batteries
Article
Understanding Voltage Behavior of Lithium-Ion Batteries in
Electric Vehicles Applications
Foad H. Gandoman 1,2 , Adel El-Shahat 3, * , Zuhair M. Alaas 4 , Ziad M. Ali 5,6 , Maitane Berecibar 1,2
and Shady H. E. Abdel Aleem 7
Citation: Gandoman, F.H.; El-Shahat,
A.; Alaas, Z.M.; Ali, Z.M.; Berecibar,
M.; Abdel Aleem, S.H.E.
Understanding Voltage Behavior of
Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric
Vehicles Applications. Batteries 2022,
8, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/
batteries8100130
Academic Editor: Carlos Ziebert
Received: 22 July 2022
Accepted: 15 September 2022
Published: 20 September 2022
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Batteries 2022, 8, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100130
1 Research Group MOBI—Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre,
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
2 Flanders Make, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
3 Energy Technology Program, School of Engineering Technology, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
4 Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
5 Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Wadi Addawaser 11991, Saudi Arabia
6 Electrical Engineering Department, Aswan Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan 81542, Egypt
7 Department of Electrical Engineering, Valley High Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Science Valley Academy, Qalyubia 44971, Egypt
* Correspondence: asayedah@purdue.edu
Abstract: Electric vehicle (EV) markets have evolved. In this regard, rechargeable batteries such as
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries become critical in EV applications. However, the nonlinear features of Li-
ion batteries make their performance over their lifetime, reliability, and control more difficult. In this
regard, the battery management system (BMS) is crucial for monitoring, handling, and improving the
lifespan and reliability of this type of battery from cell to pack levels, particularly in EV applications.
Accordingly, the BMS should control and monitor the voltage, current, and temperature of the battery
system during the lifespan of the battery. In this article, the BMS definition, state of health (SoH)
and state of charge (SoC) methods, and battery fault detection methods were investigated as crucial
aspects of the control strategy of Li-ion batteries for assessing and improving the reliability of the
system. Moreover, for a clear understanding of the voltage behavior of the battery, the open-circuit
voltage (OCV) at three ambient temperatures, 10 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C, and 45 ◦ C, and three different SoC
levels, 80%, 50%, and 20%, were investigated. The results obtained showed that altering the ambient
temperature impacts the OCV variations of the battery. For instance, by increasing the temperature,
the voltage fluctuation at 45 ◦ C at low SoC of 50% and 20% was more significant than in the other
conditions. In contrast, the rate of the OCV at different SoC in low and high temperatures was
more stable.
Keywords: battery management system; electric vehicles; lithium-ion batteries; open-circuit voltage;
state of charge; state of health
1. Introduction
Due to announcing many electric vehicles (EVs) in 2020 in the EU, many companies
and firms have invested in gaining more market share in this hot area. One of the essential
components of future transportation systems is batteries [1]. Li-ion batteries have been
introduced as the leading alternative for providing electric energy for E-mobility applica-
tions’ power train. Lithium-ion batteries may be the best option for powering an EV in
modern transportation systems due to their high energy density, high energy efficiency,
long cycle life, and low weight [2]. Lithium-ion battery-powered EVs can classically travel
a certain distance only before their batteries need to be replaced. A battery charging system
and a new battery control strategy are necessary for EV applications because of the limited
usable range.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/batteries
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 2 of 17

a certain distance only before their batteries need to be replaced. A battery charging sys-
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 2 of 17
tem and a new battery control strategy are necessary for EV applications because of the
limited usable range.
Different rechargeable batteries have been introduced in the literature, and many
haveDifferent rechargeable
been given attention batteries have been
for operation introduced
in EVs. in theofliterature,
Other types and many
Li-ion battery cellshave
fre-
been given
quently useattention for operation
Carbon (C) and Lithiumin EVs. OtherOxide
Titanium types of Li-ion
(LTO) battery
anode cells frequently
materials, use
and Nickel-
Carbon (C) and Lithium
Manganese-Cobalt (NMC), Titanium Oxide (LTO) anode
Lithium-Ion-Phosphate materials,
(LFP), and Nickel-Manganese-
Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum-Ox-
Cobalt (NMC), Lithium-Ion-Phosphate (LFP), Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum-Oxide
ide (NCA), and Lithium-Ion Manganese Oxide (LMO) cathode materials. Besides, (NCA),Lith-
and
Lithium-Ion Manganese Oxide (LMO) cathode materials. Besides, Lithium-Sulfur
ium-Sulfur (Li-S), due to its advantages, is going to be a new set of Li-ion batteries, as (Li-S),
due to its advantages,
illustrated in Figure 1is[3].
going to be a new set of Li-ion batteries, as illustrated in Figure 1 [3].

Figure 1. Li-ion batteries in the automotive industry.

Figure 1. Li-ion batteries in the automotive industry.

