making
energy

To make protein • proteins are the building blocks of important

functions
• aids in chemical processes

To make more cells • for growth

• to replace damaged or diseased cells

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Organelle School Analogy
Organelle Function School Analogy

cytoplasm clear, gel like substance that is home to organelles hallways of school

cell wall protects cell, allows water and oxygen to pass through bricks of school

lysosomes breaks down large food particles into smaller ones, and breaks care taking staff
down old cells

chloroplast captures energy from sunlight and uses it to produce food for solar power
cells

mitochondria breaks down sugar molecules to create energy electric power generator

centriole microtubules that function during cell divisions construction crew

endoplasmic carries protein and other materials from one part of the cell to kitchen
reticulum another

vacuole storage area for cells boiler room

cell membrane controls what comes in and out of the cells school entrances

nucleus controls all cell activities main office

ribosome produces proteins kitchen staff

nuclear membrane membrane that protects the nucleus main office doors

golgi body receives proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic cafeteria lunch line
reticulum and packages them and redistributes them

vesicle package created by the golgi apparatus food tray

nucleolus structure that manufactures ribosomes principals office

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All About Cell Division
Cells need to divide for 3 important reasons.

• Growth

• Repair/Regeneration

• Reproduction

I. Cell Division for Growth

• Humans start off as a single cell (fertilized egg)

• This cell had to divide trillions of times in order for you to grow into the multicellular
organism you are today

Think: Why don't we just keep growing as one big giant cell? Why divide?

• As cells grow larger, its volume increases more than its membranes surface area

• The bigger the cell gets, the harder it is to absorb enough nutrients and expel enough waste
products

II. Cell Division for Repair/Regeneration

• Cells don't live forever

• Cells are constantly dying and damaged (approx. 3 billion per minute)

• As we age, the ability for cells to repair themselves are affected

III. Cell Division for Reproduction

• Ability to reproduce is an important characteristic for all living things

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 • Two main types of reproduction

• Asexual

• Only one parent

• Offspring is a genetic copy (clone) of the original parent

• Examples include: binary fission, fragmentation, budding, spores, regeneration, vegetative

• Sexual

• Produced by joining of two gametes (specialized cells such as sperm or eggs which are
involved in sexual reproduction)

• Each gamete contains half the genetic information found in somatic cells (non-sex cells
such as bone cells, skin cells etc)

• Results in an offspring with characteristics from both parents

• Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes. This is known as the diploid number

• 23 chromosomes from mom, 23 chromosomes from father. This is known as the haploid
number

• Gametes tend to have different DNA, thus they undergo a different type of cell division
known as meiosis

The Cell Cycle

Type of Brain Red blood Stomach Liver Intestine Skin
Blood Cell Lining Lining

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 Average Life 30 to 50 years 120 days 2 days 200 days 3 days 20 days
Span

Microscope

Eye Piece (Ocular Lens)

• Ocular Lens contained - 10x magnification

Tube

• Holds eye piece and connects to objective lens

Revolving Nosepiece

• Holds eye piece and connects to objective lens

Objective Lens

• Magnification (4x, 10x, 40x)

Coarse Adjustment Knob

• Moves stage up and down for focusing

Fine Adjustment Knob

• Moves stage slightly to sharpen image

Light Source

• Projects light source upwards

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Diaphragm

• Regulates the light on the specimen

Stages in the Cell Cycle

Part 1: Interphase

• Cells repairs any damages, re-energizes, grows and prepares for division

Part 2: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

• Division of the cell into 2 identical "daughter cells"

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus

• Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm

• Longest stage of the cell cycle

• Divided into three phases (G1, S, G2)

• First Gap Phase (G1)

• Cells grow in size, new proteins and organelle are made

• Synthesis Phase (S)

• DNA is replicated (known as chromatin)

Interphase (not part of • Second Gap Phase (G2)

Mitosis) • Cells prepare for division, DNA is correct

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Prophase
• Chromatin condenses to form paired
chromosomes (sister chromatids)

• Centrioles move to opposite poles

• Nucleolus disappears

• Nuclear membrane breaks down

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 • Nuclear membrane is completely gone

• Spindle fibres attach to centromere

(microtubules)

• Duplicated chromosomes line up at metaphase

plate (aka the equator)

Metaphase

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 • Spindle fibres shorten

• Sister chromatids separate and move to

opposite poles

Anaphase

Telophase • Nuclear membrane and nucleoli reform

and • Cell membrane pinches inwards

• Prophase is opposite to telophase

• Cytoplasm divides in half

• Cell returns to interphase

Cytokinesis

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Cancer: Mitosis Gone Wrong
Cancer Facts

• In 2017, an estimated 206,200 Canadians will be diagnosed with some form of cancer

• 80,800 will die from it (Canadian Cancer Society)

