LEONARDO, ANGELA MAE T.

BS-ARCHITECTURE 4-1

The main components of the earth system

The earth system is itself an integrated system, but it can be subdivided into four main components, sub-systems or

spheres: the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. These components are also systems in their own right

and they are tightly interconnected. The four main components of the earth system may be described briefly in the

following way.

 The geosphere - this is the part of the planet composed of rock and minerals; it includes the solid
crust, the molten mantle and the liquid and solid parts of the earth's core. In many places, the
geosphere develops a layer of soil in which nutrients become available to living organisms, and which
thus provides an important ecological habitat and the basis of many forms of life. The surface of the
geosphere is subject to processes of erosion, weathering and transport, as well as to tectonic forces and
volcanic activity, which result in the formation of landforms such as mountains, hills and plateaux.

Layers of the Earth

 Crust
The outermost layer of the geosphere. The crust is rich
in oxygen, silicon and aluminium, with lesser amounts
of other elements like iron. Owing to its low density (2.5
to 3.5 gm/cm3), the crust is able to float on the denser
mantle. The Earth's crust, as with many planetary
crusts, is brittle and breaks relatively easily. There are
actually two types of crust, continental and oceanic.

Continental crust is made up of volcanic lava flows,

huge granite blocks, and sediments laid down in shallow water
or continental seas. It is quite thick, averaging 30 to 40 km and
beneath parts of mountain ranges reaching 80 km. But it is
made of lower density rocks, such as andesite and granite.

Oceanic crust is thin, only about 5 to 10 km deep, and

made of relatively dense rock called basalt, possibly underlain by gabbro (a similar but coarser grained
rock). It also contains a greater proportion of magnesium. The composition of the lower crust is not
known, but it is probably gabbro. Seismic waves pass through it at a more rapid rate than they do the
upper crust.

 Mantle
Beneath the crust is a complex middle region. It is a broad layer of dense rock and metal oxides
that lies between the molten core and the crust. The mantle extends to a depth of about 2900
km and accounts for around 82% of the Earth's volume. The mantle is thought to be made up
 mostly of peridotite, a type of rock composed of iron, magnesium, silicon, and oxygen.
Analysis of seismic waves show that the material that makes up the mantle behaves as
a plastic - a substance with the properties of a solid but flows under pressure. More precisely,
the mantle consists of rigid and plastic zones. The density of the mantle ranges from 3.5 to 5.8
gm/cm3.

 Core
The core is composed of mostly iron and nickel and remains very hot, even after 4.5 billion years
of cooling. Estimates of temperature are about 7000K (equal to the surface of a red dwarf), and
having a density of around 14 gm/cm3. The core is divided into two layers: the liquid outer core
and - at the Earth's center - the solid iron inner core. Despite the tremendous temperatures this
layer is solid due to the immense pressure of the overlying layers. The inner core's radius is
about 22% that of the overall Earth.

The sharp boundary between the crust and mantle is called the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. While
the Gutenberg discontinuity seperates the mantle from the core.

 The atmosphere - this is the gaseous layer

surrounding the earth and held to its surface by
gravity. The atmosphere receives energy from solar
radiation which warms the earth's surface and is re-
emitted and conducted to the atmosphere. The
atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's
surface via the process of evaporation; it then acts to
redistribute heat and moisture across the earth's
surface. In addition, the atmosphere contains
substances that are essential for life, including carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen.
Composition of earths atmosphere

 Troposphere
Living at the surface of the Earth, we are usually only aware of the events happening in the lowest
layer, the troposphere, where all weather occurs. The base of this layer is warmer than its top
because the air is heated by the surface of the Earth, which absorbs the Sun’s energy.
  Stratosphere
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere where jet airplanes fly. Temperatures increase with
altitude because of increasing amounts of ozone. The ozone layer within the stratosphere absorbs
harmful ultraviolet rays of sunlight.
 Mesosphere
As the mesosphere extends upward above the stratosphere, temperatures decrease. The coldest
parts of our atmosphere are located in this layer and can reach –90°C.
 Thermosphere
In the forth layer from Earth’s surface, the thermosphere, the air is thin, meaning that there are far
fewer air molecules. The thermosphere is very sensitive to solar activity and can heat up to 1,500°C
or higher when the Sun is active making an aurora that lights up the night sky. Astronauts orbiting
Earth in the space station or space shuttle spend their time in this layer.
 Exosphere
The upper layer of our atmosphere, where atoms and molecules escape into space, is called the
exosphere.

