Gametogenesis
- Gametogenesis is the process whereby
a haploid cell (n) is formed from a
diploid cell (2n) through meiosis and
cell differentiation.
- Male gametogenesis is called
Spermatogensesis and it produces
spermatozoa
- Female gametogenesis is called
Oogenesis and it results in the
formation of ova.
Spermatogenesis
- Occur in testes particularly in
seminiferous tubules
- Starts in spermatogonium.
- Involves 3 processes:
1. Spermatocytogenesis -
spermatogonium to spermatocytes
2. Spermatidogenesis - spermatocytes
to spermatids
3. Spermiogenesis – spermatids to
sperm
- Hypothalamus begins to secrete high
pulses of GnRH/ Gonadotropin
Releasing Hormone.
- Pituitary gland releases FSH/ Follicle
Stimulating Hormone and LH/
Leuteinizing Hormone.
- FSH causes Sertoli cells of the testes to
begin the process of spermatogenesis in
the testes.
- LH triggers the production of
testosterone from the lyedig cells of the
testis.
- Spermatogonia is the stem cell in the
outer walls of the tubules.
- Primary Spermatocytes are
spermatoginum which are divided
mitotically to replace themselves and to
produce cells.
Oogenesis
- Oocytogenesis is a process that
develops primary oocytes
Fertilization
- The process where the sperm meets the
egg .
- Types :
1. External Fertilization - strategy of
fertilization in which a sperm cell
unites with an egg cell in the open,
rather than inside specialized
organs within the bodies of the
parents
2. Internal Fertilization - gametes
meet inside of the female’s body,
protecting the fertilized egg from
predation and harsh environments
2a. Copulation - involves the insertion
of the penis or other intromittent organ
into the vagina (in most mammals) or to
the cloaca in monotremes
2b. Cloacal Kiss - consists in that two
animals touch their cloacae together in
order to transfer the sperm of the male
to the female (in most birds).
3. Ovoviviparity - egg held within
female
4. Viviparity - development within
female followed by live birth
5. Oviparity - egg laid outside female
- Embryonic Differentiation is the
process in which embryonic cells
specialize and diverse tissue structures
arise.
- Polarity in Embryogenesis
1. Animal Pole - consists of small cells
that divide rapidly, is thought to
differentiate into the later embryo
itself, forming the three primary
germ layer and participating in
gastrulation
 2. Vegetal Pole - contains large yolky
cells that divide very slowly, is
thought to differentiate into the
Organogenesis
extraembryonic membranes that
protect and nourish the developing
embryo
Cleavage
- a process of rapid and synchronous
mitotic cell divisions of the zygote to
form numerous cells for building up the
offspring’s body
- ends with the formation of the blastula
- The cleavage cell cycle comprises only 2
phases : M and S.
Growth and Differentiation
- Shape of the embryo does not change
during cleavage because there is no
movement of blastomeres.
- Types of Cleavage:
1. Indeterminate Cleavage – if cells
are separated, each has the
potential to develop into an entire
organism
2. Determinate Cleavage – if cells are
separated, they will die.
Gastrulation
- The process in which the blastula folds
over itself to form the three germ
Female Reproductive System
layers.
- a phase early in the embryonic
development of most animals, during
which the single-layered blastula is
reorganized into a multilayered
structure known as the gastrula.
- 3 Germ Layers:
1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
- 5 Basic Types of Cell Movement During
Gastrulation
1. Invagination
2. Involution
3. Ingression
4. Delamination
5. Epiboly
- the formation and development of the
organs of an organism from embryonic
cells
- a process by which the three germ
tissue layers of the embryo develop into
the internal organs of the organism
- Examples of Germ Layers Outcomes:
1. Ectoderm- epidermis of skin
2. Mesoderm – Kidneys
3. Endoderm- Pancreas
- the process of development by which
embryonic cells specialize and diverse
tissue structure arise
- refers to the organism’s increase in
mass and size as a result of division of
the fertilized egg and its descendant
cells
- Embryonic Coverings:
1. Yolk Sac – surrounds the yolk
2. Amnion – fills with amniotic fluid
3. Chorion – respiratory organ
4. Allantois- depository organ
- Parts and Function:
1. Egg Tubes (Oviduct) -the vessel
through which egg cell travels to
the uterus.