The battery
The battery management
management system system (BMS)
(BMS) in in aa Li-ion
Li-ion battery
battery pack
pack is is critical
critical [4,5].
[4,5]. Con-
Con-
trolling discharging and charging, voltage monitoring, battery balancing,
trolling discharging and charging, voltage monitoring, battery balancing, temperature temperature man-
agement in cells
management in and
cellsbattery packs,packs,
and battery problems detection
problems and assessment,
detection communication
and assessment, communica- and
networking,
tion and system
and networking, dependability
and are all responsibilities
system dependability of the BMS [6,7].
are all responsibilities of theTheBMSBMS[6,7].
sys-
tem’sBMS
The fundamental,
system’s hardware,
fundamental, and software
hardware, aspects
and significantly
software aspects affect significantly
its overall performance
affect its
[8,9]. Currently, Li-ion battery pack BMS comprises monitoring
overall performance [8,9]. Currently, Li-ion battery pack BMS comprises of battery cells, input/output
monitoring of
current cells,
battery and voltage monitoring,
input/output currentcharging/discharging
and voltage monitoring, control, estimations of the control,
charging/discharging state of
charge (SoC)of[10,11],
estimations the
the state ofstate
chargeof (SoC)
health[10,11],
(SoH) [12], and of
the state thehealth
state (SoH)
of function [13],the
[12], and as state
well ofas
battery protection
function [14,15]
[13], as well and cellprotection
as battery balancing [14,15]
and equalization [16].
and cell balancing and equalization [16].
Li-ion batteries,
Li-ion batteries,dueduetotoaging,
aging,provide
provide metallic
metallic lithium
lithium plating
plating andand the the lithium
lithium den-
dendrite
dritesolid
and and solid electrolyte
electrolyte interphase
interphase layer,layer,
whichwhich
may may lead lead to dangerous
to dangerous failures
failures if oper-
if operated
ated under
under specificspecific conditions,
conditions, such such as overcharging,
as overcharging, over-discharging,
over-discharging, or running
or running at a
at a low
low temperature
temperature [17]. [17].
As a As a result,
result, BMS BMS fault detection
fault detection and diagnostic
and diagnostic functions
functions are crucial
are crucial for Li-
for battery-driven
ion Li-ion battery-driven
systems,systems, particularly
particularly for high-power
for high-power applications.applications.
ImprovingImproving
BMS and
SoH
BMSestimation algorithmsalgorithms
and SoH estimation for batteryfor system
batteryfault avoidance
system and lifetime
fault avoidance and improvement
lifetime im-
based
provementon the safe on
based operating
the safe envelope
operating (SOE)
envelopeassessment are vital functions
(SOE) assessment that playthat
are vital functions an
essential role in battery
play an essential role inperformance over time. over
battery performance Additionally, optimizationoptimization
time. Additionally, of power flow of
and grid capacity evaluation in the different SoC windows and
power flow and grid capacity evaluation in the different SoC windows and SOP of the SOP of the battery system
in termssystem
battery of fast inand high-power
terms of fast and charging solutions
high-power in EVs
charging are the in
solutions mainEVschallenges
are the main for
electricity
challengesutilities [18]. Thus,
for electricity the development
utilities [18]. Thus, the of development
the multi-domain novel
of the platform (digital
multi-domain novel
twin)
platformto provide
(digital atwin)
comprehensive
to provide aoverview regarding
comprehensive batteryregarding
overview aging keybattery
aspects, suchkey
aging as
SoH,
aspects,SOE,
such andas SoC
SoH,estimation
SOE, and SoC based on the non-invasive
estimation based on thediagnostic
non-invasive anddiagnostic
post-mortem and
degradations techniques, impacts
post-mortem degradations the fast-charging
techniques, solutions on the
impacts the fast-charging grid and
solutions on plays a vital
the grid and
role in the E-mobility battery strategy roadmap challenges. Additionally,
plays a vital role in the E-mobility battery strategy roadmap challenges. Additionally, the the development
of the multi-domain
development novel platformnovel
of the multi-domain to virtually
platformmodel the electrical
to virtually model grid
theand the operational
electrical grid and
demonstrators with superfast charging capabilities for evaluation of the short and long
impact of the superfast charging on the grid [19,20] (power quality, grid capacity, energy
management, etc.) will be valuable for the EVs, chargers, and grid suppliers in all the world.
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 3 of 17

Many research studies were conducted to advance a precise, robust, reliable, and
easy-to-use fault diagnostic method. The importance of creating an efficient system of fault
diagnostics for the evolution of Li-ion battery-powered systems was studied in ref. [13]. The
authors in ref. [21] presented a detailed synopsis of the failure process of Li-ion batteries
and potential remedies in a state-of-the-art review article. An overview of alternative
problem diagnostic techniques for Li-ion batteries was presented in ref. [22].
In this context, estimating the SoC, SoH, and open-circuit voltage (OCV) [23] is es-
sential in improving the Li-ion batteries’ control and lifetime [24]. The SoC estimate of
Li-ion batteries tries to verify a battery’s remaining capacity throughout a charge-discharge
cycle, preventing the battery from overcharging and over-discharging [3]. The purpose of
the SoH calculation is to anticipate the remaining usable life of charge–discharge cycles,
determining whether Li-ion batteries need to be replaced. On the other hand, the SoH of
the battery is characterized by slow-changing properties like capacity fading and resistance
rising, and it fluctuates with cycles, necessitating long-term monitoring [25].
In ref. [26], the SoC estimation of Li-ion batteries relying on battery models and the
advantages and disadvantages of the estimation techniques were discussed. Also, the
erroneous causes influencing the SoC estimate were investigated in ref. [27], but the review
of the estimation technique was brief. The authors in ref. [28] highlighted the fundamental
problems and summarized the live SoC estimate based on the family of Kalman filter (KF)
algorithms. Rather than model-based SoC assessment, the authors in ref. [29] focused
on data-driven estimation approaches of SoC for Li-ion batteries used in EV applications.
The authors in ref. [30] divided the battery SoH estimates between experimental and
model-based techniques but did not detail each estimating method’s merits and demerits.
In this regard, the BMS concept, SoH and SoC methods, and battery fault detection
methods have been investigated as crucial aspects of the control strategy of Li-ion batteries
for assessing and improving the system’s reliability [29,31–35]. Moreover, for a clear
understanding of the voltage behavior of the battery, the OCV variation at three ambient
temperatures and three different SoC percentages have been investigated. The experimental
results obtained show that changing the ambient temperature impacts the OCV variations
of the Li-ion battery.
The rest of the work is organized as follows: A brief overview of the battery control
strategy based on the BMS operation is presented in Section 2. Section 3 investigates a case
study based on the voltage variation of the battery at various ambient temperatures over
time. Discussion of the results is presented in Section 4. The conclusion and future works
are presented in Section 5.

