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The collected papers 143
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Follow-up and Policy Studies. Stockholm, Swedish National Board of Un-
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MORRIS, J. H.; SATYANARAYANAN, M.; CONNER, M. H.; HOWARD, J. H.;
ROSENTHAL, D. S. H.; SMITH, F. D. Andrew. 1986. A Distributed Per-
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PIAGET, J. 1952. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. New York, Inter-
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SHERWOOD, B. A. 1986. Workstations at Carnegie Mellon. Proceedings of the
Fall Joint Computer Conference, November 2-6, 1986, Dallas, Texas,
pp. 14-17. Washington, D.e., IEEE Computer Society Press.
SHIPP, W. S. The Scholar's Workstation Project at Brown University. Brown-
Sweden Joint Research Project on Computing in Educational Environments.
Follow-up and Policy Studies. Stockholm, Swedish National Board of
Universities and Colleges, R&D Unit. (Working Report, 4.)
7.2 Project SHARE: inter-university
teaching by satellite
Michael Foley
Summary
Against the background of a wide range of problems and a number of

solutions reported from developing countries this paper describes an
experimental project in inter-institutional support using satellite com-
munications technology. Teaching at a distance can overcome some of the
problems associated with shortages of trained staff, lack of resources,
inadequate funding and academic isolation. Project SHARE (Satellites
for Health and Rural Education), initiated and sponsored by the Interna-
tional Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) and the
International Institute of Communications (/lC) aims to explore the
possibilities of using communications satellites in distance learning. One
project within the SHARE programme is a course in water-resource
management given by the Department of Civil Engineering of University
College Dublin (UCD) to senior and postgraduate students ofthe Univer-
sity of Jordan in Amman.
Introduction
The difficulties confronting innovation in teaching in developing coun-

tries is illustrated well by the situation in Zambia (Sakala, 1987) which
demonstrated that conditions were not favourable to the adoption of
innovative methods. Due to limited funding there are inadequate facili-
ties for teaching and research and low pay for staff. This in turn leads
to a rapid staff turnover. Discussion of teaching methodology takes a
low priority in an atmosphere where the curriculum is under constant
review to match the changing conditions in local industry. A severe lack
of adequate research tools in the universities has made them unproduct-
ive in terms of developing technology. Hence local industry sees no
reason to invest in them, and so the cycle goes on.
Michael Foley is the Director of the Audio Visual Centre at University College Dublin,
Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
In the Syrian Arab Republic (Dasher, 1987) there have been many
changes made since 1958 in engineering education inspired by its
neighbouring Arab countries and also by the French system. In
1986/87 a new curriculum was put into effect, including the addition
of a foreign language, social science, computer science, and manage-
ment science. The major problem has been that of high student
numbers with a concomitant shortage of staff, laboratories and books.
The low level of foreign-language skills on the part of the students
meant that they had to rely on books either written or translated by
their own professors. To improve this situation a number of recom-
mendations are suggested by Dagher (1987). Any texts written or
translated by local professors must be submitted to a commission for
ratification. Courses must be constantly reviewed to ensure that they
cover the country's needs. Professors should be allowed to add new
subjects to their courses. Practical teaching must get the best use out
of the laboratories which should have audio-visual facilities to com-
pensate for the lack of equipment. Practical work is to be encouraged
during the summer months. More books and periodicals should be
available in the libraries. The teaching staff should be encouraged to
initiate more research, take doctoral courses, and attend international
conferences.
Another problem associated with engineering education is the vary-
ing performance levels of students at entry to higher education, as was
illustrated in a case-study from Nigeria (Maiyaki, 1987). In many cases
remedial courses can bridge the education gap between students and in
the Nigerian case remedial students scored significantly higher than
direct-entry students. In India (Bharadwaj, 1987), great stress is laid on
the quality of students being admitted to engineering courses and also
on the erudition of the professors in charge. Again, links with industry
and the relevance of subject matter is given some priority.
Similar problems to the above are experienced in Guyana (Sankies,
1987), Senegal (Guisse, 1987) and Morocco (Baddouri, 1987). In
Morocco much success has been achieved by the incorporation of
computer-assisted learning into the teaching methodologies.
An experiment in resource sharing
Project SHARE (Satellites for Health and Rural Education) was ini-
tiated in January 1985. It was sponsored jointly by the International
Institute of Communications (IIC) and the International Telecom-
munications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). The IIC acts as an
international forum for telecommunications and INTELSAT is the
global telecommunications operator. The project is a special pro-
gramme which provides free use of spare capacity on INTELSAT's
146 Innovative methods in technological education
satellite network to foster telecommunications development in rural

and remote areas. Its aims are primarily to assist in long-distance health
care and education.
The offer to use the satellite network for educational purposes was
made through the national signatories to INTELSAT, which in Ire-
land's case is Telecom Eireann. After a slow start to the project the
number of applications from around the world grew and it was agreed
by INTELSAT and IIC that the project should be extended until
the end of 1987.
Examples of completed or current projects include the following:
The Women's Institute for Freedom of the Press and Women's Issues in
Developing Nations-'Dateline Nairobi'. This was a two videocon-
ference project broadcast from the Kenyatta Centre in Nairobi on
17 and 24 July 1985. Delegates from developed and developing
countries exchanged views on their mutual problems and concerns.
Tele-education in the People's Republic of China- A TV University'.
The project commenced in August 1985 and it provided nationwide
broadcasts of advanced academic courses for six hours each day to
forty-five locations. A second phase of the project expanded the
original network to fifty-three locations. This project proved so
successful that the Chinese Government purchased two transponders
from INTELSAT with the intention of continuing the program
beyond Project SHARE.
American Society of Microhiology in Africa-Applications of Micro-
hiology to Aji"ican Nations'. Delegates from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,
Nigeria and the United Republic of Tanzania participated in the two,
two-hour lectures broadcast on 10 January and 14 March 1985.
Other projects involved: broadcasts from the Miami Children's Hos-
pital to twenty cities in South America; an audio-conferencing link
between sites in Kenya, Zambia and the Health Science Centre in
St John's, Newfoundland, Canada; soul-to-soul teleconferencing be-
tween New York and Nigeria; ENTEL Peru using its Domestic System
for Education; KIDSNET, the International Database on Children's
Programming (Project SHARE, 1986). To date forty-eight countries
have participated in Project SHARE.
University College Dublin and Project SHARE
The Dublin-Jordan proposal was one of four chosen for the initial
phase of Project SHARE. The proposal was made by HEDCO (Higher
Education for Development Co-operation), a body funded from the
Department of Foreign Affairs. Its bilateral aid programme brief is to
co-ordinate higher-education projects in developing countries. The
project has received the assistance and co-operation of Unesco.
HEDCO was the agency which, by using the expertise of academics

and technicians in Irish universities and especially University College
Dublin (UCD), had set up the Faculty of Engineering and Technology
at the University of Jordan in Amman. Many of the staff from the
School of Engineering and Architecture in UCD had spent some time
in Jordan designing courses and buildings, recruiting staff and also
giving courses. The Audio Visual Centre in UCD had also trained some
Jordanian staff both in Dublin and Jordan. It was natural, then, that
shortly after the completion of that project, a distance-learning aspect
should be added as a follow-up. So it was proposed that the Depart-
ment of Civil Engineering in UCD would design and present a series
of lectures on water management to senior undergraduate and post-
graduate students of engineering in Jordan. These lectures would be
televised by the Audio Visual Centre and broadcast live each week to
Jordan. The live element was very important because it would provide
the possibility for interaction between teachers and learners. While
there would be a satellite sound-and-vision link from Dublin to Jordan,
there would be a terrestrial sound link (by telephone) back from
Jordan to Dublin, so enabling the students in Jordan to quiz the
lecturers and to present opinions.
The duration of the project was to be sixteen weeks, one lecture per
week. The format for each hour-and-a-quarter broadcast would consist
of a forty-five-minute illustrated lecture given by a member of the
Department of Civil Engineering, followed by a half-hour question-
and-discussion period between the participants in Jordan and a panel
of experts in the studio in Dublin. Four lecturers delivered the series
and the experts (generally three for each broadcast) included practising
engineers in Dublin. A further four topics were covered in subsequent
broadcasts to Jordan. The subjects were: education for management,
computers in mechanical engineering, a case-study in architecture and
urban renewal, and surgical techniques in ophthalmology. This last
lecture was broadcast to a medical conference in Jordan.
The inaugural lecture was given on Tuesday, 4 February 1986. On
this first transmission H.M. King Hussein of Jordan, Dr Patrick Mas-
terson, President of University College Dublin, and Dr Abdul Majali,
President of the University of Jordan, each made an appearance and
inaugurated the series. Professor John Kelly, Registrar of UCD and
Chairman of HEDCO, acted as chairman for the broadcasts.
Signal path
While the satellite transponder time was supplied free of charge by

