CHAPTER – 3

REFLECTION PROBLEM

Operational Considerations and error source recognition

3.1 Camera Settings

Temperature Level

To assist the thermographer with the ‘out of range’ problems, modern day
cameras have a built-in function which saturates all temperature zones outside the
measuring range with an ‘overflow’ or an ‘underflow’ colour. Unfortunately, under
certain operating conditions this can present a problem, e.g., when inspecting
electrical panels. During a general survey of an electrical plant the thermographer
may have to carry out an internal inspection of a large number of panels. Often
these panels contain a considerable number of components varying in
temperature from near-ambient up to a few hundred degree, e.g., resistors can
often reach 300ºC. Temperatures of typical faults can be more like 100ºC or less.

During the survey, while viewing the image, the thermographer must be able to
immediately recognize what is being viewed in order to distinguish between faults
and normal operating temperatures. Under these conditions, when the ‘saturation’
mode is engaged, large areas of the thermogram may be blanked out by the
saturation colors, making it very difficult to recognize what the image represents.

When carrying out electrical surveys it is advised to disengage the ‘Saturation’

option and rely on the image, range and temperature displays to inform the
operator when ‘out of range’ conditions occur.

The lesson that a thermographer should learn from this is: do not be overly
impressed by the seemingly high quality of the picture, always watch the image
and the temperature and other parameters displayed to make certain the
instrument is operating within its correct settings.

When recording thermograms there are a few basic rules to remember:

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1. The thermogram should be in focus. Temperatures of hot spots recorded with

the camera out of focus tend to be lower than the true temperature to be
measured when the camera is correctly focused;
2. The temperature to be measured must not be outside the temperature
measuring range set on the instrument.

Although the modern software for processing images allows for a number of
features to be modified later, the features mentioned above must be set correctly
at the time of recording, since once saved, they can not be altered.

Most modern infrared cameras have a zoom function, but zooming is acquired
electronically rather than by optical means. Zooming, therefore, reduces the pixel
resolution of the thermogram. It is always advisable to set the camera so that the
object under investigation fills the field of view to the maximum.

The following series of thermograms of an electric kettle illustrate some of the

problems that can be encountered, and if a modern infrared camera could talk
perhaps this is what is would say:

Thermogram 1: Correctly presented Thermogram

Well done, you have managed to get
everything about right.

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Thermogram 2: Object too far away

Good effort but try to move closer to the
object so that you can recognize what
you are looking at. There may be
occasions when it is not possible to get
close enough to the object to fill the field
of view. There may be situations where
the object is even further away than
shown in Thermogram 2. Under these
conditions a situation may occur where
the image presented on the screen is so
small that accurate temperature
measurement is not possible. The
minimum size of image where
temperatures can still be accurately
measured is usually specified by the
camera manufacturer.

The thermographer should always be

aware of this limitation.

Thermogram 3: Object too near

You can carry out the temperature
measurements but it would be nice to
see what object you are inspecting.

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Theromgram 4: Object out of focus

Try again and get the object in better
focus.

THERMOGRAM 5 : Outside top temperature range

You have set me an impossible task.
The temperature you are trying to
measure is off the top of the
temperature range of -20ºC to 75ºC
selected. Re-set to a higher
temperature range and try again.

Themogram 6: Outside calibrated range

I have managed to give you a decent
looking thermogram and worked out the
temperatures you requested, but watch
it, you are working at the bottom of the
100ºC to 250ºC range. Therefore, the
temperatures indicates are in the un-
calibrated section of the temperature
range, and accuracy of measurement
cannot be guaranteed.

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 Reflection Problem

Thermogram 7: Below bottom temperature range

Again, you have set me an impossible
task. The temperature you are trying to
measure is off the bottom of the
temperature range of 100ºC to 250ºC
selected. I have tried my best and given
you a reasonably good looking picture
but your temperature scales and colours
are completely wrong. I am unable to
calculate the temperature you are trying
to measure. Re-set to a lower
temperature range and try again.

While discussing the generation of thermograms there is one more things to

remember. If the thermographer decides to use the ‘Isotherm’ function to indicate
and measure the highest temperature on the thermogram, then it is essential that
the camera level/span setting be adjusted so that the top temperature indicated on
the scale is higher than the maximum temperature to be measured. If this is not
done the Isotherm will be at the top edge of the scale, or may even be off the top
edge, making any temperature readings meaningless.

