Hydraulic Structures II (CENG 4602) G4C Chapter Two

Chapter Two
River Morphology
2.1 Behaviors of River

River morphology is concerned with channel configuration and geometry, and with longitudinal
profile; it is time dependent and varies particularly with discharge, sediment input and
characteristics, and with bank material. River morphology can be substantially influenced by
engineering works, although this influence is not necessarily beneficial. Natural river channels
are straight (usually only very short reaches), meandering, i.e. consisting of a series of bends of
alternate curvature connected by short, straight reaches (crossings), or braided, i.e. the river
divides into several channels which continuously join and separate. The various stages of a
schematized river (de Vries, 1985) are shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Schematized Rivers

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The behavior of a river is mainly affected by the characteristics of the sediment-laden water
flowing in the river. The available energy of the flow is utilized in transporting the sediment load
as well as in overcoming the resistance due to the viscous action and the roughness of bed and
sides. On account of the interdependence of the factors affecting the flows, there is an inherent
tendency of these rivers to attain equilibrium. As such, whenever the equilibrium of a river is
disturbed by man-made structures or natural causes, the river tends to attain a new equilibrium
condition by scouring the bed or by depositing the sediment on the bed or by changing its own
plan-form. These changes can be either local or extended over a long reach. The behavior of a
river can, therefore, result in the variation of the shape of the river cross section and/or its plan-
form. Aggradation, degradation, scour and deposition of sediment around bends, and meandering
are a few examples of such changes.

2.1.1 Bends
With slight asymmetry in flow, an alluvial river tends to develop bends which are characterized
by scour and erosion of sediment on the concave (i.e., outer) bank and deposition of sediment on
the convex (i.e., inner) bank. Because of curved flow lines around the bend, the flow is subjected
to centrifugal forces and, hence, there is a transverse slope of the water surface due to the super
elevation of the water surface at the concave bank.
As a result, the bottom water (moving with relatively smaller velocity) moves from the concave
bank to the convex bank and also carries with it the bed material and deposits it near the convex
bank. To replace this bottom water, water dives in from the top at the concave bank and flows
along the bottom carrying sand and silt to the convex bank where it is deposited. This secondary
motion is primarily responsible for the erosion of the sediment on the concave bank and the
deposition of the sediment on the convex bank. The depth of flow in a river at the bend thus
becomes deeper at the concave bank (Figure 2.2).

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Figure 2.2: Movement of water at a bend

2.1.2 Meanders

The continued action of the secondary flow developed around river bends causes further erosion
and deposition of the sediment, respectively, on the concave and convex banks of the river.
Thus, the river bends become sharper and the river attains a meander pattern and becomes a
meandering river. Meander patterns are usually associated with wide flood plains comprising
easily erodible material. There have been several attempts to explain the mechanism of meander
development.
2.1.2.1 Mechanism of Meander Development
The development of meander is a highly complex phenomenon. Various investigators studied the
problem in the past and gave their own theories. Some of these theories are explained below.

1. Inglis Theory: according to Inglis, “Meandering is nature’s way of damping out excess
energy during a wide range of varying flow conditions, the pattern depending on the
grade of material, the relation between discharge and charge (sediment load), and the
rates of change of discharge and charge”. Thus, a channel having excess energy attempts
to increase its length by meandering thereby decreasing its slope.

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2. Frienkin’s Theory: according to Friedkins, meandering occurs because of local bank

erosion and consequent overloading and deposition by the river of the heavier sediments
which move along the bed. In other words the bank is locally scoured which results in the
excess silt discharge. This excess silt discharge is deposited in the same bank a little
further downstream because it cannot be carried by the river. Meandering occurs because
of this deposition. However Inglis does not agree with Friedkin. Inglis considers
Friedkins theory to be possible causes of secondary meandering. Inglis used model tests
to demonstrate this fact.
3. Joglekar Theory: Joglekar and other Indian engineers do not agree with the theory of
excess energy. According to them, the primary cause of meandering is excess of total
sediment load during floods. A river tends to build a steeper slope by depositing the
sediment on the bed when the sediment load is in excess of that required for equilibrium.
This increase in slope reduces the depth and increases the width of the river channel if the
banks do not resist erosion. Only a slight deviation from uniform axial flow is then
required to cause more flow towards one bank than the other. Additional flow is
immediately attracted towards the former bank, leading to shoaling along the latter,
accentuating the curvature of flow and finally producing meanders in its wake.
2.1.2.2 Mender Parameters and Their Relationship
Meanders can be classified as regular and irregular or, alternatively, as simple and compound.
Regular meanders are a series of bends of approximately the same curvature and frequency.
Irregular meanders are deformed in shape and may vary in amplitude and frequency. Simple
meanders have bends with a single radius of curvature. In compound meanders each bend is
made up of segments of different radii and varying angles.
The geometry of meanders can be described by the meander length ML and the width of the
meander belt MB (Figure 2.3), or by the sinuosity or the tortuosity. Many investigators have
attempted to relate the geometry of meanders with the dominant discharge. The dominant
discharge is defined as that hypothetical steady discharge which would produce the same result
(in terms of average channel dimensions) as the actual varying discharge. Inglis found that for
north Indian rivers, the dominant discharge was approximately the same as the bankful discharge
and recommended that the dominant discharge be taken as equal to half to two-thirds of the
maximum discharge.
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Figure 2.3: meandering Parameters