2. Ovaries –
3. Uterus- holds the fertilized egg and
nurtures it till it is a fully developed
baby.
4. Cervix - The cervix is a ring of
muscle located at the lower third
portion of the uterus.
5. Vagina - This is an elastic, muscular
canal that connects the cervix to
the outside of the woman’s body.
 - Female External Genitalia:
1. Mons Pubis -fatty pad over the
pubic symphysis
2. Labia majora and minora -folds of
skin encircling vestibule where find
urethral and vaginal openings
3. Clitoris - small mass of erectile
tissue
4. Bulb of Vestibule - masses of
erectile tissue just deep to the labia
on either side of the vaginal orifice
5. Perineum - Area between the
vagina and anus
- Bartholin’s Gland secrete fluid to
lubricate vagina
- Mammary Gland are modified sweat
glands that produces milk.
Male Reproductive Sytem
- Parts and Function
1. Penis – used for sexual intercourse
2. Scrotum – climate control system
3. Testicles (testes) – responsible for
making testosterone(primary male
sex hormone for generating sperm)
4. Epididymis – coiled tube at the back
of the testes. Transports and stores
sperm.
5. Vas Deferens – transports mature
sperm to urethra
6. Ejaculatory Ducts – these are
formed by fusion of vas deferens
and seminal vesicle.
7. Urethra – tube that carries urine
from the bladder. Also responsible
for ejaculating semen.
8. Seminal Vesicle – sac like pouches
that attach to the vas deferens.
9. Prostate gland – additional fluid to
ejaculate. Nourishes the sperm.
10. Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s
gland) – produces a clear, slippery
fluid that empties directly into the
urethra.
11. Pubic Symphysis – a cartilaginous
joint that sits between and joins left
and right the superior rami of the
pubic bones.
12. Prepuce (Foreskin) – provides an
adequate mucosa and skin to cover
the entire penis during erection
13. Glans Penis – can be described as
the rounded head of the penis
“head”
Morula and Blastocyt
- Morula is an early-stage embryo
consisting of 16 cells (called
blastomeres) in a solid ball within the
Zona pellucida.
- Blastocyst an early-stage embryo
consisting of 32 or more cells within the
Zona pellucida and it is formed from
continuous cell divisions from a morula.
- Trophoblast are specialized cells in the
walls of a morula or a blastula which are
responsible for blastocyst implantation
as well as interactions with the
maternal uterus.
- The inner cell mass is a considerable
group of cells found at the blastocyst
cavity (blastocoel) surrounded by the
trophoblast.
- blastocoel is a fluid-filled cavity that
forms in the animal hemisphere of early
amphibian and echinoderm embryos, or
between the epiblast and hypoblast of
avian, reptilian, and mammalian
blastoderm-stage embryos.
- blastocyst cavity is the fluid-filled cavity
of the blastula that results
from cleavage of the oocyte (ovum)
after fertilization.
Implantation
- the stage of pregnancy at which the
embryo adheres to the wall of uterus.
 - Mechanisms in Implantation:
1. Zona hatching – the blastocyst’s thick
layer of glycoproteins called zona
pellucida disintegrates
2. Apposition – the very first, albeit
loose connection between the
blastocyst and the endometrium
layer
3. Adhesion – much stronger
attachment to the endometrium than
the loose apposition
4. Invasion – even further
establishment of the blastocyst in the
endometrium.
Uterine Cycle
- 3 Phases:
1. Menstruation- first phase of uterine
cycle
2. Proliferative – late and early phase
3. Secretory- final phase
Stages of Human Life
1. Pregnancy - The development of a
zygote into an embryo and then
into a fetus in preparation for
childbirth.
2. Infancy - The earliest part of
childhood. It is the period from
birth through age one.
3. Toddler years - Occur during ages
two and three and are the end of
early childhood.
4. Childhood - Takes place from ages
four to eight.
5. Puberty - The period from ages nine
to thirteen, which is the beginning
of adolescence.
6. Older adolescence - The stage that
takes place between ages fourteen
and eighteen.
7. Adulthood - The period from
adolescence to the end of life and
begins at age nineteen.