INTELSAT, both the link to the satellite and the terrestrial sound link
were provided by Telecom Eireann, also free of charge. This demanded
quite an expenditure on their part as it necessitated a microwave link
through Belfast in Northern Ireland to the British Telecom earth
station at Madley outside London. This link cost Telecom Eireann
1£30,000 for the twenty broadcasts. The outlay was unavoidable be-
cause there was no available uplink in Ireland to the Indian Ocean
Region Satellite (JOR Sat V). The 'footprint' of this satellite, i.e. the
area on the earth that it covers, stretches from Europe across the Soviet
Union to China, down to Western Australia over to Africa and includes
all the countries within that ellipse. Over forty countries in that region
had the capability of receiving the broadcasts but Jordan was the
only one that participated directly. The Jordanian PTT supplied the
links to the University from its earth station at Bacca, ten kilometres
outside Amman.
Production criteria
Preparation for the broadcasts began in September 1985, with the

setting of dates, design of the course and exploration of the possible
lecture formats. It was important that the broadcasts should not consist
purely of 'talking heads' without any visual variation. On the other
hand the Centre did not have the resources of time or finance to
produce sixteen television documentaries. The broadcasts were seen
primarily as illustrated televised lectures, with some video insertion of
location and laboratory material. The lecturers themselves had not used
television presentation techniques before. Therefore, rather than bind-
ing them to the constraints of the medium it was attempted to stretch
the medium to the lecturers' own style of teaching. By taking control
of the design elements of a range of traditional media such as overhead
transparencies, 35 mm slides, dry markerboard, models, etc., the Audio
Visual Centre managed to produce a series of well-illustrated lectures.
A layout pad, printed in camera-opaque cyan, designed and distributed
by the centre for do-it-yourself presentation graphics by staff, was used
by technical staff in the engineering departments to produce the
transparencies. They were given guidance on legibility, letter size and
typeface, number of lines per graphic, etc., to ensure a uniform format
for all visual support. This also ensured that illustrations fitted the
television format. Copies of these visuals were sent to Jordan to be
handed out to students.
The set was constructed to simulate a lecture room with lectern and
overhead projector. However, in place of a projector and screen a
light-box and overhead camera were installed to ensure good reproduc-
tion on the television screen. The lecturer could still present his material
in his normal style, and standard overhead projection techniques such
as revealing, overlaying and pointing with a pen could still be used. The
light-box was also top-lit so that opaque flat objects such as printed-
circuit boards or maps could be placed on it for presentation. 35 mm
slides were projected on to a rear-projection screen beside the lecturer.
In that way he could point to relevant sections and also advance the
slides himself. Computer screens and a dry markerboard were treated
in the same way. Video inserts were controlled by the director on a cue
from the lecturer.
There was a discussion as to whether an audience should be present
in the studio to help the lecturer feel 'at home'. As the main audience
for the lectures were those at a distance it was decided that the lecturer
should speak to the camera to achieve the effect of talking directly to
the viewers. It was felt that a better communication mode was created
similar to the 'eye-contact' technique.
Engineering lectures are normally given in English at the University
of Jordan, so the language problem was not a major one. However, the
lecturers were aware that English was the students' second language
and due consideration was taken of that when lecturing. Great impor-
tance was also accorded to the quality of the graphics support.
An experiment in education
Feedback from Jordan was continuous during the lecture through the
technical sound link and during the discussion period from the ques-
tions raised. Therefore pedagogically the delivery system proved to be
as effective as normal lecturing. One side-effect was the improved level
of lecture preparation and visual support. The series was deemed
successful by staff and students in Jordan. Some of the features of this
particular situation which contributed to that success were: the target
audience was familiar to the lecturers due to their previous experience
in Jordan, the live interaction gave a sense of participation to the
audience and supplied feedback to the lecturers, and finally the level of
preparation for the series ensured a quality oflecturing possibly missing
from routine class work.
Nevertheless, satellite broadcasting is an expensive business. Altern-
ative methods of delivery should be explored before an institution
embarks on this process. As each lecture in Project SHARE was broad-
cast to one institution and in an uninterrupted block, could not a
video-cassette of the presentation of material be sent in advance and
150 Innovative methods in technological educatio/l
an audio-only exchange follow a viewing of the tape? The satellite

element comes into its own when multiple sites participate over a large
region of the world and when feedback leads to modification of each
successive presentation. The potential of satellites for mass education
is only just beginning and to explore that potential further projects
should be initiated and evaluated.
References
BADDOURI, K. Faculte des Sciences, Rabat (Morocco). 1987. Experiences dans

I'enseignement superieur au Maroc. Unesco International Symposium on
Innovative Methods in Technological Education, Orsay, France, 21-24 Sep-
tember.
BHARADWAJ, S. Maulana Azad College, Bhopal (India). 1987. Primary Con-
trivance for Technological Education. Unesco International Symposium on
tember.
DAGHER, G. Universite de Tichrine Lattaquie (Syrian Arab Republic). 1987.
Tendances nouvelles de I'education. Unesco International Symposium on
tember.
GUISSE, H. R. Ecole Normale Superieure Universitaire de Technologie
(Senegal). 1987. L'enseignement des sciences et de l'education au Senegal.
Unesco International Symposium on Innovative Methods in Technological
Education, Orsay, France, 21-24 September.
MAIYAKI, Y. Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna (Nigeria). 1987. Bridging the
Educational Gap at Kaduna Polytechnic. Unesco International Symposium
on Innovative Methods in Technological Education, Orsay, France, 21-
24 September.
Project SHARE. 1986. Interim Report. International Institute of Communica-
tions 17th Annual Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland 11-14 September.
SAKALA, J. University of Zambia, Lusaka (Zambia). 1987. Problems of Engi-
neering Education in a Developing Country. Unesco International Sym-
posium on Innovative Methods in Technological Education, Orsay, France.
21-24 September.
SANKIES, A. University of Guyana (Guyana). 1987. Innovation for the Im-
provement of Technical Education in Guyana. Unesco International Sym-
posium on Innovative Methods in Technological Education, Orsay, France.
21-24 September.
8
Engineering education at new
types of university
8.1 Courseware development
at a new Open University
O. P. Kulshreshtha
Summary
Nearly all features determining courseware development for distance

learning in languages, social sciences, and the pure sciences apply in the
case of courseware development/or technical studies. However, there are
some new constraints and elements which appear in the area of technical
studies. They arise for example in the case ol the course in geometrical
drawing or that ofmachine drawing. There are other constraints on course
development when the student's progress is suhstantially dependent on
handling and working with apparatus.
Initially it was envisaged that any courseware then developed would
have a l(le-cycle of three orfour years. but this has not been the case. The
new academic staff have ll'ished to introduce changes before the end of
those periods. Such haste. perhaps common in developing countries,
causes additional problems.
A course-development team with several members was the ideal but
in practice it has been often found necessary to work with smaller teams.
This probably speeds up the preparation ol the course material. but this
is not an unmixed blessing as was found out.
Continuous assessment of a student's progress is an essential feature
of the courses and contributes. with a formal examination. towards the
final mark allocated to a student for his work. It is still debatable as to
what weight should be given to continuous assessment in the final results.
Other kinds of learning assistance have turned out to be more necessary
for students taking technical courses.
Delivery of course material to the students was tried using the ordin-
ary mail but without much success, and it is now delivered through a
network of study centres and regional centres. Developing countries such
as Sri Lanka face local factors which influence the selection of appro-
priate procedures for the delivery of courseware.
Dr O. P. Kulshreshtha is the Chief Technical Adviser of the Unesco Project at the Open
University of Sri Lanka.
Students following technical courses need some kind of workshop