Inglis gave the following relationships for ML and MB (both in metres) in terms of the dominant
discharge (or the bankful discharge) Q (in m3/s) for rivers in flood plains:

Here, Ws (in metres) is the bankful width of river (Figure 2.3).

Agarwal et al. have re-examined the laboratory and field data for discharges ranging from
9 × 10–6 to104 m3/s and found that the following relationships proposed by them are better than
Inglis’ relationships:

The sinuosity of a river is defined as the ratio of talweg length to the valley length. Joglekar
defines tortuosity as,

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It should be noted that the meandering pattern of alluvial rivers is commonly encountered in
alluvial stream. River training methods are generally adopted for meandering rivers. It may also
be noted that the meander pattern is not stationary and moves slowly in the downstream
direction.
2.1.3 Cutoffs

Cutoffs can be defined as a process by which an alluvial river flowing along curves or bends
abandons a particular bend and establishes its main flow along a comparatively straighter and
shorter channel. During the development of meanders, there is always a lateral movement of the
meanders due to their gradual lengthening. Increased frictional losses and bank resistance tend to
stop this lateral movement. When the bend and the bank resistance become too large for
continued stretching of the loop, the flow finds it easier to cut across the neck than to flow along
the loop (Figure 2.4). This results in a cutoff. Cutoff is, thus, a natural way of counterbalancing
the effect of the ever-increasing length of a river course due to the development of meanders.
Usually, a river has shallow side channels within the neck of the meander loop.
These side channels may either be part of the main channel of an earlier river course or are
formed by floods spilling over the banks of the river channel. Cutoffs can develop along these
shallow side channels. Alternatively, cutoff may be artificially induced for some other purpose.
The rapidity with which a cutoff channel develops depends on local conditions.

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Figure 2.4: A river bend

Whenever a river succeeds in establishing a cutoff, there follows a period of none equilibrium for
long distances upstream and downstream of the newly-formed channel. Banks start caving in and
new channels are formed while some other channels get silted up. Only after a couple of floods,
the equilibrium is, once again, established.
Sometimes it is advantageous to make a controlled artificial cutoff to avoid the chaotic or non-
equilibrium conditions when a natural cutoff develops. An artificial cutoff reduces flood levels
and flood periods. Artificial cutoffs have been used to shorten the travel distance and increased
ease of maneuverings of boats along the bend during navigation. In such situations, use of
training measures like groynes and revetment on banks usually becomes necessary to prevent
bank erosion and arrest the natural tendency of the river to meander.
For inducting an artificial cutoff, a suitable pilot cut (or pilot channel) of small cross section is
initially made so as to carry 8 to 10 per cent of the flood discharge. The pilot channel is then
allowed to develop by itself and sometimes such gradual development is assisted by dredging.

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Pickle has made the following recommendations for design and execution of artificial cutoffs:
i. The pilot channel should be tangential to the main direction of river flow approaching
and leaving the cutoff.
ii. The pilot channel is usually made on a mild curve, the curvature being less than the
dominant curvature of the river itself.
iii. Entrance to the pilot channel is made bell-mouthed. Such transition at the exit is
considered unnecessary because the cut develops first at the lower end and works
progressively upstream.
iv. The cut, when unlikely to develop because of either coarseness of the material or low
shear stress, should be excavated to average river cross-section.
v. The width of the pilot cut is unimportant as the cut ultimately widens due to scouring.
Hence, in practice, the width is determined by consideration of the type and size of the
dredging equipment used.
vi. When a series of cutoffs is to be made, the work should progress from the downstream to
upstream.

2.1.4 Delta Formation

As a river approaches the sea, it dumps its sediment load into it and the river mouth extends
towards the sea on account of the sediment deposition. This lengthening of the river further
reduces the already small slope of the river at its mouth. Thus, the sediment transporting capacity
of the river decreases and the river deposits the sediment on the bed and banks of the river
channel raising the river stage. In general, the rise in the river stage results in spilling over the
banks and cutting through the banks if they are not sufficiently resistant. The spilled water may
form branch channels or spill channels which, after their full development, start behaving like the
parent river. As a result, the sediment transport capacity decreases considerably and the river bed
starts rising resulting in the formation of delta.