2. Battery Management System (BMS)

EVs have a BMS that controls and monitors an EV’s battery system [36,37]. The BMS
maintains battery safety and dependability, improves efficiency, extends battery life, and
boosts EV range. A battery system is essential since a single cell has limited capacity
and voltage. A battery system comprises several cells connected in series, parallel, or a
mix of both to achieve a specific capacity or voltage level. The BMS is responsible for
estimating battery states and characteristics, preventing overcharging, over-discharging,
thermal runaway, and battery inconsistencies [27].
Regarding hardware implementation, the BMSs have five primary tasks to attain
an optimal and efficient operation [13]—battery parameter acquisition, battery system
balancing, battery information management, battery thermal management, and battery
charge regulation. Some of the combined features of battery storage in the BMS are given
as follows:
• Expenditure consists of producing, reparation, function, and transforming expendi-
ture;
• The life cycle is determined by charging or discharging;
• The power supply is determined by the charging or discharging amount and energy
storage amount;
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 4 of 17

• Security determines the safety or hazardous elements because of the functional operat-
ing temperature.
BMS may be simple or complicated, and they can use various technologies to fulfill
their primary goal (taking care of the battery). In general, there are four topologies for BMS
in EVs. Table 1 describes the merits and demerits of these topologies. The systems may be
classified depending on how they are deployed and work throughout the battery pack’s
cells or modules while keeping topologies in mind.

Table 1. Merits and demerits of four topologies of BMS in EV applications.

BMS Type Definition Merits Demerits

The battery pack has one central
BMS, and all the battery
Centralized
packages are directly connected
to the central BMS
The BMS is divided into
numerous replicated modules,
each with its dedicated bundle
Modular
of wires and connects to a
battery stack’s neighboring
allocated section
Similar to the modular
architecture in concept,
however, in this instance, the
slaves are limited to just
Subordinate
relaying measurement data,
while the master is devoted to
calculation, control, and
external communication
The electrical hardware and
software are housed in modules
that connect to the cells through
bundles of wires. All the
Distributed
electrical gear for a distributed
BMS is housed on a control
board mounted directly on the
monitored cell or module
Because there is just one BMS, it
is more compact and tends to be
the most cost-effective
Troubleshooting and
maintenance are simplified
because of the inherent
flexibility, and expansion to
bigger battery packs is simple
Because the slaves’ functionality
is often more straightforward,
there is likely less overhead and
fewer unwanted features, and
the expenses may be cheaper
than with a modular BMS
Most wiring is reduced to a few
sensor wires and
communication cables between
nearby BMS modules. In
addition, each BMS is more
self-contained, allowing it to
conduct calculations and
communications as needed
The BMS requires many ports to
connect with all battery
packages because the batteries
directly link to the BMS
The disadvantage is that total
expenses are somewhat more
significant, and unnecessary
functionality may be duplicated
depending on the program
The disadvantage is as the
modular BMS
Troubleshooting and
maintenance might be complex
with this integrated form.
Because there are more BMSs in
the total battery pack system,
costs are likewise higher

The BMS has some tasks that are presented as follows:

• Cell monitoring: It consists of current, voltage, and temperature situations;
• Battery safety: To provide the security of the battery and eliminate it from danger-
ous situations;
• SoC evaluation: SoC is a metric of the existing charge storage in the battery that shows
the entire status of battery charging;
• SoH evaluation: SoH is a significant metric of battery operation features. It forecasts
the quantity of charging and discharging duration;
• Cell regulation: It consists of various arrangements of battery cells to provide suitable
functions to the battery system.
Furthermore, as depicted in Figure 2, which shows a detailed picture of the BMS
features configuration, the BMS has some elements that are outlined as follows:
• CAN-bus component, which is applied for relating with control elements;
• The DC/DC component converts the power source into the power supply;
• The battery current evaluation component is applied for calculating the charging and
discharging current situation;
• A battery voltage evaluation component is used to calculate the voltage situation;
 • CAN-bus component, which is applied for relating with control elements;
• The DC/DC component converts the power source into the power supply;
• The battery current evaluation component is applied for calculating the charging and
discharging current situation;
• A battery voltage evaluation component is used to calculate the voltage situation;
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 5 of 17
• A temperature evaluation component is applied to check the case of selected cells;
• The data flash memory component is applied for recording data for evaluation.
Finally, all components of BMS must be related to the selected control element to
• A temperature
operate evaluation
correctly in an component is applied to check the case of selected cells;
efficient manner.
• The data flash memory component is applied for recording data for evaluation.

BMSfeatures.
Figure2.2.BMS
Figure features.

Finally, all components of BMS must be related to the selected control element to
operate correctly in an efficient manner.

