Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Best Guide To Ielts Writing PDF
The Best Guide To Ielts Writing PDF
1
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rules for formal writing are quite strict, though often unstated. Formal writing is used in academic and
scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience, with many possible backgrounds
and assumptions. Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends, formal writing needs to be clear,
unambiguous, literal, and well structured.
Table 01:
01 a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of a great deal of /numerous/ several nhiều
02 a bit Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly một chút ít
03 to get together to collaborate with sbd on smth cộng tác
04 to start/to begin to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing bắt đầu khởi đầu
05 big large (number/percentage), considerable lớn, to lớn
06 thing device/object vật dụng/vật thể
07 stuff material chất liệu, vật liệu
08 to find out to ascertain/discover tìm ra, tìm thấy
09 to do again to repeat lặp lại
2
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
3
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
4
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
5
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cần cóluật về …
98 In a nutshell To state it briefly/ In brief tóm lại
99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mọi vấn đề đều cóưu điểm vànhược điểm
100 by chance Incidentally nhân tiện
101 to try to attempt/ to endeavor cố gắng
102 to swap to exchange trao đổi
103 as far as x goes in respect of / with respect to đối với, về phần
104 to skip omit/not attend smth bỏ qua, không tham dự
105 by accident accidentally ngẫu nhiên, tình cờ
106 kids infants/offsprings trẻ em
107 O.K acceptable/ satisfactory được, chấp nhận được
108 to make up for to compensate for đền bù, bùlại
109 to catch on smth to understand nắm bắt, hiểu
110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mắc bệnh
111 to go up to increase tăng lên
112 to get in touch with to contact liên hệ. liên lạc
113 to let somebody know to inform cho biết
114 to call off to cancel huỷ bỏ, bãi bỏ
115 to sort out to resolve giải quyết, đi đến quyết định
116 to deal with to handle/ to address giải quyết, xử lý
117 small minimal/limited/ modest nhỏ, bé
118 to think of to conceive of/imagine nghĩ về, suy tính
119 about an estimated, approximately, roughly khoảng chừng
120 to do (research) to carry out, perform, undertake tiến hành (nghiên cứu), đảm nhiệm
121 hard difficult, problematic,challenging khó khăn
122 to keep up to maintain duy trì
123 a lot a substantial amount, a considerable sum nhiều
124 stand for denote, represent chỉ, thay cho
126 next adjacent kề cận
6
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
7
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
8
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
9
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
10
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as
classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks and exams. Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills. It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that academic language includes
specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups, i.e., groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example, the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written. For
example, an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used. The three features of academic
languag are lexical, grammatical, and discourse”.
11
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
I believe that…
It is my belief that…
This essay will argue that…
12
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Giving reasons
Refuting opinions
Hedging strategies
13
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Strengthening an argument
14
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
In report writing it is good style to use approximation. Approximation means describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number. There are a number of reasons for doing this.
Firstly, it is easier for people to understand and remember. Secondly, the numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary.
Table 02:
15
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Table 03:
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
Nouns
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
Verbs to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
16
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
to dip
to dive
to plunge
sharply
suddenly
Adverbs rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
17
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
Adjectives
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
18
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
A. Introduction
1. The graph (biểu đồ)/table (bảng)/ shows (cho thấy)/indicates (chỉ)/ illustrates (minh hoạ)/ reveals (tiết lộ)/
B. Verbs
9. to halve: chia đôi, giảm đi một nửa 10. to diminish: sụt giảm, làm sụt giảm
11. to slow down: chậm lại 12. to remain the same/ unchanged: không thay đổi, giữ nguyên
19
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
13. to deplete: làm giảm 14. to lessen: giảm bớt, làm giảm bớt
15. to escalate: leo thang, tăng nhan 16. to stand at the same level: giữ nguyên
17. to fall to … %: giảm tới … % 18. to fall from … %: giảm xuống dưới … %
C. Adverbs
20
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
3. During the remainder of the year, …: Trong thời gian còn lại của năm …
4. During the first half of this century, …: Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ này …
6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, … :Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 …
7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, … : Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 và1990 …
21
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
2. a large number /percentage of … : một số lớn /một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của …
F. Comparison
1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 …: So sánh các con số của năm 1990 vànăm 2000 …
5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that …: So sánh x với y chúng ta cóthể thấy rằng …
22
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Types of Trend
23
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
24
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
25
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
26
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
27
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
28
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
29
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
30
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations. (Ex. Use can not instead of can’t)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in informal speech and writing, but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing.
For example: can’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, didn’t, I’ll, I’ve, I’d, won’t, etc…
31
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I, me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth,
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices, but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency.
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author. The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work "objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me what you think". Well, they do want
to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For this reason we also avoid using
emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us.
It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the academic tradition, these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter different views about the use of "I" over
the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the
"personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of this tutorial). Regardless of your
32
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun.
Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..."
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":
One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example,
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction:
Instead of write
"We administered the questionnaire..." "The questionnaire was administered..."
33
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website.
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual. Consider the following sentence:
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons.
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal
writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the
reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.
34
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety.
Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a
sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "nonetheless,"
"regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with "And", “Or”, and "Because," you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly.
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so):
Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.)
example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.
* Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences).
example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook.
35
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
* Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause.
example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
and We have seen the movie twice, and now we want to see it again.
not only . . . but also Not only did my brother break his leg, but he also bruised his rib.
also My friend speaks Korean and English. She also speaks Chinese.
moreover (more formal) Cheating is dishonest. Moreover, it hinders students from learning.
furthermore (more formal) Students should be on time. Furthermore, they must be prepared.
in addition (more formal) You must complete this essay by 5 p.m. In addition, you must do the exercises on page 47.