practice, which is of special importance in developing countries, and the
provision of which is a difficult problem to solve. An innovative approach
to this problem has enabled the Open University to provide this workshop
practice. The work of a student is spread over two training programmes.
Introduction
The Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) is a specially created,

academically autonomous, national university. It has been designed to
enable persons of 18 years and above to pursue courses of their own
choice mainly in their own time and in their own homes. The OUSL
prepares the courses and awards its own degrees, diplomas, and certifi-
cates. It has a full-time staff and a central campus, and several regional
and study centres distributed all over the country. The OUSL has
adopted a multi-media teaching system. The delivery of printed mate-
rial forms the main component, but teaching is also carried out through
audio-visual devices, by demonstrations and practical work, by regular
assignment and assessment of work, and by tuition and counselling.
The OUSL offers courses at certificate, diploma and degree levels, and
also at post-graduate levels. A Programme of Study comprises a number
of courses, chosen at the present time from 179 separate courses, of
which about 136 are in the field of science and technology. Some 20 per
cent of the courses are trilingual being offered in Sinhala, Tamil and
English. The Programmes of Study on offer are shown in Appendix 1.
Two University Convocations were held in May 1986 and May
1987, when only the postgraduate diploma in education was awarded.
It was expected that the first groups of students in science and technol-
ogy would reach that stage in 1988 and 1989.
The number of students studying courses at the OUSL has shown
substantial fluctuations as indicated by the table in Appendix 2. The
number of students following the various major Programmes of Study
on 1 September 1987 are show in Appendix 3.
Initial problems
The Open University of Sri Lanka represents a novel concept in Sri

Lanka, and a large number of the academic staff at the traditional
universities had many doubts about this new type of university for the
country. Some thought it would not be a success and would close down
after a short while. Many thought that the possibilities for research
would be absent which in turn would limit the opportunities for promo-
tion, and others thought that since there would be no regular lectures
the staff would not be considered as true university academics. Many

had doubts about the teaching system to be adopted by the OUSL, for
they felt that without face-to-face sessions between staff and students
there could be no real teaching.
Therefore, initially no senior university academics joined OUSL
from other universities. This happened despite the fact that they would
have received a promotion on transfer. Only some young graduates
were appointed as assistant lecturers. The first group of senior staff who
had initially shown interest and were selected took a long time to make
up their minds and decide not to join the OUSL. However with much
effort and persistence some senior academics were persuaded that there
were new opportunities with good potential and the new university had
a good chance of being a success. Gradually, senior staff began to join
the OUSL and now there is no problem.
Sri Lanka has a well-established primary- and secondary-school
system in which tuition is free, as indeed is undergraduate-level tuition
at the universities even in the medical- and engineering-degree courses.
However, the Open University does charge tuition fees, making it the
first university to charge fees since the establishment of free education
in Sri Lanka. This is very much resented by the students, who feel that
education at the OUSL should also be free. The charging of fees is a
feature that is likely to impede the expansion of student numbers.
The OUSL, as pointed out above, offers courses at various levels
of which a large number are below university-degree level. This is not
liked by the academic staff, who think that a university should have
nothing to do with courses below degree level. However, some, at least,
of the academic staff are now agreed that at the OUSL there is a place
for courses at degree and non-degree levels, leaving others who are not
so easily qonvinced. It appears that this division of opinion is a problem
which wil~ solve itself with the passage of time.
Relative to the earning capacity of most people in the country the
cost of books is high, the same being true of the books produced by
the OUSL for its courses. At first the printed course material was sent
by post to the students, but not by registered post. In a large number
of reported cases the valuable books were not received by the students
and it turned out that it was very difficult to trace the lost course
material. So course material had to be sent again. The problem of loss
did not arise if the course material was cyclostyled and not printed.
However, a different system has now been devised which seems to have
solved the problem ofloss. The course material is sent first to a regional
centre or the study centres which have been established all over the
island, and the students are required to collect the material from these
units. There is now no loss of course material.
The OUSL wished to have well-staffed course teams to design and
develop course material but due to the lack of suitably qualified person-
nel at the Open University this ideal could not, in fact, be achieved. For
example, it is not possible for an expert in educational technology or
an expert in the use of audio-visual aids to be a member of a team.
However, in case of a specific need help is sometimes obtainable from
someone in the educational technology or audio-visual units, but even
this occasional help is not always available. The OUSL tries to maintain
at least one editor and one writer in each course team and often in fact
there are two writers and an editor.
When the first courses were planned it was assumed that they would
have a life-cycle of three to five years before revision. However, as time
went by new academic staff joined the faculty, who proposed that
syllabuses should be changed. They argued that as staff members of the
OUSL they should have a much larger role in the formulation of
courses than those who did the initial planning. The latter group
belonged to other institutions and only worked for the OUSL on a
temporary basis. Consequently, course revision has begun and there are
very few courses which will be run for the planned three years. Most
courses will have been modified during the second or third years, and
some are being changed before the end of their first year of use.
However, this new analysis of course curricula has shown that many
are overburdened with material, even more so than in corresponding
courses at the traditional universities. These faults are now being
remedied, and this is another reason why the courses designed initially
have had, or will have, a very short life.
The technical education programme
Imparting a technical education through distance teaching has similar

problems to those met in teaching science programmes, except that the
problems are very much accentuated in technical education. This is due
to the need for a large component of workshop and other practice,
a fairly heavy load of tutorial work, and for quite a component of
face-to-face teaching.
As an example, the teaching of geometrical and technical drawing
is an interesting case. Part of the necessary instruction can be given
by specially prepared course material but a major part of learning has
to take place in the classroom, and preferably in the presence of a
tutor. With this in mind facilities such as drawing tables and drawing
boards were provided in classrooms at the regional centres and study
centres. Students had to be brought there for face-to-face teaching by
a tutor. A good cyclic system had to be devised so that all students
could attend these drawing classes, and in practice students come once
a fortnight. Special attention has been given to solving the problems
that arise when a part-time tutor is suddenly unavailable. Experience
shows that such interruptions seriously affect the quality of the distance
education.
The problems posed by the need for practical and laboratory work
have recently been looked into very carefully. The amount of practical
work that each student must do has been reduced to an acceptable
minimum. It was found to be neither suitable nor feasible to provide
experimental kits for each student. It was also found that by summer
schools alone the necessary practical work could not be accomplished.
Hence it was decided that the students would carry out their practical
studies in other university laboratories, though this has turned out not
to be a success. The time-table for the Open University students had
to be decided well in advance of the sessions, but when the time came,
the other universities could or would not allocate their laboratories or
workshops for use by OUSL students.
With the assistance of Unesco expertise, the OUSL is therefore
developing facilities for laboratory and workshop practice primarily at
the central campus at Nawala, but also at certain regional centres.
Practical work in the first year of a programme is now usually done at
the latter. Students go to a centre for six days at a time, and a cyclic
system has been devised so that all students pass through these centres
in rotation. Practical work associated with the more advanced classes
is provided on the main central campus at Nawala. The OUSL is
planning to have hostel accommodation for students who come to
Nawala. The utilization factor for all the laboratories is very high, as
all students do their practical work in the same laboratories. There is
good contact between students and the academic staff within this new
system. Furthermore, students are able to view technical material, and
experiments, on video-tapes before and after laboratory sessions.
Throughout a course students are given assignments or homework
which is assessed, corrected and returned. A record of this continuous
assessment is kept and to pass a course the students have to do well
both in continuous assessment and in a final examination. The role of
continuous assessment is larger in technical education than elsewhere,
and this is also the situation in the traditional universities. In the case
of practical work and drawing the weight given to continuous assess-
ment is widely accepted but some of the academics are uneasy about
the prominence given to continuous assessment in the theoretical
courses. It may be that the weightings may have to vary according
to the nature of the courses.
Workshop practice
In Sri Lanka the students of technical education at the OUSL are less
likely than those in a highly industrialized country to have had ex-
posure to workshop practice, industrial work, and repairing or using

technical equipment and appliances. The students understand and
assimilate theory comparatively easily but are relatively ignorant of
industrial practices and so they need to undergo workshop training
and acquire an industrial outlook before graduating from the OUSL.
The university has therefore decided that two compulsory elements of
a programme in technology should be: (a) a basic training programme;
and (b) a specific training programme.
BASIC TRAINING PROGRAMME
A basic training module has been designed to provide workshop experi-