3. Investigation of Voltage Variations of a Li-Ion Battery under Different Temperatures

(OCV Test)
Figure 3 illustrates the workflow of the case study used to investigate the OCV vari-
ation of a Li-ion battery (3Ah Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) battery) under different
ambient temperatures during the lifetime of the Li-ion battery. Based on the proposed
workflow, the battery needs to be cycled under three ambient temperatures, 45 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C,
 cell is initially charged at 100% SoC with a C/2 current rate, where the C-rate governs the
electric current to charge and discharge a battery in a specified period completely. A ca-
pacity discharge test was executed before the experiment to determine the total discharge
capacity of each cell at different temperatures (10 °C, 25 °C, and 45 °C).
In this test, the cell rested for 3 h, and the OCV was calculated from the last voltage
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 point. Then it was discharged with C/2 for a 5% reduction in the total discharged capacity, 6 of 17
rested for 3 h, and the OCV for the revised SoC was measured. This procedure continued
until the cell reached its safety limit (Vmin = 3 V), where the final value of the OCV was
and 10 ◦ C, for
measured at aaspecific
5% SoC.rate
Thesolast number
that is of
the SoH thethe
starting
batterypoint for the
reaches 80%.charging OCV,
Afterward, thewhich
data
continues similarly but with a positive current until the upper safety limit (V
collected in the test center will be investigated to understand better the OCV variation max) of the
of
battery
the cellover
battery is reached.
time.

Figure 3. Proposed workflow of the case study used to investigate the OCV variation of a Li-ion
battery.3. Proposed workflow of the case study used to investigate the OCV variation of a Li-
Figure
ion battery.
Figure 4 depicts an experimental result at a temperature of 25 °C. It is worth noting
OCV
that the OCVprovides
duringthe cell’s and
charge open-circuit
dischargevoltage at various
has similar SoC and
behavior levels (IEC relying
values 62660-1).
onThe
the
OCV curve, measured at different temperatures, points to the status of a battery (charge
findings. Additionally, the OCV curves for all tests emphasize the effect of temperature
and discharge) in the studied case. In this characterization test, as shown in Figure 4, the
on OCV values.
cell is initially charged at 100% SoC with a C/2 current rate, where the C-rate governs
the electric current to charge and discharge a battery in a specified period completely. A
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 7 of 17
capacity discharge test was executed before the experiment to determine the total discharge
capacity of each cell at different temperatures (10 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C, and 45 ◦ C).

Figure 4. Implemented OCV test to the 3Ah NMC Li-ion battery at 25 ◦ C.

Figure 4. Implemented OCV test to the 3Ah NMC Li-ion battery at 25 °C.

As can be noticed, the temperature has no remarkable influence on the NMC cell’s
OCV behavior. In this experiment, the rate of OCV at the above temperatures was inves-
tigated in each check-up for 80% SoC, 50% SoC, and 20% SoC. In this investigation, the
rate of the OCV during the discharge of the battery was considered.
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 7 of 17

In this test, the cell rested for 3 h, and the OCV was calculated from the last voltage
point. Then it was discharged with C/2 for a 5% reduction in the total discharged capacity,
rested for 3 h, and the OCV for the revised SoC was measured. This procedure continued
until the cell reached its safety limit (Vmin = 3 V), where the final value of the OCV was
measured for a 5% SoC. The last number is the starting point for the charging OCV, which
continues similarly but with a positive current until the upper safety limit (Vmax ) of the
battery
Figure cell is reached.
4. Implemented OCV test to the 3Ah NMC Li-ion battery at 25 °C.
Figure 4 depicts an experimental result at a temperature of 25 ◦ C. It is worth noting
that
AsthecanOCV during charge
be noticed, and dischargehas
the temperature hasnosimilar behaviorinfluence
remarkable and valueson
relying on thecell’s
the NMC
findings. Additionally, the OCV curves for all tests emphasize the effect of temperature on
OCV behavior. In this experiment, the rate of OCV at the above temperatures was inves-
OCV values.
tigated Asin can
eachbecheck-up for
noticed, the 80% SoC,has
temperature 50%no SoC, and 20%
remarkable SoC.on
influence Inthe
this investigation,
NMC cell’s OCV the
ratebehavior.
of the OCV during
In this the discharge
experiment, ofOCV
the rate of the battery was temperatures
at the above considered. was investigated
in each check-up for 80% SoC, 50% SoC, and 20% SoC. In this investigation, the rate of the
4. Results
OCV duringand Discussion
the dischargeunder Charge–Discharge
of the battery was considered. Standard Test Protocols (STPs) at
Different Temperatures
4. Results and Discussion under Charge–Discharge Standard Test Protocols (STPs) at
Figures Temperatures
Different 5–7 explore the OCV at different temperatures under charge–discharge STPs
at 80% SoC,
Figures50%5–7SoC, andthe
explore 20%OCVSoCatduring the
different lifetime of under
temperatures the Li-ion battery. TheSTPs
charge–discharge behavior
of the
at 80% SoC, 50% SoC, and 20% SoC during the lifetime of the Li-ion battery. The behaviorother
OCV during the life cycle of the batteries was more stable at 25 °C than among
conditions.
of the OCV The ambient
during temperature,
the life internalwas
cycle of the batteries resistance,
more stable and the◦ Canode
at 25 side’s other
than among structure
to store the lithium
conditions. amount
The ambient remainedinternal
temperature, more resistance,
uniform at 25the
and °C,anode
10 °C, andstructure
side’s 45 °C, respec-
to
store the lithium amount remained more uniform at 25 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C, and 45 ◦ C, respectively.
tively. Due to the high temperature of the environment, the OCV behavior at 45 °C has
moreDue to the high than
fluctuations temperature
in otherof the environment,
situations. the OCV
The results, in thisbehavior at 45 ◦ Cthat
case, showed hasthe
more
battery
fluctuations than in other situations. The results, in this case, showed that the battery
voltage at 20% SoC was more unbalanced than elsewhere due to being in the knee area.
voltage at 20% SoC was more unbalanced than elsewhere due to being in the knee area.