8. Middle age - The period of
adulthood that stretches from age
thirty-one to fifty.
9. Senior years, or old age - Extend
from age fifty-one until the end of
life.
Human Gestation
- Gestation is the period of development
during the carrying of an embryo or
fetus inside viviparous animals.
- 3 stages of gestation:
1. First Trimester (week 1-12)
2. Second Trimester (week 13-27)
3. Third Trimester (week 28-40)
Ovarian Cycle
- Stages:
1. Follicle Phase - first day of
menstruation starts
2. Ovulation - Release of the mature
egg from the surface of the ovary
3. Luteal Phase - The egg cell released
during the ovulation phase stays in
the fallopian tube for 24 hours.
Life Cycle of Fruit Flies
- Drosophila melanogaster
- Life Cycle:
1. Egg – up to 500 eggs an be laid
2. Larva – maggots
3. Pupa
4. Adult
Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
- Twins are two offspring produced by
the same pregnancy
- Types of Twins:
1. Monozygotic Twins - identical
twins/ genetically identical
2. Dizygotic Twins - fraternal
twins/ similar genetically as any
other brother or sister
Haplontic Life Cycle of Green Algae Chara
- Chara is a fresh water, green alga found
submerged in shallow water ponds,
tanks, lakes and slow running water.
- They adapt vegetative reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction of Chara
homothallic
Diplontic Life Cycle
- Type of life cycle found in flowering
plants (and in most animals). The
organism is in the diploid stage (all cells
are diploid in chromosome number)
except for mature, haploid sex cells
which are called gametes.
Haplodiplontic Life Cycle
- Unlike animals, plants have multicellular
haploid and multicellular diploid stages
in their life cycle.
- Gametes develop in the multicellular
haploid gametophyte
- Fertilization gives rise to a multicellular
diploid sporophyte, which produces
haploid spores via meiosis.
- This type of life cycle is called a
haplodiplontic life cycle
Gametogenesis and Gametophyte
- Gametophyte is the development
through gametogenesis.
a. Male Gametophyte – the
microsporangium in the another
contains numerous
microsporocytes.
b. Female Gametophyte - the
megasporangium in the ovule
contains megasporocytes.
- Gametogenesis involves stages in
plants:
1. Sporogenesis – formation of
spores
2. Gametogenesis – formation of
gametes
- Formation of male gametes
(angiosperms):
1. Microsporogenesis – holds
hundreds of microsporocytes.
2. Microgametogenesis – formation of
vegetative and generative cell
- Formation of female gametes
(angiosperms):
1. Megasporogenesis - The
megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis to form 4 haploid
megaspore.
2. Megagametogenesis - The
megaspore nucleus now begins to
divide mitotically to form 8 nuclei.
Pollination
- Female Reproductive System (Plants)
1. Stigma- the part of the pistil where
the pollen germinates.
2. Style- the stalk that supports the
stigma and connects it to the ovary.
3. Pollen Tube- it is where the pollen
(male sex cell) travels in order for it
to reach the ovary.
4. Ovary- The enlarged basal portion
of the pistil where ovules are
produced and it serves as the
female sex organ of the flower.
5. Ovule- is the structure inside the
ovary which is the female sex cell
and it becomes a seed when
fertilized by a male sex cell.
6. Pistil- comprises of all the parts
listed above. It is generally the
female reproductive system of a
flower. Groups of pistils are called
Gynoeciums.
- Male Reproductive System (Plants)
1. Anther- The part of the stamen
where pollen (male sex cell) is
produced. It is the structure at the
top of the stalk(filament).
2. Filament- a stalk-like structure that
attaches to the base of the flower
and supports the anther.
3. Stamen- considered as the male
reproductive system of the flower.
It comprises of the anther and
filament. Groups of stamens are
called Androeciums.
- Accessories:
1. Sepal- The outer parts of the
flower (often green and leaf-like)
that enclose a developing bud. It
also secures the developing embryo
inside. All of them togtehr is know
as the Calyx.
2. Petal- The parts of a flower that are
often conspicuously colored. Its
purpose is to attract insects to
make the agents of pollination. All
the petals together are called
Corolla.
