Macaspac, John Joselle V.

Electronic Devices and Circuits

Differentiate Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors

The major difference between conductor, insulator and semiconductor is defined by the flow
of charged particles under the influence of electric field. When any voltage is applied to the
conductor, electric charged particles easily flow from valence band to conduction band. Thus,
conductor is a good conductor of electricity. A semiconductor allows very low charge
particles to move from valence band to conduction band. In insulators, there is no flow of
charge particles under the influence of electric field hence insulators are the bad conductor of
electricity.

Conductors are material which conduct electricity. In conductors, the ionic bond is formed
between the atoms. This ionic bond causes an easy flow of charge carriers under the influence
of any thermal agitation. Hence, they are a good conductor of electricity. The overlapping of
the valence band and conduction band allows the easy flow of electrons through them. There
is no Fermi level between the valence band and the conduction band. When the small voltage
is applied, the conductor will result in a large amount of current.

Insulators are the material which do not allow any flow of electric current through them. Thus,
electrons do not move from valence band to conduction band under the influence of any thermal
agitation. The bond between the atoms is the covalent bond and ionic bond. The electron holds
the atom very tightly and does not permit electron flow.

Semiconductors are the material whose conductivity lies between insulators and conductors.
At absolute zero temperature, the semiconductor behaves like an insulator whereas by
providing thermal agitation, the charge carriers start moving from valence band to conduction
band.

What are the most commonly used semiconductor material?

The most commonly used semiconductor material is Silicon. This is an element, it has 14
electrons, and its pure solid form melts at 1420 °C. Used for thousands of years to make
ordinary glass, Silicon is a very common element. Silicon turns up in lots of rocks and forms
the sand on beaches.
The earliest commercial semiconductor devices mostly used Germanium. This element has 32
electrons per atom and melts at 985 °C. It has now largely fallen into disuse because it is much
rarer and more expensive than Silicon and has no real advantages for most purposes.

The second most common modern material is Gallium Arsenide, GaAs. This is a combination
of Gallium, an element with 31 electrons per atom, and Arsenic, with 33 electrons per atom.
This is a crystalline compound, not an element.

Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic materials.

More the free electrons more will be the mobility and higher will be the electric conductivity.
These are the pure semiconductors, and it is also called Intrinsic Semiconductor. It possesses
negative temperature coefficient. Thus, it means its resistance will decrease with increase in
temperature, and hence electric conductivity will increase. Thus, intrinsic semiconductors
will conduct only when heat or light energy is imparted to them.

When impurity atoms are added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor, it becomes Extrinsic
Semiconductor. The properties of Semiconductor are varied by adding impurity atom. This is
called doping, i.e., adding impurity deliberately to improve conductivity. One impurity atom is
added to 10 million atoms of an intrinsic semiconductor.

What are the two types of extrinsic semiconductor? How are they formed?

Extrinsic Semiconductors can be further classified into two types i.e. N-type semiconductor or
P-type Semiconductor. It depends upon the nature of impurity atom added.

 N- type Semiconductor - it is formed when the pentavalent impurity is added to an

intrinsic semiconductor. The pentavalent material is categorised in Group – V of the
periodic table. These materials have 5 electrons in their outermost shell. Therefore, they
are called pentavalent material. Pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Antimony,
Arsenic, etc.
 P-type Semiconductor - It is formed when the trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Trivalent materials are categorised in Group – III of the periodic table.
These materials have 3 electrons in their outermost shell. Therefore, they are called
trivalent material. Trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium, Indium, etc.
How are diode formed?

Diodes are one of the simplest, but most useful of all semiconductor devices. Many types of
diode are used for a wide range of applications. Diodes are made from semiconductor materials,
mainly silicon, with various compounds (combinations of more than one element) and metals
added depending on the function of the diode. Early types of semiconductor diodes were made
from Selenium and Germanium, but these diode types have been almost totally replaced by
more modern silicon designs.

When P and N type silicon are brought together during manufacture, a junction is created where
the P type and N type materials meet, and holes close to the junction in the P type silicon are
attracted into negatively charged N type material at the other side of the junction. Also,
electrons close to the junction in the N type silicon are attracted into the positively charged P
type silicon. Therefore along the junction between the P and N type silicon, a small natural
potential is set up between the P and N semiconductor material with negatively charged
electrons now on the P type side of the junction, and positively charged holes on the N side of
the junction. This layer of opposite polarity charge carriers builds up until it is just enough to
prevent the free movement of any further holes or electrons. Because of this natural electrical
potential across the junction, a very thin layer has been formed between the P and N layers at
the PN junction that is now depleted of charge carriers and so is called the Depletion Layer.
When a diode is connected into a circuit therefore, no current can flow between anode and
cathode until the anode is made more positive than the cathode by a forward potential or voltage
(VF) at least enough to overcome the natural reverse potential of the junction. This value
depends mainly on the materials the P and N layers of the diode are made from and the amount
of doping used.