◦ C under charge–discharge STPs after 300 cycles during the lifetime of

Figure 5. OCV
Figure pattern
5. OCV patternatat25
25°C under charge–discharge STPs after 300 cycles during the lifetime of
the the
3Ah3Ah
NMCNMC Li-ion
Li-ionbattery.
battery.
Batteries
Batteries2022,
Batteries 2022,8,
2022, 8,130
8, 130
130 88 8of
ofof17
17
17

Figure
Figure6.
Figure 6.OCV
6. OCVpattern
OCV patternat
pattern at45
at 45°C
45 ◦ Cunder
°C undercharge–discharge
under charge–dischargeSTPs
charge–discharge STPsafter
STPs after300
after 300cycles
300 cyclesduring
cycles duringthe
during thelifetime
the lifetimeof
lifetime of
of
the
the 3Ah
3Ah NMC
NMC Li-ion
Li-ion battery.
battery.
the 3Ah NMC Li-ion battery.

Figure
Figure7.
Figure 7.OCV
7. OCVpattern
OCV patternat
pattern at10
at 10°C
10 ◦ Cunder
°C undercharge–discharge
under charge–dischargeSTPs
charge–discharge STPsafter
STPs after300
after 300cycles
300 cyclesduring
cycles duringthe
during thelifetime
the lifetimeof
lifetime of
of
the
the 3Ah
the3Ah NMC
3AhNMC Li-ion
NMCLi-ion battery.
Li-ion battery.
battery.

The
TheOCV
The OCVdistribution
OCV distributionat
distribution at20%
at 20%SoC,
20% SoC,50%
SoC, 50%SoC,
50% SoC,and
SoC, and80%
and 80%SoC
80% SoCat
SoC atdifferent
at differenttemperatures
different temperatures
temperatures
and under
and under
and charge–discharge
under charge–discharge
charge–dischargeSTPs STPs is depicted
STPsisisdepicted
depictedin in Figure
inFigure
Figure8.8. It comprises
comprisesthree
8. ItItcomprises threechief
three chiefparts:
chief parts:
parts:
the
theright
the rightside
right sideof
side ofFigure
of Figure888illustrates
Figure illustratesthe
illustrates theOCV
the OCVvariations
OCV variationsover
variations overtime,
over time,the
time, thebottom
the bottompart
bottom part(base)
part (base)
(base)
represents
representsthe
represents thenumber
the numberof
number ofthe
of thecheck-up
the check-uptests
check-up tests(OCV
tests (OCVvia
(OCV viaSoC
via SoCtests),
SoC tests),and
tests), andthe
and theleft
the leftside
left sideof
side ofthe
of the
the
suggested
suggested test
test illustrates
illustrates the
the number
number of
of the
the degradation
degradation
suggested test illustrates the number of the degradation conditions. conditions.
conditions.
Further,
Further, wewe considered
considered three
three main
main temperatures
temperatures as as different
different conditions
conditions of of degrada-
degrada-
tion
tion to provide a broad view of the behavior of the battery capacity in the room, low
to provide a broad view of the behavior of the battery capacity in the room, low and
and
high
high temperature.
temperature. Each Each temperature
temperature area area was
was investigated
investigated by by relying
relying on on the
the stabilization
stabilization
area
area of
of 80%
80% SoCSoC inin this
this work,
work, 50%50% SoC
SoC (linear
(linear region),
region), and
and 20%
20% SoC SoC (knee
(knee area).
area). Based
Based onon
the results, battery OCV variation was at 45 °C for 20%
the results, battery OCV variation was at 45 °C for 20% SoC and 50% SoC. SoC and 50% SoC.
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 9 of 17
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 9 of 17

Figure
Figure8.8.OCV
OCVdistribution
distributionatat
different SoC
different percentages
SoC under
percentages STPs
under during
STPs the lifetime
during of the
the lifetime ofbattery.
the battery.