3. Receptacle- The part of a flower
stalk where the parts of the flower
are attached. It is the serves as the
base which supports the entire
flower.
4. Peduncle- the stalk of the flower
beneath the receptacle.
5. Phloem- food transporter bundle.
6. Xylem- water transporter bundle.
7. Cambium- responsible for dividing
the vascular bundles and it gives the
plant its rigidity.
- Kinds of Flowers:
1. Bisexual or Perfect Flower- A kind
of flower which carries both the
pistil and stamen. It can pollinate
with itself and reproduce.
2. Unisexual or Imperfect Flower - A
kind of flower which carries only
one of the reproductive parts. It still
needs another flower or plant for
pollination.
- Pollination is the transfer
of pollen from a male part of a plant to
a female part of a plant, enabling
later fertilization and the production
of seeds, most often by an animal or
by wind.
- Kinds of Pollination:
1. Self-Pollination - the pollen only
goes to the stigma of the very same
flower.
2. Cross-Pollination- the pollen moves
from a certain flower to another
flower of the same species.
Plant Embryogenesis
- the process of production of plant
embryo from a zygote.
- Stages:
1. Single Cell
2. Polarity
3. Basal Cell divides
4. Two celled pro-embryo
5. Four celled pro-embryo
6. Octant stage
7. Globular stage
8. Heart Shaped Stage
9. Torpedo Stage
10. Walking Stick Stage
Seedling Growth to Mature Plant
- Types of Germination
1. Epigeal – cotyledons appear above
the ground
2. Hypogeal – cotyledons remain
underground
 - Types of Meristems 4 Major Whorls
1. Apical Meristems – tips of stems
- whorl or verticil is an arrangement of
and roots
sepals, petals, leaves, stipules or
2. Lateral Meristems – facilitate
branches that radiate from a single
growth in thickness or girth in
point and surround or wrap around the
maturing plants
stem.
3. Intercalary – occur in some
- A whorl consists of at least three
monocots, at bases of leaf blades.
elements, a pair of opposite leaves is
- Primary Growth in Roots:
not called a whorl.
1. Zone of Cellular Division- contain
- The 4 whorls:
apical mersitem
1. Calyx : a whorl of sepals at the
2. Zone of Cellular Elongation –
base.
location of newly formed cells are
2. Corolla : a whorl of petals above
growing
the calyx.
3. Zone of Cellular Maturation –
3. Androecium : a whorl of stamens,
location of new elongated cells
each comprising a filament and an
complete their differentiation
anther.
Double Fertilization 4. Gynoecium : a whorl of the female
parts of a flower:
- A complex fertilization mechanism that
the stigma, style and ovary.
has evolved in flowering
plants(angiosperms)

Flower a. Calyx
- Outermost whorl of a flower
- made up of sepals
b. Corolla
- Composed of flowers’ petals
- the first 2 whorls of the flower--- the
calyx and the corolla are collectively
called as perianth.
c. Androecium
- Comprising of filament and anther.
d. Gynoecium
- Found in the center of the flower
- Types of flower based on whorls:
- Comprises of style, stigma and ovary
1. Complete flower- flower with
sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
2. Incomplete Flower- a flower that
lacks one or more of the floral
whorls.

Maturation of Ovary and Ovule

- Ovary becomes the Fruit

- Ovule becomes the Seed
Plant Nutrition  Micronutrient - required in
minute or trace amounts
- Nutrition is the study of all of the
only.
interactions that occur between people
and food. Macronutrient
- Nutrient refers to any substance
- C, H, O, S, P, Mg, Ca, K, N
required for the growth and
- Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen
maintenance of an organism.
 Functions as the major
- Nutrients provide energy, structure and
components of plant’s organic
regulate process that keep us alive.
compounds.
Types of Organisms Based on the Mode of - Sulfure
Nutrition  Available to plants in the form
of sulfates.
1. Autotrophs - self-feeding, obtain
 Adversely affect chlorophyll
energy from sunlight and chemicals
synthesis.
to produce their own food.
 chlorosis (yellowing) of leaves
 2 types of Autotrophs:
- Phosphorus
Photoautotrophs-
 Occurs in the form of
uses light as an
phosphate.
energy source.