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2.1.5 Aggradation

When the sediment load in a river is in excess of its sediment-transporting capacity, the excess
sediment gets deposited on the river bed. Therefore, the sediment load entering a given reach is
greater than the sediment load leaving the reach during the same time. This causes a rise in the
bed level (and, hence, the flood level) and increase in the bed slope with time. The phenomenon
itself is known as aggradation. Aggradation usually occurs because of an increase in the
sediment load at a section without change in discharge and sediment size. Aggradation occurs
most commonly upstream of a reservoir. Because of the construction of a dam, the sediment-
transporting capacity of the river upstream of the reservoir is reduced. The coarser sediment
deposits farther away from the dam while the finer sediment is deposited closer to the dam.
Aggradation can also occur when a tributary brings into the main river sediment load in excess of
the river’s sediment-carrying capacity. Also, when rivers are divided into two or more branches,
as in the case of deltaic rivers, it may not be possible for every branch to maintain the state of
equilibrium in respect of sediment flow, and, hence, aggradation may result. If an offtaking canal
takes relatively sediment-free water, it would result in aggradation in the main river downstream
of the offtake point.

2.1.6 Degradation

When the amount of sediment load being transported by a river is less than the sediment
transporting capacity of the river, the excess sediment needed to satisfy the capacity of the river
will be eroded from the erodible bed, thereby lowering the bed. If the banks are also erodible,
widening of the river would also result. This phenomenon of erosion of bed and banks is known
as degradation. Degradation occurs in streams downstream of a reservoir. The reservoir stores a
large percentage of the sediment load carried by the river. The flow downstream of the reservoir
is relatively free of sediment. Therefore, cause degradation resulting in lowering of the bed
levels.

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If degradation has occurred in a river near its confluence with a tributary, the tributary slope
increases. Thus the sediment-transporting capacity of the tributary increases near the confluence,
resulting in degradation near the confluence and this effect extends further upstream and also to
other sub-tributaries. Degradation can also occur if the water discharge in a river is increased
without increase in sediment load or sediment size. If the sediment-free waste water of an
irrigation project is added to a river, it may result in degradation in the river.
Downstream of a spillway, a hydraulic jump is usually formed to dissipate the excess energy.
Due to lowering of the bed and water levels on account of degradation, jump may shift
downstream of the apron and endanger its safety. Dams on pervious foundations are subjected to
uplift pressure which depends on the effective head which is equal to the difference between the
reservoir and tail-water levels. The lowering of the tail-water level due to degradation increases
the effective head and, hence, the uplift pressure on the dam. Lowering of water level at the
intakes on account of degradation may make the diversion of water for irrigation more difficult.
Lowering of bed in navigable rivers due to degradation may, at times, make the navigation locks
inoperative.
Degradation can sometimes be beneficial too. Because of lowering of tail-water levels, the
effective head increases. This would cause an increase in hydro-electric power generation.
Degradation increases the river capacity to carry the flood flow. This lowers the high flood levels
of a river. Lowering of the water level in a river on account of degradation lowers the ground
water table in the adjoining areas.

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2.2 Meandering and Braided Streams

Rivers are responsible for most sediment transport from mountains to lowlands and the oceans.
They do the most to even out the topography that tectonic processes create. Rivers consist of a
channel, bank and overbank or flood plain deposits. Most of the sediment and many river
characteristics are controlled by the highest common flow speeds.
River Types:
1. Straight (rare, except for ones humans have modified)
2. Meandering (high sinuosity)
3. Braided (many branches within a channel)
4. Anastomosing (rivers with branching and merging channels)

The form of the river is controlled by the gradient of the river bed (steep = braided, gently
dipping = meandering), local vegetation that stabilizes banks and limits the number of channels,
and sediment grain size, particularly the ratio of suspended versus bed load sediment. A high bed
load gives rise to abundant bars, which promotes formation of braided rivers.

2.2.1 Meandering Rivers

Meandering rivers have a low gradient and thus slower flow, and often have a high proportion of
suspended sediment relative to the amount of bed load. A meandering river channel has curves
that meander back and forth on a slightly dipping plain. The flow speed in the channel varies
with the geometry of the curves. Water has to travel faster on the outside of bends than on the
insides of bends. We know from the relationships between Reynolds number and bed shear stress
that higher flow speeds mean that more and coarser sediment can be transported at higher flow
speeds. Thus, you should predict that there is more erosion on the outsides of bends, the
sediment moving near the outsides of bends and in the deepest parts should include the coarsest
sediment available, and the insides of bends will be were sediment is accumulating and this
sediment will be finer grained. If we look at a channel in cross section, it is asymmetric,
representing the sites of erosion and deposition. Variation in flow speed also produces different
sedimentary structures. Upper planar lamination and dune cross stratification are common where

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Re is highest, and ripple cross lamination is common where Re is lower.