However,
Further, we the stable conditions
considered three main regarding OCV were
temperatures at 10 °Cconditions
as different and 25 °C for 80% SoC.
of degradation
The Li-ion does
to provide not view
a broad moveofthrough the electrolyte
the behavior uniformly
of the battery and in
capacity in the
a straight path.and
room, low Thus,
high
there are fluctuations in OCV during the lifetime of the battery. As
temperature. Each temperature area was investigated by relying on the stabilization area depicted in Figure 8,
more
of 80% instability
SoC in this(fluctuation)
work, 50%can SoCbe(linear
observed at high
region), andtemperatures
20% SoC (knee compared with on
area). Based lowthe
temperatures
results, battery asOCV
the lithium-ions
variation was move in ◦aCmore
at 45 non-uniform
for 20% SoC and 50% waySoC.
at high temperatures.
However,
However,the amount of lithium
the stable conditionsthat regarding
has been stored 10 ◦ Cmaterial
in theatactive
OCV were and 25 ◦particle
C for 80%is de-
SoC.
pendent
The Li-ion ondoes
high not
kinetic
moveenergy,
throughandthe thiselectrolyte
issue increases the rate
uniformly ofin
and thea voltage
straightat the end
path. Thus,
of the are
there life at 45 °C moreinthan
fluctuations OCV in during
other conditions.
the lifetime of the battery. As depicted in Figure 8,
moreFigures 9–13(fluctuation)
instability illustrate thecan OCV be under
observed various charge–discharge
at high STPs at 80%
temperatures compared SoC,
with low
50% SoC, and 20% SoC during the lifetime of the battery at 25 °C
temperatures as the lithium-ions move in a more non-uniform way at high temperatures.temperature to compre-
hensively
However,overview
the amount the OCV distribution.
of lithium that has been stored in the active material particle is
dependent on high kinetic energy, and this issue increases the rate of the voltage at the end
of the life at 45 ◦ C more than in other conditions.
Figures 9–13 illustrate the OCV under various charge–discharge STPs at 80% SoC, 50%
SoC, and 20% SoC during the lifetime of the battery at 25 ◦ C temperature to comprehen-
sively overview the OCV distribution.
The distribution of the OCV at different temperatures is presented in Figure 14. Accord-
ing to the results, the trend of the OCV after 2C was described. We considered five discharge
C-rates as degradation conditions for providing multi-domain behaviors at 25 ◦ C and high
and low discharge C-rates. Moreover, each temperature area was investigated by relying
on the stabilization area of SoC (80% SoC in this work), linear region of SoC (50% SoC in
this work), and knee area of SoC (20% SoC in this work).Since there is a certain amount
of active battery material in which lithium is gradually involved during electrochemical
reactions over the battery’s life, the battery voltage slightly increases during cycling.

Figure 9. Comparison of the OCV pattern at 25 °C under C/2 charge and C/5 discharge test conditions.
 However, the amount of lithium that has been stored in the active material particle is de-
pendent on high kinetic energy, and this issue increases the rate of the voltage at the end
of the life at 45 °C more than in other conditions.
Figures 9–13 illustrate the OCV under various charge–discharge STPs at 80% SoC,
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 50% SoC, and 20% SoC during the lifetime of the battery at 25 °C temperature to compre-
10 of 17
hensively overview the OCV distribution.

Batteries 2022, 8, 130 10 of 17

Figure 9. Comparison
Figure of the
9. Comparison ofOCV pattern
the OCV at 25 at
pattern °C25 ◦ C under
under C/2 charge and C/5
C/2 charge discharge
and test conditions.
C/5 discharge test
conditions.

Figure 10. Comparison

Figure of the
10. Comparison ofOCV pattern
the OCV at 25 at
pattern °C25 ◦ C under
under C/2 charge and 1 C
C/2 charge discharge
and test conditions.
1 C discharge test
conditions.
 Batteries 2022, 8, 130 11 of 17
Figure 10. Comparison of the OCV pattern at 25 °C under C/2 charge and 1 C discharge test conditions.

Batteries 2022, 8, 130 11 of 17

Figure 11. Comparison
Figure of the
11. Comparison ofOCV pattern
the OCV at 25 at
pattern °C25 ◦ C under
under C/2 charge and 2 C
C/2 charge discharge
and test conditions.
2 C discharge test
conditions.

Figure 12. Comparison

Figure of the
12. Comparison ofOCV pattern
the OCV at 25 at
pattern °C25
under C/2 charge
◦ C under and 3Cand
C/2 charge discharge test conditions.
3C discharge test
conditions.
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 12 of 17
Figure 12. Comparison of the OCV pattern at 25 °C under C/2 charge and 3C discharge test conditions.

Batteries 2022, 8, 130 12 of 17

Figure 13. Comparison
Figure of theofOCV
13. Comparison pattern
the OCV at 25 °C
pattern at 25 ◦ C under
under C/2 charge and 4Cand
C/2 charge discharge test conditions.
4C discharge test
conditions.
The distribution of the OCV at different temperatures is presented in Figure 14. Accord-
ing to the results, the trend of the OCV after 2C was described. We considered five discharge
C-rates as degradation conditions for providing multi-domain behaviors at 25 °C and high
and low discharge C-rates. Moreover, each temperature area was investigated by relying on
the stabilization area of SoC (80% SoC in this work), linear region of SoC (50% SoC in this
work), and knee area of SoC (20% SoC in this work).Since there is a certain amount of active
battery material in which lithium is gradually involved during electrochemical reactions over
the battery’s life, the battery voltage slightly increases during cycling.

Figure 14. OCV

Figure14. OCV distribution
distribution at
at different
differentSoC
SoCpercentages
percentagesat 25◦°C
at25 C under
underdifferent
differenttest
testconditions.
conditions.

