Developmental psychology is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth,

change and consistency though the lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at how
thinking, feeling, and behavior change throughout a person’s life.

A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon development during
childhood, as this is the period during an individual's lifespan when the most change
occurs.

Developmental psychologists study a wide range of theoretical areas, such as

biological, social, emotion, and cognitive processes. Empirical research in this area
tends to be dominated by psychologists from Western cultures such as North American
and Europe, although during the 1980s Japanese researchers began making a valid
contribution to the field.

The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to optimize
development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980). To describe development it is necessary
to focus both on typical patterns of change (normative development) and on individual
variations in patterns of change (i.e. idiographic development). Although there are
typical pathways of development that most people will follow, no two persons are
exactly alike.

Developmental psychologists must also seek to explain the changes they have
observed in relation to normative processes and individual differences. Although, it is
often easier to describe development than to explain how it occurs.

Finally, developmental psychologists hope to optimise development, and apply their

theories to help people in practical situations (e.g. help parents develop secure
attachments with their children).

Developmental Questions

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Think about how children become adults. Is there a predictable pattern they follow
regarding thought and language and social development? Do children go through
gradual changes or are they abrupt changes?

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. The
continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking,
talking or acting much the same way as they get taller.

The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes that
produce different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages. Biological
changes provide the potential for these changes.

We often hear people taking about children going through “stages” in life (i.e. “sensori-
motor stage.”). These are called developmental stages-periods of life initiated by distinct
transitions in physical or psychological functioning.

Psychologists of the discontinuity view believe that people go through the same stages,
in the same order, but not necessarily at the same rate.

Nature vs. Nurture

When trying to explain development, it is important to consider the relative contribution

of both nature and nurture. Developmental psychology seeks to answer two big
questions about heredity and environment:

How much weight does each contribute?

How do nature and nurture interact?

Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. One of
the reasons why the development of human beings is so similar is because our
common specifies heredity (DNA) guides all of us through many of the same
developmental changes at about the same points in our lives. Nurture refers to the
impact of the environment, which involves the process of learning through experiences.

There are two effective ways to study nature-nurture.

Twin studies: Identical twins have the same genotype, and fraternal twins have an
average of 50% of their genes in common.

Adoption studies: Similarities with the biological family support nature, while
similarities with the adoptive family support nurture.
Stability vs. Change

Stability implies personality traits present during present during infancy endure
throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are
modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.

This capacity for change is called plasticity. For example, Rutter (1981) discovered than
somber babies living in understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and
affectionate when placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes.

Historical Origins

Developmental psychology as a discipline did not exist until after the industrial
revolution when the need for an educated workforce led to the social construction of
childhood as a distinct stage in a person's life.

The notion of childhood originates in the Western world and this is why the early
research derives from this location. Initially developmental psychologists were
interested in studying the mind of the child so that education and learning could be more
effective.

Developmental changes during adulthood is an even more recent area of study. This is
mainly due to advances in medical science, enabling people to live to an old age.

Charles Darwin is credited with conducting the first systematic study of developmental
psychology. In 1877 he published a short paper detailing the development of innate
forms of communication based on scientific observations of his infant son, Doddy.

However, the emergence of developmental psychology as a specific discipline can be

traced back to 1882 when Wilhelm Preyer (a German physiologist) published a book
entitled The Mind of the Child. In the book Preyer describes the development of his own
daughter from birth to two and a half years. Importantly, Preyer used rigorous scientific
procedure throughout studying the many abilities of his daughter.

In 1888 Preyer's publication was translated into English, by which time developmental
psychology as a discipline was fully established with a further 47 empirical studies from
Europe, North America and Britain also published to facilitate the dissemination of
knowledge in the field.

During the 1900s three key figures have dominated the field with their extensive
theories of human development, namely Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-
1934) and John Bowlby (1907-1990). Indeed, much of the current research continues to
be influenced by these three theorists.

Psychological development, the development of human beings’ cognitive, emotional,

intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of the life span, from
infancy through old age. It is the subject matter of the discipline known as
developmental psychology. Child psychology was the traditional focus of research, but
since the mid-20th century much has been learned about infancy and adulthood as well.
A brief treatment of psychological development follows. For full treatment, see human
behaviour.

Infancy

Infancy is the period between birth and the acquisition of language one to two years
later. Besides a set of inherited reflexes that help them obtain nourishment and react to
danger, newborns are equipped with a predilection for certain visual patterns, including
that of the human face, and for certain sounds, including that of the human voice. Within
a few months they are able to identify their mother by sight, and they show a striking
sensitivity to the tones, rhythmic flow, and individual sounds that make up human
speech. Even young infants are capable of complex perceptual judgments involving
distance, shape, direction, and depth, and they are soon able to organize their
experience by creating categories for objects and events (e.g., people, furniture, food,
animals) in the same way older people do.