 Promotes healthy root growth
Performs
and fruit ripening by aiding in
photosynthesis.
the translocation of
Chemoautotrophs-
carbohydrates.
obtain energy from
 premature leaf development,
inorganic chemical
dead patches in leaves,
processes. Usually
petioles, fruits and visible
bacteria.
purple colors develop.
2. Heterotrophs – organisms that
- Magnesium
cannot make their own food and
 constituent of chlorophyll and
obtain energy from other
protoplasm. It is essential for
organisms.
formation of carbohydrates,
 Types of Heterotrophs:
fats and vitamins. It also
Herbivore
stimulates phosphorus uptake
Carnivore
and transport.
Omnivore
 chlorosis occurs, withering,
Decomposers
defoliation and presence of
- Nutrient requirements of plants are :
necrotic spots (death of plant
1. Water – fluid of life
cells.
2. Carbon Dioxide - one of
- Calcium
the raw materials in
 Present in leaves as calcium
photosynthesis.
pectate
- Essential Nutrients and Elements
 Provides the base for
 Macronutrient – normally neutralization of organic acids.
required in amounts 0.5% Essential for fat metabolism.
of the plant’s dry weight.
  Irregular leaf margin and brown
scorching or spotting effects,
- Potassium
 Concerned with the formation
of carbohydrate and protein,
photosynthesis, respiration,
regulation, enzyme action.
 Shoots may die, scorched
around the edges and surfaces
are irregularly chlorotic.
- Nitrogen
 Protein synthesis
 Leafy growth
 Chlorosis of the leaves due to
decreased levels of chlorophyll,
stunted, grow slowly, and
produce fewer tillers than
normal.
Micronutrient
- Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, Bo, Cl
- Iron
 Acts as catalyst and an electron
carrier during respiration
 Chlorosis of the leaves
- Manganese
 Enhances root growth, disease
resistance and the development
of fruit.
 Chlorosis, necrotic spots on the
leaves.
- Copper
 Catalyst and regulator of plant
activities.
 Young leaves become dark
green, twisted and deformed.
- Zinc
 It regulates the equilibrium
between Carbon dioxide, water
and carbonic acid.
 shortened internodes with
excessive branching (resetting)
of small, dark green deformed
leaves.
- Molybdenum
 Constituent of an enzyme
 The leaf blade may fail to
expand in the growing leaves.
- Boron
 It plays a role in flowering,
pollen germination, pollen tube
growth and fruiting.
 Leaf blades may be distorted
and stems may become brittle
and crack.
- Chlorine
 Important in the opening and
closing of stomata.
 Wilting due to a restricted and
highly branched root system,
often with stubby tips
Structure and Functions of the Roots
- Anchorage of plant, Absorption of
water dissolved, Conduction of water
and minerals
Comparison of Root Systems
- Tap Root
 typical taproots include a
prominent main root directed
vertically downward with
numerous smaller lateral roots.
- Fibrous Root
 have many long slender roots of
about equal size with many
secondary and tertiary roots off
the main roots.
- Adventious Root
 arise from an organ in the plant
other than the root proper or
its branches.
Root Anatomy
- Root Cap
 Protects the apical meristem of
the roots.
 - Region of Cell Division
 A region of rapid mitosis which
produces new cells for root
growth
- Region of Elongation
 Responsible for the increase in
the length of the root
- Region of Maturation
 The cells in this region begins to
differentiate and develop
Cross-Section of Root
a. Epidermis – dermal tissue
b. Cortex – ground tissue
c. Endodermis -contains casparian
strips( band of altered walls in
endodermis)
d. Pericycle - -responsible for the
formation of the lateral branch
roots
e. Vascular Bundle – xylem and
phloem
Xylem- principal water-
conducting tissue of plants,
usually contains a
combination of vessels.
Phloem - principal food-
conducting tissue in
vascular plants
Special Absorptive Structures
- Root Hairs
 Slender extensions of
specialized epidermal cells that
increase the surface are
available for absorption.
- Root Nodules
 Localized swellings in roots of
certain plants where bacterial
cells exist symbiotically with the
plant.
- Mycorrhizae
 A symbiotic interaction
between a young root and a
fungus.