ence for students who are in need of such training, who are divided into
the following three categories:
Students who have never had industrial or workshop training of any
kind and are therefore required to attend a basic training programme
lasting twenty-one working days.
Employed students who have been exposed to some form of industrial
training. Their industrial and/or workshop experience is assessed at
interview, and only if it is found that they have covered all elements
of the OUSL basic training programme are they exempted from
attending the training programme.
Those students holding a technical qualification which ensures that the
holder has undergone workshop training incorporating all elements
of the OUSL basic training programme, are also exempted from
attending the OUSL programme.
The OUSL provides this basic training not only in its own workshop
but also in the workshops of other organizations. Several groups of
students have now undertaken this basic programme and the OUSL has
experienced certain difficulties in implementing it. Some of the principal
difficulties are outlined below.
First of all, certain students have problems in getting leave-of-
absence from their employers for a continuous period of about four
weeks. One solution has been to allow these students to participate in
a programme which has been split into three modules, each of which
lasts about one week.
Secondly, certain students are schoolteachers (about 20 per cent
of the first batch) and cannot leave their schools during school term.
A solution has been to arrange for these people to attend basic training
during school vacations.
Thirdly, some students do not reply to the letter of invitation to
attend the training session in time for final arrangements to be made
for their inclusion. It is now found necessary to send three letters.
The first offers students the preferred dates for their training session but
also includes two possible alternative periods. If there is no response
to the first letter a second is sent as a reminder that the OUSL awaits
a reply but also asking students whether they are facing some particular
difficulty about which the OUSL can help. If again there is no reply
a third and final letter is sent which gives other alternative dates for
training sessions and includes an ultimatum: if the OUSL does not
receive a reply within six weeks it will not be possible to accommodate
the student concerned in a training session during the current academic
year. A placement might be possible in the subsequent year if space
is available.
SPECIFIC TRAINING PROGRAMME
These training programmes depend on the field of study, and comprise

two fifteen-week modules which take place in industry. Under present
government legislation only the National Apprenticeship Board can
provide placements for students in industry, yet in fact the Board has
never provided places for students at the OUSL. The Board provides
a monthly monetary allowance to all trainees that it places in industry
but it does not have any funds for students at the OUSL. A solution
to this impasse has been suggested: the National Apprenticeship Board
will find places for OUSL students and will be paid a fee for their
services by the university. Furthermore, the Board will not be required
to pay a monthly allowance to OUSL students.
The work of OUSL students in industry is supervised as follows:
(a) training engineers at the OUSL visit each student twice; (b) a
chartered engineer in the neighborhood of the workplace visits the
student once; (c) National Apprenticeship Board staff regularly visit all
venues where students work; and (d) the training officer of the estab-
lishment providing the training supervises the students. Students have
to keep a daily log of their activities, which is inspected and signed by
the local training officer each week. The log-sheets are also inspected
by the chartered engineer and the engineer from the OUSL from time
to time.
Finance
The Government of Sri Lanka provided almost all the capital expen-
diture and development costs for the OUSL, with some substantial aid
for development coming from the United Nations Development Pro-
gramme via Unesco and from the Swedish aid agency, SIDA. The
government has also provided contributions towards operating costs
varying between 27 and 41 per cent of the yearly needs. The rest of
the operating costs have been paid by fees collected from students.
At the OUSL the cost per student per year in science or technology is
not more than $200, and is only $100 in the humanities and social
sciences. Through fees students pay for between 40 to 60 per cent of
the recurrent operating cost of their education. The total operating cost
of the OUSL in 1987 was a little over $2 million.
Conclusion
Experience at the OUSL shows that it is possible to provide distance

education in technology at a variety of levels in a developing country,
provided there is very careful planning. It would appear that such a
university should have its own laboratories and workshops, and that
many face-to-face sessions between staff and students are necessary. If
students cannot obtain the required workshop experience at a place of
work then it becomes necessary to organize and provide such training.
This can take place on university premises or elsewhere. The OUSL has
found it necessary to provide laboratories for advanced work at its
central campus, as it was not found possible to co-operate easily with
the traditional universities. This in turn might demand the provision of
some hostel accommodation at the central campus.
160 Innovative methods in technological educatio/l
Appendix 1. The Open University of Sri Lanka: programmes of study
Minimum
No. Programme of study duration
(years)
01 Certificate in Pre-school Education

02 Certificate in Entrepreneurship
03 Certificate in Professional English
04 Certificate in Textile Technology
(i) Yarn Manufacture
(ii) Weaving
(iii) Knitting
(iv) Chemical Processing
(v) Garment Technology
(vi) Textile Testing and Statistical
Quality Control
05 Diploma in Technology 4
(i) Civil
(ii) Communication
(iii) Electrical
(iv) Electronics
(v) Mechanical
(vi) Textile
06 Bachelor's degree in Science (B.Sc.) 5
07 Bachelor's degree in Law (LL.B.) 4
08 Post-graduate diploma in Education 2
09 Post-graduate research degree (M. Phi\., Ph. D.)
10 Continuing education programmes
Appendix 2. The Open University of Sri Lanka:

number of registered students, 1981-87
Programme of study 1981 1982-85 1984 1985 1986 1987

Postgraduate Dip-
loma in Education
Part I 687 348 735 743 743 2327
Postgraduate Dip-
loma in Education
Part II 553 266 630 634 634 667
LL.B. degree Level 3 556 766 747
LL.B. degree Level 4 143 143
Certificate in Pre-
school 366 553 176 271 271 374
Certificate in Profes-
sional English 763 2354 1313 2143 2449 2681
444 306
Certificate in Entre-
preneurship 1 174 395 183 183 77
B.Sc. degree 1421 1421 780 780
Foundation 2017 5511 2044 2044
Technology 167 759 2052 2070
SLIDE courses 1897
--
TOTAL 4266 6879 5873 11768 10065 11910
0"-
N
Appendix 3. The Open University of Sri Lanka: distribution of students, September 1987
Programme of study
Study centre Pre-school Bachelor Bachelor of Total
Entrepreneur- Professional Postgraduate Bachelor Diploma in
education ship English Diploma of Laws of Science Technology Engineering
S E T S E T S E T S E T S E T S E T S E T S E T S E T
Ambalangoda 103 196 196 103

Ampara 0 78
0 -
4 5 15 13 24 30 17 107 46
Anuradhapura 107 30 I 0 41 12 2 71 120 2
Badulla I I 0 116 27 10 I 26 17 0 54 144 I
Colombo 195 70 0 16 25 2 867 1452 - 154400269 24 439 278 15 I 128 870 27 13 o 3631 2392 222
Galle 34 0 0 38 129 73 23 0 III -
21 0
-- - - 347 82 0 ~
::
~~
Jaffna 0 0 1 245 2 0 4 15 0 38 28 0 287 46 c

Kalutara 1 I 0 44 I 51 13 5 85 15 0 0 3 0 138 76 5
"
!?
:;;-
Kandy 74 0 13 2 6 420 469 8 103 25 5 97 41 9 239 113 17 0 I 0 995 603 45 '2l"
Kegalle I 0 0 104 196 43 15 I 86 21 3 326 140 4
Kurunegala 3 0 0 198 - 105 24 I 149 32 I 257 254 2
'"
;;.:.
---
c
Madampe 19 0 19 0 ~
Matara 0 0 205 387 57 6 I 59 23 0 181 32 0 685 266 I s-
<;;
Ratnapura 0 I 137 37 6 1 35 8 0 73 151
- 2
---------------------------------- "
::-
::
TOTAL 303 71 0 37 29 1I 2681 2830 - 164 560 300 30 965 443 63 2094 1203 108 17 o 6790 4744 376 c
0%
;:;-
11910
~
Note: S = Sinhala medium; E = English medium; T = Tamil medium. '~"
"I:l
5"::
8.2 The formation of a
Swedish International University
Consortium
Harold W. Lawson
Summary
A new dimension in the internationalization of higher level education and

research activities of Swedish universities and institutes has been estab-
lished through the creation ofa Swedish International University Consor-
tium. The purpose ofthe consortium is to co-operate in providing Master's
degree programmes to foreign and Swedish students where the media of
instruction is the English language.
The programmes are defined, organized and operated by the consor-
tium members. The functions of producing the consortium catalogue,
information distribution, tuition fee policies, admission requirements
and procedures, etc., are provided by a common consortium chancellery
at the direction of a consortium board. Each of the consortium members
is represented on the consortium board. The seven initial consortium
members are Chalmers University of Technology in Goteborg, Linkoping
University, Lulea University of Technology, Lund University, Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Swedish University ofAgricultural
Sciences and Uppsala University.
In this paper, the background of the Swedish International University
(SIUj project is briefly introduced. Next, the initial organization is pre-
sented followed by a discussion of the various sources of students and
financing. The paper proceeds by considering the actors and factors
involved in achieving a successful consortium, some background related
to the selection ofprogrammes as well as a listing of the first programme
offerings. Admission requirements, tuition-fee structure and admission
procedures are outlined. Finally, some of the results obtained as of
the date of going to press and results of discussions at the symposium
are reported.
Professor Harold W. Lawson is a member of the Swedish International University