Infants make rapid advances in both recognition and recall memory, and this in turn
increases their ability to understand and anticipate events in their environment. A
fundamental advance at this time is the recognition of object permanence—i.e., the
awareness that external objects exist independently of the infant’s perception of them.
The infant’s physical interactions with his environment progress from simple
uncoordinated reflex movements to more coordinated actions that are intentionally
repeated because they are interesting or because they can be used to obtain an
external goal. About 18 months of age, the child starts trying to solve physical problems
by mentally imagining certain events and outcomes rather than through simple trial-and-
error experimentation.

Three-month-old infants already display behavioral reactions suggestive of such

emotional states as surprise, distress, relaxation, and excitement. New emotional
states, including anger, sadness, and fear, all appear by the first year. Infants’ emotional
life is centred on the attachments they form toward the mother or other primary
caregiver, and through these mutual interactions infants learn to love, trust, and depend
on other human beings. Babies begin to smile at other people beginning about two
months, and by six months they have developed an attachment to their mother or other
caregiver. These attachments form the basis for healthy emotional and social
development throughout childhood.

Childhood

The second major phase in human development, childhood, extends from one or two
years of age until the onset of adolescence at age 12 or 13. The early years of
childhood are marked by enormous strides in the understanding and use of language.
Children begin to comprehend words some months before they themselves actually
speak. The average infant speaks his first words by 12–14 months, and by the 18th
month he has a speaking vocabulary of about 50 words. The child begins to use two-
and then three-word combinations and progresses from simple noun-verb combinations
to more grammatically complex sequences, using conjunctions, prepositions, articles,
and tenses with growing fluency and accuracy. By the fourth year most children can
speak in adultlike sentences and have begun to master the more complex rules of
grammar and meaning.

In their cognitive abilities, children make a transition from relying solely on concrete,
tangible reality to performing logical operations on abstract and symbolic material. Even
a two-year-old child behaves as though the external world is a permanent place,
independent of his perceptions; and he exhibits experimental or goal-directed behaviour
that may be creatively and spontaneously adapted for new purposes. During the period
from two to seven years, the child begins to manipulate the environment by means of
symbolic thought and language; he becomes capable of solving new types of logical
problems and begins to use mental operations that are flexible and fully reversible in
thought. Between the ages of 7 and 12, the beginnings of logic appear in the form of
classifications of ideas, an understanding of time and number, and a greater
appreciation of seriation and other hierarchical relationships.

Emotionally, children develop in the direction of greater self-awareness—i.e.,

awareness of their own emotional states, characteristics, and potential for action—and
they become increasingly able to discern and interpret the emotions of other people as
well. This contributes to empathy, or the ability to appreciate the feelings and
perceptions of others and understand their point of view. These new abilities contribute
to the child’s moral development, which typically begins in early childhood as concern
over and avoidance of acts that attract pain and punishment and progresses to a more
general regulation of conduct so as to maintain parental regard and approval. A further
shift in moral reasoning to one based on the avoidance of internal guilt and self-
recrimination marks the passage from childhood and adolescence to adulthood. All of
these emotional advances enhance the child’s social skills and functioning.

Adolescence

Physically, adolescence begins with the onset of puberty at 12 or 13 and culminates at

age 19 or 20 in adulthood. Intellectually, adolescence is the period when the individual
becomes able to systematically formulate hypotheses or propositions, test them, and
make rational evaluations. The formal thinking of adolescents and adults tends to be
self-consciously deductive, rational, and systematic. Emotionally, adolescence is the
time when the individual learns to control and direct his sex urges and begins to
establish his own sexual role and relationships. The second decade of life is also a time
when the individual lessens his emotional (if not physical) dependence on his parents
and develops a mature set of values and responsible self-direction. Physical separation
and the establishment of material independence from parents mark the adolescent’s
transition to adulthood.

Adulthood

Adulthood is a period of optimum mental functioning when the individual’s intellectual,

emotional, and social capabilities are at their peak to meet the demands of career,
marriage, and children. Some psychologists delineate various periods and transitions in
early to middle adulthood that involve crises or reassessments of one’s life and result in
decisions regarding new commitments or goals. During the middle 30s people develop
a sense of time limitation, and previous behaviour patterns or beliefs may be given up in
favour of new ones.

Middle age is a period of adjustment between the potentialities of the past and the
limitations of the future. An emotional rebellion has been observed in some persons,
sometimes referred to as a mid-life crisis, engendered by the recognition that less time
remains to be lived than has been lived already. In women, dramatic shifts in hormone
production lead to the onset of menopause. Often women whose children have grown
or have left home experience the “empty-nest syndrome”—feeling unwanted or
unneeded. During late middle age individuals become more aware of ill health and thus
may consciously or unconsciously alter the patterns of their lives. Individuals accept the
limits of their accomplishments and either take satisfaction in them or despair and
become anxious over unobtained objectives. During old age sensory and perceptual
skills, muscular strength, and memory tend to diminish, though intelligence does not.
These changes, together with retirement from active employment, tend to make the
elderly more dependent on their children or other younger people, both emotionally and
physically.