 2 types of Mycorrhizae
1. Ectomycorrhizal-
has mantle.
2. Endomycorrhizal-
no mantle in roots
Routes for Absorption
- Apoplast
 the apoplastic route, water and
solutes (dissolved chemicals)
move along the range of cell
walls and extracellularspaces.
- Symplast
 symplastic route, water and
solutes move along the field of
cytosol.
 After entering one cell,
substances can move from cell
to cell via plasmodesmata.
- Transmembrane
 water and solutes move out of
one cell, across the cell wall,
and into the neighboring cell,
which may pass them to the
next cell in the same way.
Nutritional Adaptation by Plants
- Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
 root nodules and rhizobacteria
- Symbiosis of plants and fungi
 often lack root hairs
- Parasitism
 Absorbs water, minerals,
products to host
- Predation
 Kapoy oi :<
Animal Nutrition as enzymes, hormones, parts of
muscles, and bones.
- Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates
 proteins also contain 4 Calories
the amount of energy contained in
per gram
food.
 Kwashiorkor is a condition
- The greater the number of Calories in a
resulting from inadequate
quantity of food, the greater energy it
protein intake.
contains
- Fats
 Calorie (Cal) =kilocalorie (kcal)
 are used to build cell
1Calorie = 1000 calorie (cal) 1
membranes, steroid hormones,
calorie = 4.18 Joules (J)
and other cellular structures;
- metabolic rate— the sum of all the
 contain higher amount of
energy used in biochemical reactions
energy per gram than
over a given time interval
carbohydrates or proteins,
 amount of energy an animal
about 9 Calories per gram.
uses in a unit of time
 ADD (Attention Deficit
- Animals use chemical energy harvested
Disorder) – a neurological
from the food they eat to fuel
disorder
metabolism and activity.
Essential Nutrients
Nutritional Requirements for Animals
- Essential amino acids
- Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats and
 Needed for the synthesis of
Essential Nutrients
proteins and enzymes; among
- Carbohydrates
the 20 amino acids
 Serve as a major energy source
 9 could not be synthesized by
for the cells in the body
humans: lysine, tryptophan,
 On the average, carbohydrates
threonine, methionine,
contain 4 Calories per gram.
phenylalanine, leucine,
 Carbohydrates are molecules
isoleucine, valine and histidine.
made up of carbon and water.
- Essential fatty acids
They come in three forms:
 the ones they cannot make, are
sugars, starches, and fiber.
certain fatty acids that contain
 Merasmus- a form of
one or more double bonds and
malnutrition. It happens when
are thus unsaturated.
the intake of nutrients and
 Example is linoleic acid in
energy is too low for a person's
humans.
needs. It leads to wasting, or
- Vitamins
the loss of body fat and
 Organic molecules required in
muscles.
small amounts for normal
- Proteins
metabolism
 Proteins can also be used as an
 Fat-soluble Vitamins: A D E K
energy source but the body
 Water-soluble Vitamins: B B2
mainly uses these as building
B3 B12 C
materials for cell structures and
 - Trace elements or minerals
 these form part of enzymes,
body tissues, and body fluids.
 iodine, zinc, molybdenum,
manganese, selenium
Endocytosis
- The cell takes in biological molecules
and particulate matter by forming new
vesicles from the plasma membrane.
- Types:
 Phagocytosis
 Engulfment of organic
fragments or big
particles
 Pinocytosis
 Uptake of extracellular
fluid by a cell using
small vesicles derived
from the plasma
membrane.
 Receptor-Mediated
 the membrane
receptor recognition of
specific solutes which
are then taken up by
the cell via receptor-
coated pits.
Types of Animals Based on Feeding
Mechanisms
- Substrate Feeders
 Animals that live in or on their
food source.
 Caterpillars
- Filter Feeders
 Include many aquatic animals
which draw in water and strain
small organisms and food
particles present in the medium
 Humpback whale’s baleen
- Fluid Feeders
 Suck fluids containing nutrients
from a living host
 Mosquitoes
- Bulk Feeders
 Eat relatively large chunks of
food
 Mr Bean :> wa nakoi lingaw
Kinds of Digestive Compartments in Animals
- Food vacuoles in unicellular organism
- Gastrovascular cavity/ incomplete
digestive system
- Complete digestive system/ alimentary
canal
Digestive System
- physically and chemically breakdown
food products so that they can be
absorbed and transported to cells.