Climate and Weather

The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. Weather is what conditions of the
atmosphere are over a short period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively
long periods of time.

 The hydrosphere - this consists of those parts of the earth system composed of water in its liquid,
gaseous (vapour) and solid (ice) phases. The hydrosphere includes: the earth's oceans and seas; its ice
sheets, sea ice and glaciers; its lakes, rivers and streams; its atmospheric moisture and ice crystals; and
its areas of permafrost. The hydrosphere includes both saltwater and freshwater systems, and it also
includes the moisture found in the soil (soil water) and within rocks (groundwater). Water is essential for
the existence and maintenance of life on earth. In some classifications, the hydrosphere is sub-divided
into the fluid water systems and the cryosphere (the ice systems).

Ocean and Sea

An ocean is a vast and a
continuous frame of salty
water that shelters almost 70
percent of the total earth's
surface while a sea is a large
body of saline water that
occupies a greater part of
the world's surface but is
smaller than an ocean. The
difference between the two
water bodies is summarized
in in terms of depth, area,
and marine life.
Layers of the Ocean

 Epipelagic Zone - The

surface layer of the
ocean and extends from
the surface to 200
meters (656 feet). It is
also known as the
sunlight zone because
this is where most of the
visible light exists. With
the light come heat. This
heat is responsible for
the wide range of
temperatures that occur
in this zone.
 Mesopelagic Zone - Below the epipelagic zone, extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1,000
meters (3,281 feet). The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the
midwater zone. The light that penetrates to this depth is extremely faint. It is in this zone that
we begin to see the twinkling lights of bioluminescent creatures. A great diversity of strange and
bizarre fishes can be found here.
 Bathypelagic Zone - It is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This
zone extends from 1,000 meters (3,281 feet) down to 4,000 meters (13,124 feet). Here the only
visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves. The water pressure at this depth is
immense, reaching 5,850 pounds per square inch. In spite of the pressure, a surprisingly large
number of creatures can be found here. Sperm whales can dive down to this level in search of
food. Most of the animals that live at these depths are black or red in color due to the lack of
light.
 Abyssopelagic Zone – also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from
4,000 meters (13,124 feet) to 6,000 meters (19,686 feet). The name comes from a Greek word
meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all. Very
few creatures can be found at these crushing depths. Most of these are invertebrates such as
basket stars and tiny squids. Three-quarters of the ocean floor lies within this zone. The deepest
fish ever discovered was found in the Puerto Rico Trench at a depth of 27,460 feet (8,372
meters).
 Hadalpelagic Zone - Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This
layer extends from 6,000 meters (19,686 feet) to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean.
These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the
ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 35,797 feet (10,911 meters).
The temperature of the water is just above freezing, and the pressure is an incredible eight tons
per square inch. That is approximately the weight of 48 Boeing 747 jets. In spite of the pressure
and temperature, life can still be found here. Invertebrates such as starfish and tube worms can
thrive at these depths.
Freshwater

 Ice cap is a mass of ice that covers less than 50,000 km2 of land area (usually covering a
highland area). Larger ice masses covering more than 50,000 km2 are termed ice sheets.
 Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. It is a persistent body of dense ice that
is constantly moving under its own weight; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds
its ablation (melting and sublimation) over many years, often centuries.
 Iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is
floating freely in open (salt) water. Small bits of disintegrating icebergs are called "growlers" or
"bergy bits".
 Bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material—
often mosses, and in a majority of cases, sphagnum moss.
 Pond is an area filled with water, either natural or artificial, that is smaller than a lake.[1] It may
arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river system, or be a somewhat isolated depression
(such as a kettle, vernal pool, or prairie pothole). It may contain shallow water with marsh and
aquatic plants and animals.
 Lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from
any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part
of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are also larger and deeper than ponds,
though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be contrasted
with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and
streams.
 River is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards
an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes
dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water. Small rivers can be referred
to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill.
 Stream is a body of water with surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. The
stream encompasses surface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological,
hydrological and biotic controls.