The above description is base on one make of infrared camera, and cameras
produced by different manufactures may incorporate different temperature ranges
and images displays. Nevertheless, the above principles should apply to any
modern infrared camera.

3.2 HIGH AMBIENT TEMPERATURES

Among the parameters having a bearing on accurate temperature measurements

are:

1. Atmospheric temperature in the vicinity of the infrared camera;

2. Ambient temperature in the vicinity of the object being surveyed, including
any temperature rise as a result of contributions from nearby hot objects.

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Note: Ambient temperature is generally defined as the average temperature of the

environment to which the object radiates. As shown in the examples below, small
errors in ambient temperature settings do not adversely affect temperature
measurement accuracy. However, this is not the case when ambient temperatures
as high, such as inside furnaces.

The example below shows the tubes inside an oil heater in a refinery
demonstrating a case where it is not wise to assume what the ambient
temperature might be. In this instance a camera fitted with a high temperature filter
was used, which allows measurement of temperatures of the tube with minimal
interference from the flame. Thermogram 8 shows the temperatures of the tube
and the support, with both atmospheric and ambient temperature compensation
set to 15ºC, i.e., with no ambient temperature correction. On the other hand,
Thermogram 9 takes the ambient temperature into consideration and, in this
instance, the temperature of the support bracket was used.

Thermogram 8: Oil Heater tubes

As can be seen, ignoring the ambient
temperature correction shows the tubes
to be approximately 24ºC warmer than
they actually are. Ignoring the effect of
the ambient temperature correction also
indicates a temperature at the support
tip higher than it actually is. If the tubes
were operating near the maximum
Thermogram 9: Oil Heater tubes
design temperature, then the elevated
reading could suggest that the tubes are
exceeding the safe limit. This would
cause anxiety among the furnace
operators and an incorrect report would
result.

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Figure 2 shows the thermal pattern of a layshaft bearing assembly in a hot air fan
unit. The front bearing is very close to the fan casing which operates at an
elevated temperature. There will, therefore, be some interaction between the hot
casing and the nearby objects.

When calculating temperatures, modern software takes into consideration the

‘ambient temperature’ and the ‘atmospheric temperature’. In this instance the
ambient temperature at the camera location was approximately 30ºC, but despite
this, the atmospheric temperature could be considerably higher, depending on
where measurements are taken. It is normally recommended that a ‘reflector’
method, such as a crinkled aluminium foil, is used to establish the temperature
contribution from the nearby hot objects to the atmospheric temperature. However,
in the illustrated example it may be difficult to determine the exact direction from
which the reflected heat is arriving at the camera lens. The layshaft shown in
Thermogram 10 and Figure 3 is located at a high level from the ground and there
are numerous surfaces at dangerously high temperatures. In such situations, from
a safety point of view, it may be wiser to assume, rather than measure, the
ambient contributed to the hot spot temperature calculations.

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Graph numbers and colours correspond to area (AR) numbers on the

thermogram.
Figure 2

Thermogram 10 Figure 3

Figure 2 shows the effect on ‘object temperature indication’ when varying the
ambient temperature compensation. It can be seen that ignoring the ambient
temperature in the calculations has a marginal effect at low ambient
temperatures. However, the measuring error can be significant if very high
ambient temperatures are present and these are not taken into consideration.
Thermal reflection is also discussed in section 3.3.

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3.3 REFLECTIONS

3.3.1 ELECTRICAL

Figure 4 and associated Thermograms 11 and 12 indicate the effect of reflected

heat when investigating an MCC panel terminal box.
Note the position of warm areas on the terminal box and panel changes with the
changes in view angle, as shown by the arrows. Also, although there appears to
be a ‘hot spot’ on the front face of the terminal box, the side wall is cold. The
movement of the ‘hot spot’ with the change in viewing angle is another indication
that the thermographer is dealing with a reflection.