 Pathway:
ingestion digestion absorption and
transport assimilation oxidation
(energy) storing excretion (egesting)
- Types of digestion:
 Intracellular Digestion
 occurs in sponges,
coelenterates
 Extracellular Digestion
 occurs in chordates,
annelids, and
crustaceans
Feeding on Particulate Matter
- Suspension Feeders
 use ciliated surfaces to produce
currents that draw drifting food
particles into their mouths
 - Types of Suspension Feeders: Teeth Anatomy
 Filter Feeding
- Enamel: hardest substance in the body
 strain food from water
- Pulp Cavity: contains arteries, veins,
as it passes through
and nerves.
 Deposit Feeding
- Alveolus: made of alveolar bone
 pass the substrate
- Root: made of dentin
through their bodies,
- Gingiva: gum
removing nutrients
- Periodontal membrane: periosteum
from it.
found around the tooth
Overview of Digestion - Cementum: material that holds the
tooth in the alveolus.
- 2 main groups of organs in digestive
- Deglutition
system
 Reflex initiated by presence of
 Alimentary Canal(nutrition)
food in pharynx .
 Mouth
 Pharynx Stomach
 Esophagus
- Monogastric
 Stomach
- Ruminant
 Small intestine
- 4 compartments:
 Large intestine
 Reticulum
 Accessory Digestive Organs
 Rumen
 Teeth
 Omasum
 Tongue
 Abomasum
 Gall bladder
- J-shaped muscular organ
 Salivary glands
- Parts:
 Liver
 Cardiac
 Pancreas
 Fundic
Digestion in Mouth  Body
 Pyloric regions
- Prehension
- Regulation of Gastric Secretions are
 Bringing the food to the mouth
enhanced by gastrins.
- Mastication or Chewing
 To crush the food, increase Small Intestine
surface area and allow
- Composed of 3 segments:
enzymes to act on molecules
 Duodenum – releases bile
- The pH of the mouth is 7.2
 Jejunum- active site for nutrient
- Acids in mouth:
absorption
 Stomach acid
 Ileum
 Foods
 Waste product of mouth -pH of small intestine is 7.0
bacteria
- Mongastric teeth -ileocecal valve (sphincter) regulates flow into
 Mechanically reduce particle large intestine.
size
- Bile assists the breakdown of fats in small - Transpiration (evaporation of water
intestine. from the leaves) decreases at night,
when the vapor pressure gradient
Large Intestine
between the leaf and the atmosphere
- Final part of the digestive tract and has is less.
3 regions: - Closing the stomata will reduce water
 Caecum – short pouch that links loss; but limit CO2 uptake.
small intestine
Structures for Gas Exchange in Plants
 Colon – to convert the liquid
chyme into semi-solid faeces - The stomata of plants are surrounded
for storage and disposal by two sausage-shaped guard cells
 Excrete thru rectum and anus - Guard cells are distinctive because of
their cell wall construction: thicker on
Gas Exchange in Plants
the inside and thinner elsewhere
- the uptake of molecular oxygen from - This results in bulging out and bowing
the environment and the discharge of when they become turgid
carbon dioxide to the environment. - Guard cells regulate the opening and
- Sometimes called as respiration closing of stomata
- Cellular respiration obtain energy - When guard cells take in water from
- Gases involved in gas exchange are: neighboring cells by osmosis, they
 Oxygen become more turgid.
 Carbon dioxide - When the cells lose water and become
flaccid, they become less bowed, and
Basic Principles influencing gas exchange the pore closes.