Consortium, Box 4550 I, S-10430, Stockholm, Sweden.
Introduction
In December 1985, a concept proposal for the creation of a Swedish

International University (SIU) was submitted by the author to several
ministers in the Swedish Government, the political party leaders, the
University Chancellor and the rectors of the twelve major universities
and institutes. After a highly positive response, a planning committee
was appointed by the Swedish National Board of Universities and
Colleges and was active from November 1986 to February 1987.
The planning committee's findings indicated that there exists a
widespread interest among academic, industrial, commercial and
governmental circles for the creation of a consortium of existing
Swedish universities and institutes of higher learning. Further, that the
participating consortium members should concentrate upon providing
Master's degree programmes (typically one and a half to two years'
duration). The programmes would be made available to Swedish and
foreign students and the media of instruction would be the English
language.
Organization and initial consortium members
A consortium was formally initiated in June 1987. The initial consor-

tium structure, in addition to the individual member universities, or-
ganizationally consists of two bodies; namely a consortium board and
a consortium chancellery. The consortium board is the decision-making
body and is composed of a representative and alternate representative
from each member university and institute. The board selects its own
chairman. The consortium chancellery is charged with the operational
management and administration of consortium activities and is led by
a consortium co-ordinator.
The responsibility for defining and 'realizing' high-quality pro-
gramme contributions and local supporting activities which are the
keystones and, in fact, give form and substance to the international
university. The consortium board and chancellery together must ensure
that the programmes are 'qualified', that is, they must have all the
necessary preconditions for succeeding. Further, the consortium chan-
cellery is to provide assistance that would be difficult or impossible on
an individual basis due to a lack of 'economy of scale'; for example,
providing a common catalogue and advertising materials, information
distribution, marketing, standardizing and assisting in administering
admission procedures, verifying the qualification of applicants, tuition-
fee policies, common fund-raising, worldwide alumni contacts and
financial assistance in various forms.
The consortium board and chancellery, through their activities, aim

to provide for long-term stability and growth. The consortium chancell-
ery actively seeks to provide a steady supply of qualified students with
adequate financial support for programmes provided by the consor-
tium members.
The following Swedish universities and institutes are initial
members of the consortium: Chalmers Technical University
(Goteborg); Linkoping University; Lulea Technical University; Lund
University; the Royal Institute of Technology (Stockholm);
the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; and Uppsala Uni-
versity.
The students and their financing
In this section, we first take a look at the potential demand for SIU
programmes. It is quite clear that there are several student sources that
can and will be addressed individually. Providing programmes for only
one source would not permit economically stable and viable planning
for the institutions involved in providing the programmes. Thus, it is
through multiple sources and an open admission policy that a steady
demand must be sought. Students can come from the following primary
sources (some of which overlap):
Countries having a geographical, cultural or ethnic proximity to
Sweden (i.e. Nordic, European and North American countries).
Other countries of the world in which Swedish industry and commerce
are active in marketing, research and development or production.
Countries represented in Sweden by foreign business subsidiaries
and agents.
Countries receiving Swedish foreign aid.
Developing countries receiving loans from development banks (World
Bank, Asian Development Bank, etc.).
Employees of Swedish industrial, commercial and governmental organ-
izations requiring a complementation of their knowledge.
Swedish university and institute students.
Swedish citizens from families stationed in foreign countries for diplo-
matic, commercial or industrial purposes that have obtained under-
graduate degrees in foreign universities.
Exchange students from foreign universities.
Immigrants to Sweden who have completed undergraduate studies in
a foreign country and desire to follow further education in English.
In some cases, particular programmes will be more attractive to specific
subsets of the sources of students. Certain programmes, for various
reasons, may be composed primarily or even solely of foreign students.
However, for the majority of the programmes, the goal is to achieve a

mixture of Swedish and foreign students. With this large potential
source of students, it should be possible to fill places in attractive
Master's degree programmes.
Let us now turn our attention to the question of student financing.
While it may bepossible for certain individual students to arrange their
own private financing, it is most likely that the majority of students will
attend SIU programmes based upon fellowships and funding from
other sources as implied from the list given above.
It is expected that programme places made available to Swedish
students will be financed in accordance with existing practice for study
places in Swedish higher-level education programmes. The Swedish
students must compete, based upon academic records and language
abilities for these places. Thus, these programme places can be viewed
as being financed by government-supported fellowships. Public and
private organizations can provide the financing for their employees
attending SIU programmes.
When applying, foreign students are required, first of all, to arrange
financing from their home countries or from internationally available
fellowships.
The consortium co-ordinator as well as the consortium members
will actively seek to provide fellowships from a variety of public and
private sources both in Sweden and abroad. Thus, hopefully, a limited
but increasing number of fellowships should be available specifically
designated for programmes offered by consortium members.
Contacts with student union organizations at a variety of univer-
sities and institutes and with the National Association of Student
Unions (SFS) have indicated a strong enthusiasm for the opportunity
to receive education in English along with foreign students. Further,
since Swedish universities and institutes now provide degree pro-
grammes in English, the possibilities for expanding exchange agree-
ments with foreign universities are greatly enhanced. This aspect is also
extremely interesting for the student unions who are themselves plan-
ning to internationalize their own activities. Thus, the possibilities and
value of student exchange can and must be taken into account in
evaluating the financial aspects of each programme.
Achieving a successful consortium
There are, in fact, many public- and private-sector actors involved in

orchestrating the consortium and the long-term success is highly de-
pendent upon all actors playing their appropriate roles (see Fig. 1).
The actors must contribute, in their respective capacities, to the con-
sortium as well as obtaining direct and indirect benefits from the
Universities
and institutes
SIU
programmes
Commerce
Fig. I. A symbiotic environment.
consortium. Providing a basis for the required formal and informal

contacts needed to assure success is a vital function of the consortium
board and chancellery.
At the first meeting of the planning committee in early November
1986, the author presented a success equation for the Swedish In-
ternational University concept. This equation has been used and will
continue to be used as a guide in pursuing contacts and the quest for
information relevant to achieving a successful Swedish International
University Consortium.
Success (SIU) = High-quality programmes
+ Demand for the programmes + Qualified students
+ Capable facuity + Enthusiastic local organizers
+ Good local arrangements + Student union support
+ Co-operation between universities + Government support
+ Support from industry + Contact networks
and commerce + Marketing
+ Information distribution + Patience
+ Strong financial position
Selection of programmes
Sweden has a worldwide reputation for quality based upon the

products and services made available in the international market-place
as well as in its own highy developed society. While Sweden, through
individuals, groups and institutions, maintains its world class in certain
fundamental research areas, its industrial and social strength has been
achieved primarily through applied research and development. These
strengths are evident in science and engineering, health care as well as
in business, economics, management and administration. Furthermore.