Under
Underdifferent
differentdischarge
discharge current
currenttest protocols, the OCV
test protocols, thedistribution results showed
OCV distribution results
that the OCV drops when the C-rate was ≥ 2C during the lifetime
showed that the OCV drops when the C-rate was ≥2C during the lifetime of the battery. of the battery. In
other words, with an increasing C-rate, the level of the OCV decreases slightly;
In other words, with an increasing C-rate, the level of the OCV decreases slightly; this this effect
appeared most distinctively
effect appeared for medium
most distinctively and low
for medium andSoClowpercentages.
SoC percentages.
Figures 15–17 show the OCV at different temperatures
Figures 15–17 show the OCV at different temperatures and and under
under other
other charge–
charge–dis-
discharge STPs during the lifetime of the battery at 80% SoC, 50% SoC,
charge STPs during the lifetime of the battery at◦ 80% SoC, 50% SoC, and 20% SoC, 2C, to and 20% SoC,
in-
2C, to investigate the alteration of OCV at 45 C. Additionally, the effect of the
vestigate the alteration of OCV at 45 °C. Additionally, the effect of the high discharge C-rate high dis-
at 80% C-rate
charge at 20%
SoC and 80% SoC
SoC was
and less
20%and
SoCmorewas less andthe
during more during
lifetime the battery,
of the lifetimerespectively.
of the battery,
respectively.
 showed that the OCV drops when the C-rate was ≥2C during the lifetime of the battery.
In other words, with an increasing C-rate, the level of the OCV decreases slightly; this
effect appeared most distinctively for medium and low SoC percentages.
Figures 15–17 show the OCV at different temperatures and under other charge–dis-
charge STPs during the lifetime of the battery at 80% SoC, 50% SoC, and 20% SoC, 2C, to in-
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 13 of 17
vestigate the alteration of OCV at 45 °C. Additionally, the effect of the high discharge C-rate
at 80% SoC and 20% SoC was less and more during the lifetime of the battery, respectively.

Batteries 2022, 8, 130 13 of 17

batteries
Figure
Figure15. 15.was closer
Behavior
Behavior of to
of OCVeach other,
10
at 10 ◦°C, 25but
C, 25 C, still,
◦°C, and45
and the
45 Crate
◦ °C ofhigh
under
under the OCV
highand
andlowatdischarge
low the same
discharge status
tests
tests was
during
during the
higher
the than
lifetime in
of the
the other
battery conditions.
at 80%
lifetime of the battery at 80% SoC. SoC.

Evidently, from the results shown in Figure 16, the rate of the OCV at different tem-
peratures under STP in charging and C/5 discharge at 80% SoC was greater than in other
conditions after 100 cycles. However, the rate of the difference during the lifetime of the

Figure
Figure16. 16.Behavior
Behaviorofof OCV
OCV at 10 ◦°C,
at 10 25 ◦°C,
C, 25 C, and 45◦°C
and45 underhigh
C under highand
andlow
low discharge
discharge tests
tests during
during the
the lifetime of the battery at 50%
lifetime of the battery at 50% SoC. SoC.

Evidently, from the results shown in Figure 16, the rate of the OCV at different
temperatures under STP in charging and C/5 discharge at 80% SoC was greater than in
other conditions after 100 cycles. However, the rate of the difference during the lifetime of
the batteries was closer to each other, but still, the rate of the OCV at the same status was
higher than in the other conditions.
Figure 17 shows the rate of the OCV at different temperatures under the standard
charge test, and C/5 discharge test condition at 50% SoC was greater than the other
conditions after 100 cycles. Moreover, the difference rate fluctuates, but the OCV at the
same status was still higher than in other conditions. Figure 18 shows that the OCV at the
three temperatures and under standard charge and 4C discharge test condition at 20% SoC
was lesser than other conditions after 100 cycles. Moreover, the rate of the OCV at 10 ◦ C
 The OCV distribution is depicted in Figure 18 to broadly overview OCV distribution
at different SoC percentages and varying temperatures under various charge and dis-
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 charge test conditions. At a low C-rate and 10 °C, the rate of the SoH is lower than 1480%.
of 17
Thus, the figured-out distribution splits into two leading figures. Each one comprises
three key parts–OCV variations over time, the number of check-up tests (OCV via SoC
tests),16.
Figure and the number
Behavior of OCV ofatdegradation
10 °C,4C °C,conditions.
25 discharge
and 45 test Threehigh
°C under domains
and ofdischarge
low C-rate discharge
tests and
and under standard charge and at 20% SoC was greater than theduring
other
temperature
the lifetime of the(high andatlow
battery 50%temperatures)
SoC. have been assumed as conditions of degrada-
conditions after 700 cycles.
tion to provide a broad overview of multi-domain discharge current and high and low
temperatures conditions.
According to the results, battery OCV variation was greater than in other conditions
at 25 °C for 20% SoC and 50% SoC. However, the stable conditions regarding OCV were
at 10 °C and 45 °C for 80% SoC. Thus, the change in the temperature does not affect the
OCV more at 80% SoC.
Additionally, by increasing the C-rate to 10 °C and 45 °C, the rate of the OCV was
slightly increased over time. The high C-rate did not significantly impact the OCV varia-
tion at 10 °C and 45 °C. It should be noted that by increasing the C-rate and considering
the same internal resistance for all conditions, the rate of the internal heat differs among
the conditions. The rate of intramolecular heat impacts the intramolecular path between
anode and cathode. Thus, the rate of lithium ions, which are computed and stored in the
activities material layer on the anode and cathode sides, differs under a high C-rate test.
Finally, internal heat generation, environment temperature, SoC, and internal re-
sistance are key factors that affect OCV behavior. According to the OCV distribution re-
sults under high and low discharge test protocols during the battery’s lifetime, OCV be-
haviors at 45 °C and 10 °C due to temperature and internal resistance (internal tempera-
ture) were smooth. However, neither environmental temperature nor internal resistance
was enough at 25 °C to keep the OCV behavior smooth. Therefore, the OCV increased for
the first 50~100
Figure
cycles and then
10 ◦°C,
stabilized.
25◦°C,
This
45◦ C
was seen until the rate of thetests
internal re-
Figure17.17. Behavior
Behavior ofof OCV at 10 C, 25 and45
C, and °Cunder
underhigh
highand
andlowlow discharge
discharge during
tests during the
sistance
the lifetimeincreased andatmade
of the battery the rate of the OCV stabilize.
20% SoC.
lifetime of the battery at 20% SoC.