Figure 4

Thermogram 11 Thermogram 12

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Figure 5 and associates Thermograms 13 and 14 show a reflection of heat from

a wall heater on the front face of an MCC panel. Note how the position of the
apparent ‘hot spot’ has moved with a slight change in viewing angle. Also note the
sharp edge to the anomaly, providing further evidence that the thermographer is
dealing with reflection.

Figure 5

Thermogram 13 Thermogram 14

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3.3.1 ELECTRICAL – Continued

Figure 6 and associated Thermograms 15 and 16 show a survey of metallic cable

terminal bolts which are a common source of reflections in many fuse boards.

Figure 6

Thermogram 15 Thermogram 16

Back plat inside panel

Often control panels may incorporate a reflective back plat and, as can be seen in
Figure 7 and Thermogram 17, the reflection of the thermographer is clearly
detected by the camera.
In such situations do not stand directly in front of the panel.

Figure 7 Thermogram 17

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Figures 8 and 9 and Thermogram 18 indicate the results of a survey of a vacuum

circuit breaker switch to busbar connectors, viewed from the top.

The connectors can be viewed from above the panel (Figure 9). It is seen that all
the surfaces in this area are very reflective and Thermogram 18 shows the switch
to busbar connectors, which are in good condition. It also shows the reflection of
the thermographer and the camera on the bright surfaces either side of the mesh
above the connectors.

Also note how the metal mesh provides a viewing window for the infrared camera
without adversely affecting temperature measurement.

Thermogram 18

Figure 8 Figure 9

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Figure 10
Another survey of a main panel fused
isolator shows how the position of an
apparent ‘hot spot’ changes with viewing
angle, clearly identifying it as a reflection,
as shown in Figure 10 and
Thermograms 19 and 20.

Thermogram 19 Thermogram 20

Reflection of a nearby transformer on the panel door

Reflection can be a common cause for erroneous measurement during surveys of

control room panels, as shown in Figure 11 and Thermogram 21. This is
particularly so in low and extra-low voltage situations where panel temperatures
can be very low and, therefore, reflections more noticeable.

Thermogram 21 Figure 11

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Reflections of a hot object on capacitor terminal links

Yet another example thermal reflection can be seen on capacitor terminal links,
shown in Figure 12 and Thermogram 22.

These capacitors form part of a power factor correction unit. In front of the
capacitors are hot windings and the heat generated is reflected on the copper links
between terminals.

Thermogram 22 Figure 12

Modern infrared cameras have an auto-adjust mode where, within a temperature

range, the span and the level are automatically set. Most of the time this can be
regarded as a useful feature. All the same, there are occasions when this can be a
hindrance, as is shown in Figure 13 and Thermogram 23 and 24 for a set of
busbars. In both instances the auto-adjust was activated before recording the
thermogram and the only difference between the two is the angle at which images
were captured.

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Figure 13 In Thermogram 23 there were no

reflections and the camera is tuned to the
general temperature of the busbars. In
Thermogram 24 a hot object is reflected
from one set of busbars. In this instance the
auto-adjust sets the scanner to include the
reflection. As can be seen, just a small re-
adjustment in the temperature span causes
the thermogram to appear completely
different. This may be confusing to an
inexperienced thermographer.

Thermogram 23 Thermogram 24

Thermograms 25 and 26 were recorded with auto-adjust activated between the

recordings. The only difference between the two is the viewing angle. A reflection
of a hot object can be seen on the terminals of the phase 2 fuse contacts in Figure
14 and Thermogram 25. The difference in temperatures is approximately 10ºC.
An inexperienced thermographer could possibly classify Thermogram 25 as a
defect and recommend invalid corrective action. Thermogram 26 confirms that
this decision would be incorrect.

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Figure 14
It is critical to the accuracy of results
and competence of thermographers that
they are aware of thermal reflections
and, wherever possible, produce
thermograms free of them.

Thermogram 25 Thermogram 26

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3.3.2 MECHANICAL

Bright cladding on insulated pipes – solar reflection and an insulation defect.

Reflections on reflective surface such as pipe cladding are another source of

concern for inexperienced thermographers, as shown in Figures 15-17 and
Thermograms 27-39.

