FIGURE OF SPEECH
1) SYNECDOCHE some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: The face who launched a thousand ships.
2) SIMILE - an indirect association. Example: She is like a flower.
3) PERSONIFICATION - giving human attributes to an inanimate object
(animal, idea, etc.) Example: The sun is looking down on me.
4) OXYMORON - a self-contrasting statement.
Example: Loud silence
5) METONYMY - an association wherein the name of something is
substituted by something that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.
6) METAPHOR - a direct comparison.
Example: You are the sunshine of my life.
7) IRONY - the contrast between what was expected and what actually
happened.
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.
8) HYPERBOLE - an exaggeration.
Example: Cry me a river.
9) EUPHEMISM - creating a positive connotation out of something
negative.
Example: Comfort women (prostitute)
10) ELLIPSIS - omission of words in a sentence.
Example: She walked away and so the world turns....
11) ASYNDETON - not putting any connectors (conjunctions or
prepositions).
Example: No retreat, no surrender
12) APOSTROPHE - a direct address to an abstract things or a person
who passed away.
Example: Love, please come and take me!
The Top 20 Figures of Speech
1. Alliteration - the repetition of an initial consonant sound.
2. Anaphora - the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning
of successive clauses or verses.
3. Antithesis - the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.
4. Apostrophe - reaking off discourse to address some absent person or
thing, some abstract quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent
character.
5. Assonance - identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in
neighboring words.
6. Chiasmus - a verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression
is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed.
7. Euphemism - the substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered
offensively explicit.
8. Hyperbole - an extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for
the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.
9. Irony - the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning.
Also, a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the
appearance or presentation of the idea.
10. Litotes - a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which
an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite.
11. Metaphor - an implied comparison between two unlike things that
actually have something important in common.
12. Metonymy - a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is
substituted for another with which it's closely associated; also, the
rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things
around it.
13. Onomatopoeia - the use of words that imitate the sounds associated
with the objects or actions they refer to.
14. Oxymoron - a figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory
terms appear side by side.
15. Paradox - a statement that appears to contradict itself.
16. Personification - a figure of speech in which an inanimate object or
abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities.
17. Pun - aplay on words, sometimes on different senses of the same
word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.
18. Simile - a stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as")
between two fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in
common.
19. Synecdoche - a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent
the whole (for example, ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part
("England won the World Cup in 1966").
20. Understatement - a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker
deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is.
LITERATURE
Robert Browning - dramatic monologue style of writing
· Wole Soyinka - 1st African Nobel Laureate
· PLOT - most important in Aristotle's Poetics
· "The Prince" by Niccollo Machiavelli - a political power handbook
· "The Little Prince" by Antoine de Saint-Exupery
· Fyodor Dostoevsky - most common theme of writing: enormous
contradictions of human nature
· Lyric poetry - about emotions/feelingsb musical accompaniment; not
intended to be sung
· Ballad - narrative poem; intended to be sung
· Epistolary - a compilation of works or series of documents or letters with
connection; popular in the 18th Century
· Picaresque - stories about the adventures of a low-class indivudual
(example: Robinhood)
· Mahabharata - the true epic of India with mythology and religion
· Gilgamesh - 1st heroic narrative of world literature
· "Ode to a Grecian Urn" by John Keats - about beauty; "A thing of beauty
is a joy forever."
· "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy - about the Napoleonic invasion of
Russia
· "Kublai Khan" by Coleridge - a collection of dreams stimulated by drugs
· HAIKU - Japanese poem about transitoriness of life; captures a moment
to memorialize
· Lord Tennyson works:
-Break, break, break
-Breaking the Bar
-In Memoriam
-My Last Duchess
· Blank verse poetry - no rhyme; with meter
· Free verse - no rhyme; no meter; a characteristic of Modernism poetry
· "A Rose is a Rose, is a Rose" by Gertrude Stein - she is one of the "Lost
Generation" writers
· Filipino local color style - Manuel Arguilla's "How My Brother Leon
Brought Home A Wife"
· American local color style - Mark Twain's (Samuel Langhorn Clemens)
"Adventures of Huckleberryfin"and "Life on Mississippi"
· Marks of Post-Modernism:
-intertextuality
-metafictionality
· "The Filipino Rebel" by Stevan Javellana - story of a woman torn
between love & obedience
· "A Child of Sorrow" - 1st English Philippine novel
· "Bamboo in the Wind" by Azucena Grajo Urranza - last desperate effort
of Filipinos to be free from colonization
· Sucesos Felices - 1st newsletter in the Philippines.
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
● John Locke -was an English philosopher and physician "Father of
Liberalism”; to form character (mental, physical, and moral); Education as
Training of the mind/Formal discipline ; Notable ideas - "Tabula rasa"
● Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist,
orator and author. "Father of scientific method" "Father of empiricism"
● Jean Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher,
writer and composer of the 18th century. “holistic education"(physical,
moral, intellectual)
Notable ideas - moral simplicity of humanity; child centered learning;
Famous novel: "Emile" or On Education; Human Development
● Edgar Dale was an American educator who developed the "Cone of
Experience"
aka "Father of Modern Media in Education"
● Erik Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist
and psychoanalyst known for his theory on "psychosocial development" of
human beings.
● Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss pedagogue and educational
reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. "Social
regeneration of humanity" Notable ideas: "Four-sphere concept of life" his
motto was “Learning by head, hand and heart"
● Friedrich Frobel was a German pedagogue a student of Pestalozzi who
laid the "foundation of modern education" based on the recognition that
children have unique needs and capabilities. "Father of kindergarten"
● Johann Herbart was a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of
pedagogy as an academic discipline. ;
● Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist ; " Father of
Modern educational psychology; connectionism; law of effect. ; "Realize
the fullest satisfaction of human wants"
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
● IDEALISM Plato (own ideas) nothing exist except in the mind of a man/
what we want the world to be
● REALISM –
Aristotle; Herbart; Comenius; Pestalozzi; Montessori; Hobbes; Bacon;
Locke
(experience) fully mastery of knowledge
● BEHAVIORISM –
Always guided by standards/by procedure; purpose is to modify the
behavior
● EXISTENTIALISM
-Kierkegaard; Sartre; "Man shapes his being as he lives"
-Focuses on self/individual
● PRAGMATISM/EXPERIMENTALISM
-William James; John Dewey - learn from experiences through interaction
to the environment
-Emphasizes the needs and interests of the children
● PERENNIALISM
Robert Hutchins
focuses on unchanging/universal truths
● ESSENTIALISM
-William Bagley - teaching the basic/essential knowledge
-Focuses on basic skills and knowledge
● PROGRESSIVISM
Dewey/Pestalozzi (process of development)
focuses on the whole child and the cultivation of individuality
● CONSTRUCTIVISM
-JeanPiaget
-Focused on how humans make meaning in relation to the interaction b/w
their experiences and their ideas. Nature of knowledge w/c represents an
epistemological stance.
● SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM
George Counts - recognized that education was the means of preparing
people for creating his new social order highlights social reform as the aim
of education
➡ ACCULTURATION - learning other culture; the passing of
customs, beliefs and tradition through interaction and reading.
➡ ENCULTURATION - the passing of group's custom, beliefs and
traditions from one generation to the next generation
➡ Convergent questions - are those that typically have one correct
answer.
➡ Divergent questions - also called open-ended questions are used
to encourage many answers and generate greater participation of
students.
PRINCIPLES & THEORIES OF LEARNING & MOTIVATION
● Psychosexual Theory/Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud
● Psychosocial Theory - Erik Erikson's Theory of Personality
● Ecological Theory - Eric Bronfenbrenner’s Theory of Development
● Sociohistoric Cognitive Linguistic Theory - Lev Semanovich Vygotsky
● Cognitive Development - Jean Piaget; John Dewey; Jerome Brunner
● Phenomenology - Abraham Maslow; Carl Rogers; Louis Raths
● Behaviorism - Edward Thorndike; Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus Frederick
Skinner
● Moral Development - Lawrence Kohlberg
● Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning
● Edward Thorndike - connectionism
● B.F. Skinner - operant conditioning & reinforcement
● Albert Bandura - "bobo doll" experiment; modelling; self eficacy
● David Ausubel - Meaningful Reception Theory
● Jerome Bruner - Discovery Learning Theory/Inquiry method
● Wolfgang Kohler's - Insight Learning Problem
● Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin's - Information Processing Theory
● Robert Gagne's - Cumulative Learning Theory
● Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligence
● Kurt Lewin's - Field Theory/ his concept of life space
● Brofenbrenner's - Ecological System Theory
● Lev Vygotsky - Social Constructivism;
✔JEAN PIAGET -- " the school should be creating men & women
who are capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other
generation have done.
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
1.SENSORY MOTOR (BIRTH - 2y/o) -- infants knowledge.
2.PRE-OPERATIONAL ( 2-7y/o) -- pretent to play but still struggle with
logic,mental symbols interest.
3.CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-11) -- think logically, hypothetically and
concepts, solve problems
4.FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11-UP) -- deductive reasoning and
understanding of abstract ideas, think symbolically.
===================================
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG -- "right action tends to be defined in terms of
general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined
& agreed upon by the whole society.
LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
1.PRE-CONVENTIONAL -- obedience & punishment
(consequences), individualism & exchange
2.CONVENTIONAL --interpersonal relationship, maintain social order.
3. POST-CONVENTIONAL -- social contract and individual rights,
universal principles, set of values and beliefs.
===================================
URIE BROFENBRENNER --
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY
MICROSYSTEM -- sorroundings of individual: family, friends,
neighborhood
MESOSYSTEM -- connections between context, school experiences to
church experience.
EXOSYSTEM -- includes other people and places that the child herself
may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY STAGES
1.Stage: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years)
Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Important Events: Toilet Training
Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of
autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
2. Stage: Preschool (3 to 5 years)
Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt
Important Events: Exploration
Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children
who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a
sense of guilt.
3.Stage: School Age (6 to 11 years)
Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority
Important Events: School
Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings
of inferiority.
4.Stage: Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Important Events: Social Relationships
Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.
5.Stage: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)
Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Important Events: Relationships
Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.

6.Stage: Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)

Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Important Events: Work and Parenthood
Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,
often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other
people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
7.Stage: Maturity(65 to death)
Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Important Events: Reflection on life
Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
Philosophers Related to Learners Development
*SIGMUND FREUD -- "the mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-
seventh of its bulk above water.
COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
ID -- pleasure center
EGO -- reality center
SUPER EGO -- conscience / judgment center.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEV'T
ORAL -- thumb sucking, biting
ANAL -- toilet training, control of their bowel.
PHALLIC -- sexual interest, genital stimulation.
LATENCY -- sexual urges & interest were temporary
GENITAL -- adult sexual interest and activities come to dominate.
Odipus complex - son vs father towards mother/wife feelings. (Excessive
attachment)(Phallic stage)
Electra complex - daughter vs mother towards father/husband feelings.
(Excessive attachment)(Phallic stage)
Personality Dynamics
LIFE INSTINCT
DEATH INSTINCT