• Cancer cannot be passed from one person to another

• Over the past several decades, the number of cancer deaths per year continues to increase in
both sexes

• However, the overall cancer mortality rate has been decreasing

• 4/5 lung cancer cases are caused by smoking

The Cell Cycle

• The cell cycle is regulated/controlled at multiple times, known as checkpoints

• Specialized proteins monitor the cell's activities and surroundings

• Proteins help the nucleus decide to divide or not

• Cells will not divide and remain in interphase if there is

• DNA Damage

• Signals from surrounding cells that tell it not to divide

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 • DNA inside the nucleus has not divided (S-Phase)

• Not enough nutrients for cell growth

• Cell cycle regulates how long a cell lives

• Cell can self-destruct as a normal part of functioning

Apoptosis

• Regulated controlled cell death

• Cells are no longer needed (necessary)

• Cells not working properly or efficiently anymore

Cancer

• DNA in a healthy cell controls the rate of cell division

• If damaged beyond repair, or if something malfunctions in a cell, apoptosis may occur

• Cancer produces tumours which are the result of replicating malfunctioned cells without a
purpose

• Tumours use up valuable nutrients, interfering with normal cells

Types of Tumours

Benign Tumour

• A group of mass cells that does not affect surrounding tissues other than physically
surrounding them

Malignant Tumour

• A tumour that interferes with neighbouring cell function because of growth abnormality

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Metastasis

• Process of cancer cells breaking off from original area and starting another tumour elsewhere

Cancer: A Mutation

• Normally: each daughter cell is provided with an exact duplicate of the parent cell's DNA

• This replication process is extremely accurate, but mistakes/random changes do occur

• These changes are known as mutations

• Random changes in the DNA

• Option 1: Cell will die

• Option 2: Cell will continue to grow and all the nutrients are exhausted

• Mutations can be caused by carcinogens

• These are environmental factors that cause cancer

Causes of Cancer

• Chemicals - cause mutation, leading to problems with mitosis

• Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation - UV light causes DNA to be mutated which can alter the cell
mitosis cycle in the future

• Viruses - an example is the HPV virus, which is known to cause cervical cancer in females if
they are exposed

• X-Rays - they radiate cells, causing mutations

• Genetics - some people are born with genes that are more likely to mutate over time or have
cancerous properties

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The Digestive System

• Your cells need a constant

supply of energy from the food
you eat

• Nutrient absorption is fulfilled

by two systems: Digestive and
Circulatory

• The digestive tract does not

include the liver, gall bladder,
or pancreas

Organs of the
Digestive Tract

Oral Cavity (Mouth)

• Responsible for breaking down food

• Physical - teeth break down molecules of food

• Chemical - saliva acts as an enzyme, breaking down food

• Food brought to the esophagus

Esophagus

• Muscular tube that takes food from the mouth to the stomach

• Peristalsis - wave like contractions that push food to the stomach

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Stomach

• Stores and digests food

• Physical Digestion

• 3 layers of muscle mix food

• Breaks down and churns food

• Chemical Digestion

• Stomach Acid (HCl) and enzymes

• Breaks down carbs, fats and proteins

Small Intestine

• Where most digestion occurs

• Goblet cells release mucus to protect intestinal walls

• Nutrients are absorbed by the wall of the small intestines entering the blood stream

Large Intestine

• Main function to concentrate and eliminate indigestible food

• Fluids are absorbed in the large intestines

Rectum

• Remaining solid matter is held by the rectum and eventually eliminated as feces through the
anus

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Liver

• Creates bile in order to break down fat

Gallbladder

• Stores bile and released to the small intestine

Pancreas

• Send digestive enzymes to the small intestine

• Sodium bicarbonate - helps neutralizes acid

Circulatory System
Components of the Circulatory System

• The role of the circulatory system is to distribute oxygen and nutrients absorbed by the
digestive system, and carrying away waste

• Three main components include

• Blood

• Heart

• Blood vessels

Components of Blood

1. Plasma (55%)

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 • Made up of water

• Protein/nutrient rich liquid

• Carries waste, respiratory gases, and blood cells

2. Red Blood Cells (44%)

Artery
• Doughnut shaped

• Contains a protein called hemoglobin, allowing

RBC's to bind onto 4 oxygen molecules. It is also
responsible for the red colour of blood

3. Platelets

• Tiny cell fragments essential to the blood clotting

process

4. White Blood Cells

• "Infection fighting" cells able to identify foreign

bodies (i.e. invading bacteria/viruses) and neutralize
Vein them

• Able to leave the blood vessels and move through

tissue spaces

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Blood Vessels

• Thick and strong to withstand high pressure

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart

• Veins carry blood towards the heart

• One-way valves that open and close to keep

blood flowing toward the heart

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Capillaries • Very thin walls big enough to allow

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