Thermogram 27 Figure 15

Bright cladding on insulted pipes – a small defect and solar reflection

Thermogram 28 Figure 16

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Bright cladding on insulated pipes – reflection of nearby hot object (light)

Thermogram 29 Figure 17

Dome of cryogenic storage tank

Reflections occurring on a cryogenic storage tank is another situation where

difficulties may be encountered, as shown in Figure 18 and Thermogram 30.

Most of the surface of the tank dome is painted but there are new sections of
bright stainless steel cladding fitted in some areas, as indicated by the arrow in
Figure 18.

The dome was surveyed during the night. Note the reflection of cold sky on the
bright sections of the cladding. On the right side of Thermogram 30 a warmer
area can be seen which is a result of heat generated by the flare located on the hill
behind the tank, seen as background on the photograph.

This illustrated the point that the thermographer collecting the data must be aware
of the total environment around the target object and apply deductive reasoning to
identify, or if possible eliminate, reflections from data submitting for interpretation.

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 Reflection Problem

Figure 18

Thermogram 30

Pipe rack – recorded on a sunny cloudless day

Thermograms 31 and 32 and Figures 19 and 20 illustrate the types of reflections

that are likely to be met by a thermographer. These are solar reflection, reflection
of cold sky and reflection of a warm building wall, as can be seen in Thermogram
32 on the left side of the vertical section of the pipe.

Green arrow Solar reflection.

Blue arrow Reflection of cold sky.
Black arrow Reflections of nearby hot object such as pipe supports, or
reflections of other nearby reflections (secondary reflections.)

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Thermogram 31 Figure 19

Thermogram 32 Figure 20

3.3.3 SW vs LW

When dealing with reflective surfaces, thermal patterns can be greatly affected by
external heat sources such as solar radiation or nearby hot objects. However, with
experience it is relatively easy to distinguish between a genuine hot spot and a
reflected hot spot.

As shown in previous examples, the basic rules for identifying a reflection are:

1. Genuine hot spots do not alter their position on the viewed surface with the
change of viewing angle;
2. Reflected hot spots move across the viewed surface with the change of
viewing angle and often have sharp edges to the anomaly.

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Typically, solar reflections are encountered when surveying on bright day.

Elements such as outside busbars in switchyards, external insulated pipes
covered in metal cladding, outside reflective surfaces of building, etc., are subject
to solar reflection. It should be remembered that reflections of the clear sky can
be just as troublesome as those of the sun. When the camera is pointed towards
the sky it assumes that it is looking at an object at infinite distance, where the
temperature in outer space can be as low as -273ºC. Since the infrared camera has to
look through the atmosphere that may contain solid contaminant as well as a mixture of
gases, the actual temperature measured will be considerably higher. The actual value will
depend on the atmospheric content at the point of measurement. In practice, on a
cloudless day the sky temperature can be as low as -50ºC, and any reflections on bright
surfaces, such as new cladding. Appear as cold spots. On a cloudy or misty day the sky
temperature can rise considerably so that under certain conditions, it may even be higher
than the ambient air. In such cases, the reflection of the sky can appear as warm areas when
reflected from bright surfaces.

There is one distinct difference between the two types of reflection mentioned. The
intensity of the solar reflection, as seen by the infrared camera, is greatly influenced by the
type of detector used. Reflected radiation anomalies appear to be much more noticeable
when viewed with a Short Wave system (SW). When using Long Wave systems (LW) the
effect of reflected solar radiation is greatly reduced, or even eliminated. This is
demonstrated in Figure 21 and Thermograms 33 and 34 of metal clad pipes. However,
influence from nearby hot or cold objects is very similar, irrespective of the type of
instrument used, as can be seen in Thermogram 35 and 36 showing reflection of the
operator on a gloss-painted surface.

As noted, reflected hot or cold spots move across the viewed surface with the change in the
viewing angle. This is very noticeable when viewing objects at a relatively close range,
where a slight change in the viewing position produces a relatively large change in the
viewing angle. When surveying objects at long distance, shifting position may only produce
a small change in the viewing angle. In such situation it is difficult to see if the hot or cold
spot has shifted from its original position. This can be particularly troublesome when
surveying insulated objects that are clad in bright metal, as illustrated in some of the
examples below. In such situations there are other indicators that can be used by the
thermographer to determine what type of ‘anomaly’ is being viewed.