Different Types of Water Bodies

 The Biggest Bodies of Water: Oceans- Oceans account for the largest types of water bodies. All
marine saltwater on Earth technically connects in a single World Ocean, but the arrangement of
continents makes it more common to distinguish between individual ocean basins. The Pacific Ocean
ranks as the largest, followed by the Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic.
 Ocean Sub-sections: Seas- Some coastal reaches of ocean, in particular portions partly enclosed by
landmasses, compose water body types called “seas.” Examples include the Mediterranean Sea, the
South China Sea, the Caribbean Sea and the Bering Sea. Though these and most other seas join
directly to the ocean, certain landlocked bodies of saline water go by the name, notably the Caspian
Sea.
 Bodies of Water in Motion: Rivers & Streams- Water flowing on the surface of the Earth forms
rivers – or the smaller versions variously called streams, creeks, brooks, rills and the like. In most
 cases the freshwater in these channels ultimately empties to the ocean, though rivers – which may or
may not run year-round – can also flow into closed basins with no outlet.
 The Frozen Kind of Water Bodies: Glaciers- It may seem odd to call a glacier a body of water –
and not all geographers would – but ice of course represents a form of water, and because of their
mobile (if slow-moving) nature glaciers are often likened to frozen rivers.

 The biosphere - this contains all living organisms and it is intimately related to the other three
spheres: most living organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the hydrosphere and
nutrients and minerals from the geosphere. Living organisms also require a medium for life, and are
adapted to inhabit one or more of the other three spheres. However, much of the biosphere is contained
within a shallow surface layer encompassing the lower part of the atmosphere, the surface of the
geosphere and approximately the upper 100 metres of the ocean. Humans are part of the biosphere,
although they are increasingly responsible for the creation of systems that may be largely artificial (such
as cities).

Characteristics of the Earth that are necessary to support life

 Distance from Sun: Earth is at the right distance from the Sun, the star it orbits. If Earth was closer, it
would have been too hot for life. If it was more distant, temperatures may have been very low.
 Atmosphere: The presence of an atmosphere makes Earth livable. If Earth had no atmosphere, it
would not have maintained the temperature and gases necessary for our survival and sustenance. Earth
has the right density to keep its atmosphere; if it was lighter, the atmosphere would have escaped.
 Water: Presence of water is another key factor. Water allows many reactions and also works as a
universal solvent.
 Time for evolution: Earth is lucky to have a star as long-living as Sun. This ensured billions of years of
time for evolution of life, not to mention settlement of planet itself.
 Molten core: Earth's core allows the recycling of material and generates a magnetic field that protects
us from radiation.

Definition

1. Limiting Factors - A limiting factor is a resource or environmental condition which limits the growth,
distribution or abundance of an organism or population within an ecosystem.

2. Habitat - The area or natural environment in which an organism or population normally lives. A habitat
is made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of temperature, and availability of light as
well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence of predators. A habitat is not
necessarily a geographic area-for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host or even a cell within the
host's body.

3. Niche - The function or position of a species within an ecological community. A species's niche includes
the physical environment to which it has become adapted as well as its role as producer and consumer
of food resources. See also competitive exclusion principle.

4. Natural Selection - The process by which organisms that are better suited to their environment than
others produce more offspring. As a result of natural selection, the proportion of organisms in a species
with characteristics that are adaptive to a given environment increases with each generation.
5. Evolution - A process of development and change from one state to another, as of the universe in its
development through time.

6. Ecosystem - A community of organisms together with their physical environment, viewed as a system
of interacting and interdependent relationships and including such processes as the flow of energy
through trophic levels and the cycling of chemical elements and compounds through living and nonliving
components of the system.

7. Biomes - A complex biotic community characterized by distinctive plant and animal species and
maintained under the climatic conditions of the region, especially such a community that has developed
to climax.