Figure 17 shows the rate of the OCV at different temperatures under the standard
charge test, and C/5 discharge test condition at 50% SoC was greater than the other con-
ditions after 100 cycles. Moreover, the difference rate fluctuates, but the OCV at the same
status was still higher than in other conditions. Figure 18 shows that the OCV at the three
temperatures and under standard charge and 4C discharge test condition at 20% SoC was
lesser than other conditions after 100 cycles. Moreover, the rate of the OCV at 10 °C and
under standard charge and 4C discharge test at 20% SoC was greater than the other con-
ditions after 700 cycles.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Behavior
Behavior of
of the
the OCV
OCV at at different
different SoC
SoC percentages
percentages under
under high
high and
and low
low discharge
discharge test
test
conditionsduring
conditions duringthe
thelifetime
lifetimeof
ofthe
thebattery.
battery.

The OCV distribution is depicted in Figure 18 to broadly overview OCV distribution

at different SoC percentages and varying temperatures under various charge and discharge
test conditions. At a low C-rate and 10 ◦ C, the rate of the SoH is lower than 80%. Thus,
the figured-out distribution splits into two leading figures. Each one comprises three key
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 15 of 17

parts–OCV variations over time, the number of check-up tests (OCV via SoC tests), and the
number of degradation conditions. Three domains of C-rate discharge and temperature
(high and low temperatures) have been assumed as conditions of degradation to provide
a broad overview of multi-domain discharge current and high and low temperatures
conditions.
According to the results, battery OCV variation was greater than in other conditions
at 25 ◦ C for 20% SoC and 50% SoC. However, the stable conditions regarding OCV were at
10 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C for 80% SoC. Thus, the change in the temperature does not affect the OCV
more at 80% SoC.
Additionally, by increasing the C-rate to 10 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C, the rate of the OCV was
slightly increased over time. The high C-rate did not significantly impact the OCV variation
at 10 ◦ C and 45 ◦ C. It should be noted that by increasing the C-rate and considering the
same internal resistance for all conditions, the rate of the internal heat differs among the
conditions. The rate of intramolecular heat impacts the intramolecular path between anode
and cathode. Thus, the rate of lithium ions, which are computed and stored in the activities
material layer on the anode and cathode sides, differs under a high C-rate test.
Finally, internal heat generation, environment temperature, SoC, and internal resis-
tance are key factors that affect OCV behavior. According to the OCV distribution results
under high and low discharge test protocols during the battery’s lifetime, OCV behaviors
at 45 ◦ C and 10 ◦ C due to temperature and internal resistance (internal temperature) were
smooth. However, neither environmental temperature nor internal resistance was enough
at 25 ◦ C to keep the OCV behavior smooth. Therefore, the OCV increased for the first
50~100 cycles and then stabilized. This was seen until the rate of the internal resistance
increased and made the rate of the OCV stabilize.

5. Conclusions
This work discussed the control strategy of Li-ion batteries as the main component of
EVs. Different battery management systems were addressed. Moreover, various methods
for estimating the critical parameters of the battery, such as SoC, were introduced to
understand the lifetime performance of the battery better.
A case study was investigated based on the OCV variation of the Li-ion battery at
different ambient temperatures and three key SoC levels over the battery’s lifespan. The
results showed that changing the ambient temperature impacted the OCV variations of the
battery. In other words, by increasing the temperature, the voltage fluctuation at 45 ◦ C at
low SOC of 50% and 20% was more significant than in other conditions. This issue impacts
the BMS reliability and complicates the performance of the control strategy system task
during the battery’s lifetime.
In contrast, the rate of the OCV at different SoC in the low and high temperatures
is more stable. Moreover, the outcome of the OCV investigation in different conditions
showed the voltage behavior of the battery under high and low discharge test protocols
during the battery’s lifetime, and the OCV behaviors at 45 ◦ C and 10 ◦ C due to temperature
and internal resistance (internal temperature) were smooth. However, neither environ-
mental temperature nor internal resistance was enough at 25 ◦ C to keep the OCV behavior
smooth. The OCV rose for 50~100 cycles before stabilizing. This was seen until increasing
internal resistance stabilized the OCV rate.

Author Contributions: F.H.G. planned the case studied, obtained the results writing—original draft
preparation (Conceptualization and methodology); M.B. supervised the case studied (Supervision
and investigation) and S.H.E.A.A. analyzed the results (writing—review and editing); F.H.G. and
S.H.E.A.A. wrote the paper, which was further reviewed by A.E.-S. (validation), M.B., Z.M.A. (Zuhair
M. Alaas) (formal analysis) and Z.M.A. (Ziad M. Ali) (final validation). All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Batteries 2022, 8, 130 16 of 17

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We acknowledge the support of the research team from “Flanders Make”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

List of Abbreviations

BMS Battery management system

C Carbon
C-rate = 1C Nominal output/input current of battery in one hour
EV Electric vehicle
OCV Open-circuit voltage
SoC State of charge
SoE Safe operating envelope
SoH State of health
SoP State of power
STPs Standard test protocols
KF Kalman filter
LFP Lithium-Ion-Phosphate
Li-ion Lithium-ion
Li-S Lithium-Sulfur
LMO Lithium-Ion Manganese Oxide
LTO Lithium Titanium Oxide
NCA Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum-Oxide
NMC Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt
Vmin Lower voltage safety limit
Vmax Upper voltage safety limit

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