Solar reflection

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Reflections of the sun, or the cold sky, usually produce thermograms with a very
sharp change in temperature between the reflection and the normal surface.
Missing insulation under cladding can also produce a very similar thermal pattern
to solar reflection, but often the shape of the thermal pattern on top of the cladding
is different, and this can be used to distinguish between a genuine defect and a
reflection. For example, areas of insulation damage due to water ingress tend to
produce much more diffused thermal patterns.

Figure 21

Thermogram 33 Thermogram 34

Clad Pipes – Solar Reflection – SW Clad pipes – Solar Reflection – LW

Temperature ARO1 = 56.2ºC Temperature ARO1 = 28.5ºC

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Thermogram 35 Thermogram 36
Reflection on gloss painted surface - SW Reflection on gloss painted surface - LW

Figure 21 and Thermograms 33 and 34 show some metal clad pipes and solar
reflections. Although the cladding ties are still bright, the remainder of the
insulated pipes are well oxidized. Thermogram 33 was recorded with a short
wave (SW) system, whereas Thermogram 34 was recorded with a long wave
(LW) system. Note the difference in temperature readings.

As can be seen from the recorded temperatures, the LW systems is affected much
less by solar radiation. Still, this does not solve the problem. Al though the solar
‘glare’ is reduced, the pipes have absorbed energy from the sun and this is
detected by both infrared cameras. Thermograms 35 and 36 indicate reflections
on a gloss painted surface, using a SW and LW system, respectively.

Irrespective of which system is used, normally thermographic surveys are not

recommended under sunny conditions. Nevertheless, there are situations where
the energy from the sun can be advantageous, e.g., looking for moisture in
insulated roofs. The characteristics of wet and dry insulation are completely
different and, therefore, the energy stored in the insulation will also be different.
During the heating period the rise in temperature of wet areas will lag behind dry
zones and during the cooling period the reverse will occur.

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Reflections of hot objects

Figure 22
As can be seen in the example in Figure
22 and Thermogram 37 and 38, in
cases where there is no solar reflection
to consider, the SW and LW systems
behave similarly. Note the improved
quality of the picture of the LW system
when operating at low temperature
differences and near ambient
temperature.

Thermogram 37 Thermogram 38

3.4 SOFTWARE

Modern day infrared scanners are fully computerized and the software provided for
analysis of thermal images can range from very basic to highly advanced systems.
These software packagers are developed by manufacturers to suit their particular
equipment; it is not the intention of this book to discuss every system in detail, but
to highlight the more important features. However, most advanced software
systems will have a number of common features, such as those mentioned below.

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Data gathering and reporting

Modern day scanners usually store data on memory cards, such as ‘Flash’ or
‘Compact Flash’ the information from which can then be downloaded into the
computer for processing.

Most modern software packages have built-in templates for writing reports and
also have provisions for creating individual report templates for the user. These
templates allow for import of thermograms, data relating to the thermograms, as
well as digital photographs. Thermograms may also be altered by allowing
changes to settings such as thermal span and level, changes to parameters
related to the imported thermogram (such as the analysis tools), changing
paletters, etc. The software also allows for creation of text boxes, data tables and
temperature profile graphs to be included in the report as necessary.

More advanced software packages may also have facilities for trending events
over time, storage and management of data, etc.

Analysis tools

Spot Indicates a temperature at a selected location

Areas These can be box-shaped, circles or polygons and each can be set
to display maximum, average or minimum temperature within the
area

Lines Temperature profile lines; these can be straight or bendable and

can incorporate a cursor to highlight a point of interest.

Isotherms These highlight areas of temperature within a selected band.

Usually, various types of isotherms can be added, such as ‘above’,
‘below’, interval’, ‘dual above’ or ‘dual below’,. The isotherm in
Thermogram 39 is set to highlight the temperature band of 95ºC to
100ºC.

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Thermogram 39
The analysis tools mentioned above are
illustrated in Thermogram 39 and Figure
23.
For convenience, the temperatures are
superimposed onto the thermogram.
However, it is also possible to create a
table where the fields can be linked to
the data stored with the thermogram,
such as emissivity, ambient
temperature, atmospheric temperature,
object distance, relative humidity, data
and time of creation.
Figure 23

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