Giving Examples Examples
for example I have been to many countries. For example, I have been to Russia, Canada, Mexico, and
for instance Spain.
specifically He often eats strange foods. For instance, he once ate cow brains.
in particular I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
The first (second, another, etc.) I love fruit. In particular, I like bananas, pineapple, and berries.
example/reason is . . . My friend hates skiing for several reasons. The first reason is that she dislikes being cold.
Another reason is that she often falls.
Showing a Contrast Examples
36
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
on the other hand She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking.
otherwise Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status.
instead I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video.
in contrast (more formal) Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it.
Showing a Concession Examples
yet He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it.
nevertheless (more formal) I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them.
even so I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam.
however There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid
although injury.
even though Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
despite the fact that . . . Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
despite Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match.
Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match.
Showing a Similarity Examples
likewise (more formal) Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college.
similarly (more formal) Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for
in the same way properly.
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice.
Showing a Result Examples
37
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
in fact The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around.
actually James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa.
in other words He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time.
namely (more formal) The plan needed only two things to succeed—namely, time and money.
Giving an Alternative Examples
38
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
DON’T: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach.
In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually
true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that
something is true in general. As shown in the following examples:
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 o’clock.
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals.
Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person
singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with “s” or “es”, as in the following examples:
- I usually goaway at weekends.
- Sarah catchesthe early train.
More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and
predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true.
- A child acquires language during the critical period.
39
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer
acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman,
congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.
40
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to
that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence,
you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the
best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement.
"Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.)
o Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely.
o Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely.
o Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
o Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
o Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience.
o Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.
Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena.
When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:
A) Make it plural.
41
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
42
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently.
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated.
For example, in this section, the phrase “lexical cohesion” is repeated more than twice. In addition, repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions. This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence.
Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know.
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use more dramatic, expressive words, such
as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the more precise word over the more
general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in writing, and earn you higher marks.
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that ...". Of course, an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more details).").
43
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Correct examples:
"I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines."
"I, however, do not like grapefruits."
"I like oranges however they have been prepared."
If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in
some cases meaningless.
Rule 10: Avoid using ‘it’ and ‘this’ at the start of a sentence.
If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon. See examples below. Use 'It' as
a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'
44
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values.
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry,
45
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation.
Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats!
Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws.
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.
46
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
e.g. I know…; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that… Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)
Avoid:
Everyone knows that…
What goes around comes around…
Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source.
47
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Clichés are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing. They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing.
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in
48
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
My two cents.
Stubborn as a mule.
Bite your tongue.
Dyed in the wool.
Wrong side of the bed.
The calm before the storm.
e.g. In my school…
49
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang.
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is unacceptable in formal speaking
situations, and in written English.
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for
example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.
A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as
a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.
50
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or
simile has become a cliché, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.
Figures of speech are closely related to clichés. Like metaphors and similes, figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic
writing.
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey.
Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
51
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Euphemisms are good if they spare someone’s feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a
positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.
Do not write:
this paragraph shows…
The topic sentence is…
A quote that proves this is…
For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred people..."
Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out.
Ex: 15 students…. = Fifteen students …
Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write: "There were nine people..."
52
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc…
These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context.
In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader, because there are many
possible interpretations of "it" and "this".
Notes:
1. It is aceptable to use ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun.
Eg: “This character traits …”
2. It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject.
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years.
53
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations.
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the
sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses.
Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea is?" Write: "Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India."
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the writer goes on to answer the question in
the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You should not risk your point being
misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:
54
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 30: Write "most people”, instead of the incorrect "most of people"
Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.
Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'. Try to complete the sentence
properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example:
55
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think."
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface.
56
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence.
- In formal English one would use the word “whom” instead of the word “who” in certain situations.
Formal: Whom did they elect?
Informal: Who did they elect?
Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position?
Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?
57
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
58
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
59
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 40: Do not start sentences with ‘And’, ‘Also’, ‘So’, ‘Or’, ‘Even so’, and ‘But’
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them.
You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side.
Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the
beginninge of the sentence.
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay. (See Table 01, p2)
60
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with active voice. In the passive, the
object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action.
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples.
- In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence).
Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language. Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writer’s objectivity. This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said that…... he is said to) as shown in the following examples:
61
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time.
Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
- using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important factor.'
- using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most important factor.'
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much.
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader.
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language. To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language. Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below.
62
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
One could argue that the overall The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved.
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of
probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.
Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below.
1. Positive and assertive: Clearly, then, Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.
2. Suggesting likelihood: The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong student’s standard of written
Chinese is declining.
3. Expressing less likelihood: It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong student’s standard of written
Chinese is declining.
63
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
4. Negative: It is unlikely that Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.
64
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Language Analysis:
It is because is used in the following situations:
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place. (like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does.
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living.
Structure:
It is because + cause + ‘that’ + effect.
Grammar:
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + ‘that’+ effect (clause).
e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy.
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + ‘that’ + effect (clause).
e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.
65
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
These countries’ economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem.
I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you.
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones.
Structures:
Cause + ‘and’ + ‘it is because of this that’ + effect
Cause + ‘.’ + ‘It is because of this that’ + effect
3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because:
Examples:
- Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere.
- As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of
the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun
itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.
66
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This
is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times.
- How can it be that an “awesome” God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He
created me.
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy.
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural
and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road?
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.
67
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.
Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to be on time.
Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was important to be on time.
In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so don’t be too ambitious, particularly
when you’re starting to write.
68
Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
Rule 48: Use some sort of “hedging” language and to qualify statements that you make.
HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what you’re writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than
assertive, you should:
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose
- use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly.
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language.
- use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re saying.
- use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.
The first time you mention the author’s or someone’s name, use his/her entire name. For the rest of the essay,
use only his/her last name.
69