many aspects of this highly developed society and its role in the inter-
national community provides strength for the social sciences and
education.
The programmes of the Swedish International University Consor-
tium, while including certain fundamental research areas, will, in
general, place emphasis upon successful areas of applied research and
development in science and technology, computing and information
processing as well as health and dental care. Further, they will include
programmes in business, economics, management and administration
as well as certain programmes in the social sciences, education and
interdisciplinary themes.
Where SIU fundamental research programmes are provided, they
will typically be viewed as stepping-stones to a research programme
leading to a doctorate. Doctorial programme candidates for applied
areas may, of course, also be identified during SIU programme
studies and thus make a natural transition to further graduate
education. The Master's degree provides an excellent point for mutual
evaluation of possibilities for the successful completion of a doctoral
programme.
The inclusion of a broader spectrum of humanities and philosophy
programmes are not excluded a priori from being offered by the
Swedish International University Consortium. These programmes, are
on the other hand, typically difficult to finance. None the less, Sweden
has several excellent programmes in these areas and it is hoped that
programmes can be included in the consortium offerings in future years.
Thus, the true meaning of 'university' can be attained.
It is an explicit goal of the SIU Consortium that by internation-
alizing high-quality programmes the quality and worldwide recognition
of the programmes will attain even greater heights by stimulating both
students and faculty as well as by producing many other useful side-
effects.
There were twelve Master's degree programmes announced in the
1988 catalogue. Ten of these programmes accepted their first students
in August 1988; whereas the remaining two started in August 1989.
Further Master's programmes were foreseen in the 1989 catalogue. The
twelve programmes described in the first catalogue are as follows:
Science and engineering

Applied geophysics (Lulea)
Ergonomics-human factors (Lulea)
Geochemistry (Lulea)
Materials science and technology (Goteborg)
Structural engineering (Goteborg)
Computing and information processing

Information systems engineering (Stockholm)
Knowledge engineering (Linkoping)
Health care and dentistry
Dental science (LundjMalmo)
Food science and nutrition (Uppsala)
Agriculture and forestry
Agricultural biotechnology (Uppsala}-Starting 1989
Interdisciplinary themes
Man and environmental change (Linkoping)
Science and technology policy (Lund}-Starting 1989
Admissions and tuition
Each programme specifies its own specific admission requirements.

However, in most cases, Swedish students must have completed
120 university points, corresponding to three years of higher education
beyond the gymnasium. Foreign students must typically have received
a Bachelor's degree or equivalent.
All students must demonstrate competence in the English language.
The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) examination
given worldwide by the Educational Testing Service of Princeton, New
Jersey, is used, when required, as one part of the applying students'
qualifications. Further, it is expected that the Graduate Record
Examination (GRE) general test and subject tests will successively
become a part of the admission requirements and the evaluation of
applying students.
Concerning tuition fees, the policy is to charge an internationally
competitive fee. For the initial programmes offered in August 1988, the
fees ranged between 32,000 and 39,000 kronor per semester (term).
Non-laboratory programmes such as the science and technology policy
programme were to have substantially lower tuition fees (for example
16,000 kronor per semester).l Students should send their applications
to the consortium chancellery (see address below). The chancellery will
provide the processing and assist those in charge of each programme
in the selection procedure. The details of admission requirements,
tuition fees and admission procedures will continue to be provided in
the consortium catalogue.
1. $1 = 6.3 kronor; £1 = 10.4 kronor (1987 rates).
Further information
The consortium chancellery is pleased to provide further information,

including the latest catalogue and application forms. Furthermore, the
chancellery encourages correspondence providing suggestions and is
especially interested in recommendations for new programme areas.
Correspondence should be addressed to the consortium chancellery at
the following address:
Swedish International University Consortium
clo National Board of Universities and Colleges
Box 45501
S-10430 Stockholm
Sweden
Telephone: 4687283600 Telex: 14132 unicol s
9
Continuing education
9.1 Continuing education in
developing countries: the need
for new initiatives
l.P. Gupta
Summary
While the importance of continuing education for engineers and tech-

nicians is recognized in almost all countries it is by no means always easy
to set up a successful practice. This is particularly true in most developing
countries, where economic, manpower, cultural, and even language dif-
ficulties are but afew' of the hindrances restricting the development of an
effective system of continuing education.
Continuing education is therefore afield of educational activity crying
out for innovations that will reduce costs of materials and manpower and
suit the industrial practices and capabilities ofengineers, technicians, and
other workers. For example, education through the supply of printed
material has quite generally failed to provide the necessary stimulus for
workers, at all levels, to upgrade constantly their knowledge and skills.
While pointing out the constraints holding back effective continuing
education in developing countries. including India. which has much indus-
try, and indicating useful improvements in existing practice, an important
aim of this paper is to stress the needfor new practices which can usefully
be used in developing countries where money and manpower are in short
supply.
Introduction
Education is, or should be, a life-long process for everyone, but for
those professionals working in industry, hospitals, etc., it is both neces-
sary and important that they are fully conversant with the latest
developments in their specific areas of activity. Their pre-service
professional education, lasting anywhere between three and five years
Professor J. P. Gupta is at the Department of Chemical Engineering, the Indian Institute

of Technology, Kanpur, India 208016.
or more according to the speciality, will not prepare them for the whole
of their active professional life, which could last forty or even fifty
years. It is but the first stage of an educational process, for even basic
principles and practices can change with time (Houle, 1967). With this
in mind, the concept of professional will be examined and discussed,
as will the possible role of professional societies in continuing educa-
tion, and other ways of enabling professionals to keep abreast of
developments.
The professional
The root cause of the modern preoccupation with continuing education

is the realization that without it the very concept of professionalism
cannot survive. Abraham Flexner (1915) has defined a profession as
essentially involving intellectual operations whose material is derived
from science and learning. A professional person has much individual
responsibility for his actions which are executed for a practical and
definite end. Professionals tend to organize their own activities which
have an increasingly altruistic motivation. Their techniques can be
passed on to others by appropriate methods of instruction.
Almost every professional society (i.e. an association of profes-
sionals) must be concerned with the education of its members through-
out their professional life otherwise they will become intellectual drop-
outs losing the sense of social commitment which made them become,
or be classified as, professionals in the first place. Just as renowned
educational establishments have standards established and sustained
by the arduous and dedicated efforts of teachers, researchers, students
and administrators so must be the case for most working professionals.
Their professional standards must be maintained, their vision en-
larged and their ability to discharge old and new responsibilities must
be strengthened.
Professional societies of engineering, technology, and management
organize theoretical and practical courses with increasing frequency for
the continuing education of their members. These may include visits to
research-and-development establishments and industrial enterprises
using the latest knowledge. Of course, continuing education is not
restricted to technological practitioners. In the medical sciences the
latest surgical techniques are often demonstrated using closed-circuit
television to large audiences who could not be accommodated in the
theatre. Discussions take place later. The need for systematic continu-
ing education is much less in fields of learning such as the arts, philo-
sophy and so on which change only slowly with time. Their professional
bodies tend to organize conferences for the exchange and discussions
of ideas rather than organize courses.
The industrial worker
There is also a need today for the continuing education and training
of industrial workers, something which has been recognized by both
governments and industry. Courses are organized by firms for their
workers in some cases, by associations of industries, by professional
societies, and even by governments. In some countries international
organizations such as UNDP, ILO, OAS, Unesco, the Commonwealth
Foundation and others, run courses, usually on a cost-sharing non-
profit basis.
There are also private organizations in many countries which or-
ganize forms of continuing education strictly as a business. The fact
that courses run by non-profit-making and profit-making groups exist
and find students proves that the need for this type of education
certainly exists in all countries with modern industries, yet only in one
or two countries is continuing education mandatory and only then in
certain selected professions.
The need for continuing education brings into focus the methodo-
logy of education and training most appropriate for industrial workers
and for professionals. The selection of this is as important as the selec-
tion of material to be taught. For example, industrial workers cannot
be expected to learn just by reading through a large amount of material
to find what they need. They do not have the time for this, and in
any case learning by reading can be inappropriate for people who
may have left an educational establishment years before. Professionals
can and do obtain new knowledge from literature but they are also
busy, with little time to spare but benefit from organized continuing
education.
The need to innovate