The main parts of the channel include eroding bank, the Talweg (the deepest point of the flow)
and the point bar (on the inside of the bend where most sediment is accumulating). As the
channel migrates due to erosion and deposition, a distinctive suite of sedimentary structures
accumulate. The lowest part is coarser and has upper planar lamination or dune cross
stratification. This is overlain by finer sediment with current ripple lamination. As meandering
rivers migrate, the meanders tend to increase. Eventually, the channel forms almost a circle, and
the meander gets cut off, often during a flood. This straightens the channel temporarily and
produces an ox bow lake in the abandoned meander. The lake accumulates mud and organic
matter.

Levees and Flood Plains - When a river floods, it goes from a confined flow in the channel
which is very rapid to a widespread flow across the flood plain. It slows down very quickly.
Thus, it cannot transport as much sediment as it carries in the channel as soon as the water leaves
its banks. Thus, finer sands that may be in suspension during a flood are transported as bed load
or rapidly deposited once the river tops its banks. This produces levees. The finer silts and
especially clays remain in suspension much longer and settle out as the flood waters dry up.

Over time, the levees build up and provide a higher bank for the channel than the flood planes.
Thus, the channel bottom can aggrade (fill in) until the bottom of the channel is as high or higher
than the flood plain. When the next flood comes along, the river avulses and does not go back
into its old channel which is higher than a new one on the flood plane. This results in the
downstream part of the channel being completely abandoned.

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Braided Rivers
A number of definitions have been suggested to describe braided rivers. Most focus on the
physical characteristics associated with multiple surface-flowing channels. For example:
‘Braided rivers are characterized by having a number of alluvial channels with bars and islands
between meeting and dividing again, and presenting from the air the intertwining effect of a
braid.’ (Lane 1957).
‘A braided river is one which flows in two or more channels around alluvial islands.’ (Leopold
and Wolman 1957).’
Braided rivers develop when the proportion of bed load sediment is high, which produces
abundant bed forms and promotes the development of bars, and thus, the braided character of the
river. The sediment is commonly coarse, which requires fast flow and steep gradients for the
sediment to be transported.

Many researchers proposed two primary controlling variables on channel pattern: discharge and
slope for which two rules are apparent. First, for a given discharge and bed material, there are
threshold slopes between which channels will braid, and second, that the critical slope decreases
with increasing discharge or decreasing sediment size. Both slope and bed material change
naturally and predictably down the length of a river. In general, rivers are steeper in their
headwaters and bed materials are coarser; however, as rivers flow away from their headwaters,
slope decreases and bed materials become finer. Consequently, channel form changes in a fairly
predictable fashion downstream. Nevertheless, smaller-scale changes in slope and bed material,
in conjunction with temporally variable changes in discharge, mean that braiding, and other
channel patterns, can occur irregularly along the length of the river. A period of time with high
discharges may produce a distinctly braided channel pattern, whereas a period of climatic
stability, over months or even years, may produce a single, straight channel.

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Differences between braided and meandering river deposits:

1. Braided river deposits are commonly coarser grained
2. Meandering rivers contain abundant suspended sediment, which is deposited in ox bow lakes
and on flood plains.
3. Over bank deposits are better developed and finer grained in meandering river systems.
4. Bar migration is much more regular in direction in meandering rivers because there is a well
defined, single thalweg towards which the bars migrate. In contrast, braided river bar migration
occurs in multiple directions. Thus, meandering rivers produce a more regular geometry of
tabular cross bedding, when preserved.

Meandering Vs Braided :

Meandering Braided
• Series of curves of • Numerous dividing and
approximately same shape reuniting channels with
• Deep, narrow channels intervening bars or islands
and banks • Braided river channels tend
• Banks and channels are to be wide and shallow
fairly resistant to erosion • Braided river banks are easily
• Meandering rivers tend to eroded
only have one primary • One or more channels are
channel usually dominant in large
• Less steep gradient braided rivers
• Steeper gradient

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Meandering Vs Braided ………….
Meandering
• Sediment load is primarily
carried in suspended load
• The flow tends to be more
turbulent
• Well developed floodplains
• Associated with more finer
materials, like clay and silt
• Meandering channels are the
dominant pattern today
• Meandering rivers tend to
have stable discharge levels
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G4C Chapter Two
Braided
• Sediment load is primarily
carried in bed load
• Slower, less turbulent flow
• Floodplains are not as well
developed
• Associated with coarser
materials , like gravel
• Far fewer braided channels
in today’s world
• Braided rivers discharge
levels can vary a lot
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