1. Desiccation - Guard cells of most plants regularly
2. Rely on diffusion of gases down become turgid in the day (stomata
pressure gradients open), when photosynthesis occurs,
a. Partial pressures and become flaccid at night (stomata
b. Fick’s law closed), regardless of the availability of
i. Proportional to the water
surface area and - Transpiration rates increase with
inversely temperature and wind velocity because
proportional to the both conditions cause water molecules
thickness of to evaporate more readily
membrane. - When CO2 concentrations are high,
ii. R= Dap/d guard cells are triggered to decrease
3. Surface-to-Volume Ratio the opening
4. Ventilation - Lenticels are the epidermis of woody
5. Respiratory Pigments or Proteins stems breaks up to form tiny pores
- Pneumatophores are specialized root
Gas Exchange in Plants structures that grow out from the water
- The stomata and cuticle have evolved in surface and facilitate the aeration
response to one or both of these necessary for root respiration in
requirements hydrophytic trees
 - By opening and closing the stomata,
guard cells help balance the plant’s
requirement to conserve water with its
requirement for photosynthesis.
Plant Adaptation to Water Lost
- Xerophytes
 Plants that are adapted to live
in dry or arid environment
 Presence of deep invaginations
(stomatal crypts) in the
epidermal layer
- Crassulacean Acid Metabolism CAM
 a specialized form of
photosynthesis found in
succulents of the family
Crassulaceae and several other
families.
 the stomata can remain closed
during the day, when
evaporative stresses are
greater.
- Chlorophyll, the pigment that gives
leaves their green color, is one of the
first molecules to be broken down for
its nutrients.
- Leaves will change its color from green
to yellow (xanthophyll) and orange
(carotene)
- Deep red color is due to anthocyanin
which is associated with high sugar
content, low temperature and highlight
intensity.
Human Respiratory System
- Share responsibility with the
cardiovascular system for supplying the
body with O2 and disposing of CO2
- Nasal Cavity
 a space posterior to the nose
that is divided lengthwise by a
thin wall.

 Air enters or leaves the
respiratory system through
nasal cavities where air is
filtered by hair and cilia,
warmed by blood vessels, and
moistened with mucus
- Pharynx
 a funnel-shaped tube about 13
cm long that connects the
nasal cavity and the mouth to
the esophagus and the larynx.
 the throat
- Larynx
 the “voice box,”
 forms the junction between the
pharynx and the trachea and
houses the vocal cords.
- Trachea
 Windpipe
 a mobile, flexible tube about 12
cm long. It connects the larynx
to the bronchi.
- Bronchi
 are the first two branches of
the trachea.
 They enter the lungs and
branch into bronchioles.
- Lungs
 two bulky pinkish masses
which take up most of the
space in the chest cavity.
 right lung is divided into three
lobes and the left lung has two
lobes
- Diaphragm
 the main muscle involved in
respiration.
- Gas exchange takes place in the
alveoli.
-
The coordination of Gas Exchange and Respiratory Problems:
Circulation
- Asthma
- Oxygen Transport  Severe allergic reaction
 Oxygen diffuses down a characterized by the
pressure gradient from the constriction of bronchioles.
lungs into the blood plasma → - Emphysema
RBC → binds to hemoglobin (4  Condition in which the alveoli
molecules per hemoglobin). deteriorate, causing the lungs
 Hemoglobin gives up its oxygen to lose their elasticity.
in tissues where partial - Pneumonia
pressure of oxygen is low,  Condition in which the alveoli
blood is warmer, partial become filled with fluid,
pressure of carbon dioxide is preventing the exchange of
higher, and the pH is lower; gases.
- Carbon Dioxide Transport - Lung Cancer
 Carbon dioxide diffuses down  Irregular & uncontrolled growth
its partial pressure gradient of tumors in the lung tissue
from the tissues into the blood - Tuberculosis
plasma and red blood cells →  an airborne infectious disease
air in the alveoli. caused by organisms of the
 7% is dissolved in plasma, 23% Mycobacterium tuberculosis
binds with hemoglobin to form complex.
carbaminohemoglobin, and
70% is in bicarbonate form.
- Coordination of Air Flow with Blood
flow
 Gas exchange in the alveoli is
most efficient when air flows
equal the rate of blood flow.
 Carbon dioxide can dissolve in
plasma, and about 70% forms
bicarbonate ions.
- The nervous system controls oxygen
and carbon dioxide levels
- The brain monitors the pH of the
cerebrospinal fluid through sensors
- Secondary control is exerted by sensors
in the aorta and carotid arteries that
monitor blood levels of oxygen as well
as carbon dioxide (via blood pH).