What Is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people

grow and change over the course of a lifetime. Those who specialize in this field are not
just concerned with the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at
the social, emotional, and cognitive development that occurs throughout life.
Some of the many issues that developmental psychologists may help patients deal with
include:

 motor skill development

 language acquisition
 emotional development
 the emergence of self-awareness and self-concept
 cognitive development during childhood and throughout life
 social and cultural influences on child development
 personality development
 moral reasoning
 developmental challenges and learning disabilities

These professionals spend a great deal of time investigating and observing how these
processes occur under normal circumstances, but they are also interested in learning
about things that can disrupt developmental processes.

By better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental
psychologists can help people live up to their full potential. Understanding the course of
normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on is important,
because untreated developmental problems may lead to difficulties with depression, low
self-esteem, frustration, and low achievement in school.

Developmental Psychology Theories

Developmental psychologists often utilize a number of theories to think about different

aspects of human development. For example, a psychologist assessing intellectual
development in a child might consider Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which
outlined the key stages that children go through as they learn. A psychologist working
with a child might also want to consider how the child's relationships with caregivers
influences his or her behaviors, and so turn to Bowlby's theory of attachment.
Psychologists are also interested in looking at how social relationships influence the
development of both children and adults. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
and Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural development are two popular theoretical
frameworks that address the social influences on the developmental process. Each
approach tends to stress different aspects of development such as mental, social, or
parental influences on how children grow and progress.

When You (or Your Child) Might Need a Developmental Psychologist

While development tends to follow a fairly predictable pattern, there are times when
things might go off course. Parents often focus on what are known as developmental
milestones, which represent abilities that most children tend to display by a certain point
in development. These typically focus on one of four different areas: physical, cognitive,
social/emotional, and communication. For example, walking is one physical milestone
that most children achieve sometime between the ages of 9 and 15 months. If a child is
not walking or attempting to walk by 16 to 18 months, parents might consider consulting
with their family physician to determine if a developmental issue might be present.

While all children develop at different rates, when a child fails to meet certain milestones
by a certain age, there may be cause for concern. By being aware of these milestones,
parents can seek assistance and healthcare professionals can offer interventions that
can help kids overcome developmental delays.

These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay might

be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns
associated with old age such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional
difficulties, or degenerative brain disorders.

Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who
may be facing developmental issues or problems related to aging.
Concerns at Different Stages of Development

As you might imagine, developmental psychologists often break down development

according to various phases of life. Each of these periods of development represents a
time when different milestones are typically achieved. People may face particular
challenges at each point, and developmental psychologists can often help people who
might be struggling with problems to get back on track.

Prenatal: The prenatal period is of interest to developmental psychologists who seek to

understand how the earliest influences on development can impact later growth during
childhood. Psychologists may look at how primary reflexes emerge before birth, how
fetuses respond to stimuli in the womb, and the sensations and perceptions that fetuses
are capable of detecting prior to birth. Developmental psychologists may also look at
potential problems such as Down syndrome, maternal drug use, and inherited diseases
that might have an impact on the course of future development.

Early Childhood: The period from infancy through early childhood is a time of
remarkable growth and change. Developmental psychologists look at things such as the
physical, cognitive, and emotional growth that takes place during this critical period of
development. In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems
at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential.
Parents and healthcare experts are often on the lookout to ensure that kids are growing
properly, receiving adequate nutrition, and achieving cognitive milestones appropriate
for their age.

Middle Childhood: This period of development is marked by both physical maturation

and increased importance of social influences as children make their way through
elementary school. Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they form friendships,
gain competency through schoolwork, and continue to build their unique sense of self.
Parents may seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to help kids deal with
potential problems that might arise at this age including social, emotional, and mental
health issues.

Adolescence: The teenage years are often the subject of considerable interest as
children experience the psychological turmoil and transition that often accompanies this
period of development. Psychologists such as Erik Erikson were especially interested in
looking at how navigating this period leads to identity formation. At this age, kids often
test limits and explore new identities as they explore the question of who they are and
who they want to be. Developmental psychologists can help support teens as they deal
with some of the challenging issues unique to the adolescent period including puberty,
emotional turmoil, and social pressure.

Early Adulthood: This period of life is often marked by forming and maintaining
relationships. Forming bonds, intimacy, close friendships, and starting a family are often
critical milestones during early adulthood. Those who can build and sustain such
relationships tend to experience connectedness and social support while those who
struggle with such relationships may be left feeling alienated and lonely. People facing
such issues might seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist in order to build
healthier relationships and combat emotional difficulties.

Middle Adulthood: This stage of life tends to center on developing a sense of purpose
and contributing to society. Erikson described this as the conflict between generativity
and stagnation. Those who engage in the world, contribute things that will outlast them,
and leave a mark on the next generation emerge with a sense of purpose. Activities
such as careers, families, group memberships, and community involvement are all
things that can contribute to this feeling of generativity.

Old Age: The senior years are often viewed as a period of poor health, yet many older
adults are capable of remaining active and busy well into their 80s and 90s. Increased
health concerns mark this period of development, and some individuals may experience
mental declines related to dementia. Erikson also viewed the elder years as a time of
reflection back on life. Those who are able to look back and see a life well lived emerge
with a sense of wisdom and readiness to face the end of their lives, while those who
look back with regret may be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Developmental
psychologists may work with elderly patients to help them cope with issues related to
the aging process.