The lack of time and the requirement of effective transmiSSiOn of
information leads to a search for new methods of continuing education.
If these innovations have an element of excitement for busy people they
will both relax and educate them. New techniques include computer-
aided education and simulation packages, video-tape presentations,
and the use of expert systems and others now under consideration,
some of which are mentioned elsewhere in this book.
Of course, the ultimate responsibility for a professional keeping
up-to-date is the individual himself (Flexner, 1915). Some system or
person can attempt to motivate, excite and reward him, or by-pass and
ignore him if he becomes stale, but cannot force him to raise his
standards or learn new techniques. Now there is one system, namely
the professional school, where everyone undergoes a professional edu-
cation, and where the advantages and the techniques of continuing
education ought first to be taught or inculcated. There should be close

contact between instructors, who are themselves permanent students
keeping up-to-date in one way or another, and the students. These
contacts should leave an everlasting impression on young, wide-eyed,
impressionable would-be professionals. In a good school the young
student will be taught how to learn, and where the excitement of
learning something new will prepare him for his future far better than
telling him what to learn which at best will make him master of only
a part of that which is already known to thousands.
In order for a professional such as an engineer to be up-to-date until
the day of retirement and thus able to converse or communicate with
young professionals requires not only a mastery of techniques but of
the new developments in the sciences and arts on which his profession
is based, for otherwise his new technical knowledge will have shallow
foundations. This requires efforts on a regular basis, for the ability
to learn deteriorates without practice. It would be desirable if the
professional could occasionally leave his work for a short time and
become a student again at a professional school where he could acquire
new knowledge and gain a broader perspective of his profession,
and also regain the enthusiasm, curiosity, eagerness and freshness
of earlier years.
This certainly happens in some professions. Such schools as
the Harvard Business School, the Indian Institute of Management, the
Administrative Staff College ofIndia, and many other similar units can
attract very busy professionals to attend their refresher and up-dating
courses. These courses can last anywhere between two weeks and two
months, and many professionals return every five to ten years to study
the latest in business management, industrial administration and sim-
ilar activities. However, this does not seem to be the situation in the
technological and engineering professions (or for that matter in medi-
cine), unless so decreed by law. The irony of this is that there are far
more rapid and extensive changes going on in these professions than
in management and business practices. So far, there are few colleges of
engineering that have suggested that their alumni return to college,
perhaps every five years or so, in order to study recent developments
in basic subjects and in technology. The participants would not only
benefit professionally, but perhaps financially and socially too, leading
to a fuller and more satisfying life (Government ofIndia, 1986a, 1986b;
Indian Institute of Technology, 1987; Anon, 1987).
From the seventeeth to the early years of the twentieth century small
local discussion groups of like-minded professionals were common in
the United Kingdom and some other countries. Members came togeth-
er at regular intervals to discuss their experience or some new know-
ledge. Such informal meetings are less common now, but can meet
modern needs to some extent and should be revived.
The role of industry
Industrial enterprises can play a crucial role in providing opportunities

for the continuing education of their employees, from which they
stand to benefit. Thus almost all large industrial enterprises in devel-
oped and developing countries have staff-training departments or
human-resource-development departments, as they are sometimes
called. These arrange for outside and in-house experts to lecture to
employees, and they sponsor the attendance of employees at courses
and conferences run by professional bodies, academic institutions,
private firms and international organizations. Courses may last from
a day or two to a week or two, but employees may be sent sometimes
for longer periods of study in order to obtain a diploma or degree.
For any training programme to be most effective it is necessary that
the enterprise has a clear policy which is explained to the employees
concerned. The benefits and rewards of any training programme to
the participants and to the enterprise should be explained. Rewards for
the employees may be greater responsibilities and higher salaries, or
quicker promotion, and so on, but must exist if employees are to be
motivated to learn.
The sending of personnel by employers for specialized training is
now quite common. For example, in India the Defence Department, the
Television Department and the Department of Telecommunications
send some personnel to the premier academic institutions for periods
from one semester to two years for both non-degree and degree studies
in specialized fields. The Indian Government has set up regional labour
institutes, industrial training institutes, and polytechnics for the specific
purpose of upgrading the professional skills of various grades of worker.
In developing countries some firms send professional employees
abroad for special training, which mayor may not lead to a higher
degree or other formal qualification. This is good for the chosen
employees but does cause resentment among those who have not been
chosen for this highly coveted trip abroad. Nevertheless, on the whole
the firm benefits. It is up to management to explain its policies regard-
ing training abroad and the selection of candidates. If the mode of
selection is seen to be fair any resentment will be lessened.
The training departments in industry should be managed by
professionals who understand extremely well the manpower needs of
the industry, for only then will the training programmes be arranged
to the satisfaction of all concerned. Experience shows that non-techni-
cal managers can often waste money on unnecessary programmes.
Some groups of similar industries form industrial associations for
mutual benefit, such as research or production studies and so on. There
are good commercial reasons for these bodies to involve themselves in
continuing education in matters relevant to their special needs.
The role of the professional schools
The role of the schools in the inculcation of the desire to learn in their
students has been mentioned above, but they have other roles. They can
encourage their students to take an interest in the place of their chosen
profession in society and give a deeper understanding of their daily
work. The schools can, of course, organize continuing education classes
to be given in the college or industrial enterprise. However, this almost
always requires extra staff and resources which it mayor may not be
possible to pay for by charging fees. In many countries, but by no
means all, the government offers grants to colleges for this purpose,
which should be encouraged.
An example of a series of short courses for industry provided by the
Indian Institute of Technology in the new field of robotics 1 is outlined
in Tables I to 3. A person is expected to complete the four courses
in two years, or in some cases three years. The same institute also
offers a sequence of training courses for industry in computer-aided
design (CAD).2
Table I. Different levels of training
Extensive Simple Features/

Operation Awareness
Personnel technical technical Economics
training training
training training training
Process
and
Yes Yes Yes
tooling
engmeers
Plant
Yes Yes
engineers
Product
design Yes Yes
engmeers
Maintenance
Yes Yes
staff
Personnel
and
Yes Yes
management
staff
I. Continuing Education Programme in Robotics. Department of Mechanical Engineer-

ing. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016.
2. Continuing Education Programme in CAD, Computer-Aided Design Centre, Indian
Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016.
Table 2. Classes of training for different personnel

Electrical Mech~nical Robot-use Non- Robot
Awareness
Personnel mam- mam- engineering technical training program-
tenance tenance features ming
Process and
tooling Yes Yes Yes
engineers
Plant
Yes Yes Yes
engineers
Product
design Yes Yes
engineers
Maintenance
Yes Yes Yes
staff
Personnel and
management Yes Yes
staff
Table 3. Courses and their objectives

Level Course Title Duration Objectives
No. (days)
Introduction 10 General understanding of
to robotics robots and applications
and robot
applications
11 Management 6 Robotics and automation
and systems with emphasis
engineering on adoption of robot
of robot technology
technology
2 Robots and 10 Thorough
factory understanding
automation of robotics engineering
III Intelligent 6 Trends of development
robots and frontier areas of
R&D
It should be noted that some staff at the Institute were sent abroad
for training in these new areas, and so on return they brought new tech-
niques into the country for dissemination among industries, a very
proper function of a school of technology in a developing country.
The role of industry
In general the upgrading and training of professionals can be carried

out in several ways as follows (Government of India, 1986a): (a) a
one-off short course of lectures; (b) a sequence of short courses ; (c) one
or more evening meetings or lectures; and (d) in-house training pro-
grammes of various durations. Some companies establish their own
training schools for professionals, technicians and others. For example,
one Indian company has a large welding school which supplies its own
needs and, indeed, other needs, for there is a substantial turnover of
skilled workers, which is not uncommon in many developing countries.
Such trade schools can sometimes be used by other member companies
of an industrial association. Courses offered range from production and
maintenance, through refresher courses to upgrading courses for
professionals and others.
Companies should organize periodic reviews of developments in the
company and print a digest which can be circulated among employees.
The digest should refer to developments in production, maintenance,
innovations in the firm and latest developments elsewhere. Such a
digest is a very useful form of continuing education. Indeed, profes-
sional societies can do the same and periodically circulate to their
members news of the latest research and development, both national
and international.
Industrial associations might sponsor lecture tours by experts, and
copies of these lectures should be distributed to people unable to attend.
It is also possible to make the lectures available on a dial-listen tele-
phone number or on tape cassette. International co-operation could
be of vital importance in obtaining lecturers for a developing or
poor country.
The role of professional societies
Professional societies should have the continuing education of their

members as their primary aim. Much else of what they do, though
important, is secondary to the main objective, for a society of under-
trained or under-performing professionals is not worth joining. The
societies can bring together teachers and researchers from academic
institutions and experts from public and private industry and provide
forums where knowledge and experience can be shared with other
professionals. Most societies do something of this kind but many
do far less in this area than they should.
Special problems of developing countries
The remarks above apply pretty well to all countries and professions
but countries which are trying to industrialize and catch up with highly
industrialized countries have special problems when setting up continu-
ing education. Some of the problems now being encountered in India
are listed below. It should be emphasized that India is a giant among
developing countries with the ninth largest industrial base in the world,
yet it has problems. In smaller and lesser developed countries similar
problems are likely to be more intensive and intractable. However,
problems met in India are as follows:
The language of instruction has generally to be English because most
easily available literature is in that tongue. However, English is not
the mother tongue of any of the Indian peoples, so while speaking
and reading may be in a foreign language, thinkmg is likely to be in
the mother tongue. This is often the case and makes the acquisition
of new knowledge somewhat difficult and time-consuming and
therefore adds to the cost. This is especially true in India where there
are different languages in different regions and a translation from
English to one of the languages would not solve the difficulty.
The cost of sophisticated teaching aids is high, especially when im-
ported as many must be. For example, some plant simulators cost
$40,000, and software for computer-aided techniques are not cheap.
Yet without such aids the effectiveness of the instructor is diminished.
The maintenance of expensive equipment is a problem because of the
lack of appropriately trained technicians, and rather involved
procedures needed in order to import spare parts, which are also
expenSIve.
There is a lack of industrial and practical experience in engineering and
other professional school staff so that while they may know about
new developments they are not always successful in teaching their use
to practising professionals. The academic staff cannot relate their
knowledge to the needs and modes of thought of industry.
There is often no extra financial or other incentive for academic and
other staff to undertake the work required by the teaching of continu-
ing education which is additional to normal duties.
Professionals are often deterred from following a course because they
are doubtful that the extra effort needed to learn new matter will be
rewarded by promotion or an increase in salary.
Employing organizations often have no stated policies, or no policies
at all, on matters such a~ further training for professional staff at
home or abroad, or about the selection of candidates for further
training if such selections are made.
Employers in India sometimes require employees to sign a bond of
service, which might extend up to five years as a guarantee that there
would be some reward to the employer for any outlay spent on

the further training of staff. An employee who leaves the firm before
the expiry of the bond period has to pay a sizeable amount to the
employer. Professionals in their twenties and early thirties do not
wish to enter into these bonded appointments as they wish to be able
to switch jobs during the five or ten years after graduation. These are
in fact the people who would learn easily and benefit most from
further courses and continuing education. Only bonded people are
likely to be selected for extra training at home or abroad.
Oddly enough there is often a lack of opportunity for a professional
to put newly acquired knowledge into use. This can be due to
management hesitating to carry out changes in methods or processes
suggested by a newly refreshed, perhaps junior, professional. It can
also be that nothing much was expected from the further education
of one of its staff who attended courses somewhere, possibly only to
fill a training quota. In any case, the professional involved is disap-
pointed and does not give of his best.
However, it must be stated that the situation in India is improving,
albeit slowly, on all fronts as the advances in technology necessitate
more and continuing education for technologists of all levels if the
nation is to make economic progress.
Conclusion
The education of the professional, especially the engineer, has today to

be a life-long process so that he can do his utmost for society and does
not become a professional drop-out or a social liability. To further this
ideal professional societies and academic institutions have to play an
important role. Depending on the needs of individuals, their profession,
and society, continuing education can take many forms, such as even-
ing lectures, short and long full-time courses, a sequence of courses over
a period of time, or in-house courses at their place of work. Periodic
refresher courses at several years interval are necessary in many ad-
vanced technologies. The rewards of continuing education are nu-
merous apart from financial gains; such as the satisfaction of being an
expert, or of doing a job well, or having the respect of one's peers, or
the respect of the family and the local society, and so on. Industrial
organizations must know, and make known, what they expect from
their professional employees, and help and encourage them to attain
those ends.
Developing countries of all sizes and states of development have
extra problems. Mother tongues cannot always be used for instruction,
which will then be given in a foreign language. Imported teaching aids
are relatively expensive and therefore in short supply or even absent.
Foreign experts are not cheap to import and utilize. Indigenous experts
and teachers receive little monetary or other compensation for addi-
tional teaching duties, and upgraded professionals often find their new
skills unrewarded and even not utilized because of jealousy or other
reasons such as the fear of mistakes and loss of production in the minds
of administrators. Yet the situation in developing countries is changing
and will go on doing so. No industry can remain backward for long.
References
ANON. 1987. Technical Education-A Tough Road Ahead. The Indian Express
(New Delhi), 4 July.
FLEXNER, A. 1915. School and Sociology, Vol. 1. London.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. 1986a. National Policy on Education. New Delhi,
Ministry of Human Resources Development, Department of Education.
- - . 1986b. Report of the Review Committee of the Indian Institutes of Techno-
logy. New Delhi, Ministry of Human Resources Development, Department
of Education.
HOULE, Cyril O. 1967. The Lengthened Line. Perspectives in Biology and
Medicine, Vol. 37, Autumn.
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. 1987. Plan of Action: 1987-1995. Kanpur,
Indian Institute of Technology.
[Ill SC.89jXXVIIJ.13jA

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The collected papers 143

BJORKLUND, S.; HOGBERG, 0.; MALMPORT, B. 1987. MarcoPolo-Computer-

Against the background of a wide range of problems and a number of

The difficulties confronting innovation in teaching in developing coun-

An experiment in resource sharing

satellite network to foster telecommunications development in rural

University College Dublin and Project SHARE

HEDCO was the agency which, by using the expertise of academics

While the satellite transponder time was supplied free of charge by

Preparation for the broadcasts began in September 1985, with the

an audio-only exchange follow a viewing of the tape? The satellite

BADDOURI, K. Faculte des Sciences, Rabat (Morocco). 1987. Experiences dans

Nearly all features determining courseware development for distance

Students following technical courses need some kind of workshop

The Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) is a specially created,

The Open University of Sri Lanka represents a novel concept in Sri

the staff would not be considered as true university academics. Many

The technical education programme

Imparting a technical education through distance teaching has similar

posure to workshop practice, industrial work, and repairing or using

BASIC TRAINING PROGRAMME

A basic training module has been designed to provide workshop experi-

SPECIFIC TRAINING PROGRAMME

These training programmes depend on the field of study, and comprise

Experience at the OUSL shows that it is possible to provide distance

Appendix 1. The Open University of Sri Lanka: programmes of study

01 Certificate in Pre-school Education

Appendix 2. The Open University of Sri Lanka:

Programme of study 1981 1982-85 1984 1985 1986 1987

Ambalangoda 103 196 196 103

Jaffna 0 0 1 245 2 0 4 15 0 38 28 0 287 46 c

A new dimension in the internationalization of higher level education and

Professor Harold W. Lawson is a member of the Swedish International University

In December 1985, a concept proposal for the creation of a Swedish

Organization and initial consortium members

A consortium was formally initiated in June 1987. The initial consor-

The consortium board and chancellery, through their activities, aim

The students and their financing

However, for the majority of the programmes, the goal is to achieve a

Achieving a successful consortium

There are, in fact, many public- and private-sector actors involved in

Fig. I. A symbiotic environment.

consortium. Providing a basis for the required formal and informal

Sweden has a worldwide reputation for quality based upon the

in business, economics, management and administration. Furthermore.

Science and engineering

Computing and information processing

Admissions and tuition

Each programme specifies its own specific admission requirements.

The consortium chancellery is pleased to provide further information,

While the importance of continuing education for engineers and tech-

Professor J. P. Gupta is at the Department of Chemical Engineering, the Indian Institute

The root cause of the modern preoccupation with continuing education

The industrial worker

The need to innovate

education ought first to be taught or inculcated. There should be close

The role of industry

Industrial enterprises can play a crucial role in providing opportunities

The role of the professional schools

Table I. Different levels of training

Extensive Simple Features/

I. Continuing Education Programme in Robotics. Department of Mechanical Engineer-

Table 2. Classes of training for different personnel