Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be described as a blanket of air surrounding the earth. This enveloping
mixture of gases contains huge numbers of solid and liquid particles collectively called
aerosols. Some of the gases may be regarded as permanent atmospheric components that
remain in fixed proportions to the total gas volume. Other constituents vary in quantity from
place to place and from time to time. If the suspended particles, water vapour and other variable
gases were excluded from the atmosphere, we would find that the dry air is very stable all over
the earth up to an altitude of 80 kilometers. The two gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up about
99 per cent of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1
per cent of the atmosphere. The deep layer through which the gaseous composition of the
atmosphere is generally homogeneous is called the homosphere. At higher altitudes, the
chemical constituents of air change considerably. This layer is known as the heterosphere.

At sea level the following principle gases comprise the dry air; nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon
dioxide, neon, helium, ozone, hydrogen, krypton, xenon and methane. Out of these gases,
argon, neon, helium, krypton and xenon are so inert chemically that they are never found in
any chemical compounds. They stand completely alone. Besides these gases, large quantities
of water vapor and dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. These solid and liquid
particles are of great climatic significance. Different constituents of the atmosphere, it may be
noted, have got their individual characteristics as briefly discussed below.

Gases:

Of all the gases oxygen happens to be the most important, for it is so essential to all life forms.
All living organisms inhale oxygen. No life is possible without it. It is capable of combining
with all other elements to form different compounds. It is essential for most combustion. When
any substance burns, oxygen is consumed. Oxygen alone constitutes about one –fifth of dry
air.

Nitrogen is another important gas of which about 78 percent of the atmosphere’s volume is
made up. Nitrogen does not easily enter into chemical union with other substances, but it is an
important constituent of many organic compounds. Nitrogen serves mainly as diluents. It is
relatively inactive chemically, though many of its compounds are very active. Its main function
in the atmosphere is to regulate combustion by diluting oxygen. It also indirectly helps in
oxidation of different kinds.
Table: Principle gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere.

Constituent Per cent by volume

Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.94
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.00005
Ozone 0.00006
Hydrogen 0.00005
Krypton Trace
Xenon Trace
Methane Trace

The third important gas is carbon dioxide, which is a product of combustion and constitutes
only about 0.03 percent. Green plants, in the process of photosynthesis, extract carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and utilize it. It is exhaled by animals. Being an efficient absorber of heat
from the upper atmosphere as well as the earth, Carbon dioxide is considered to be of great
climatic significance. This gas emits about half of the absorbed heat back to the earth. Thus, it
influences the flow of energy through the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is considered to be a
very important factor in the heat energy budget. Its role in the atmosphere and its possible
impact on climate cannot be over emphasized. Despite the fact that the proportion of carbon
dioxide is relatively constant in the air, its percentage is gradually rising for more than a
century. By burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, we are steadily adding more
and more of this gas to our atmosphere. It is estimated that the carbon dioxide gas content of
the atmosphere has increased more than ten times. Although about half of this additional carbon
dioxide is absorbed by the oceans, or is consumed by plants, the remaining 50 percent is present
in the air.

Another important gas in the atmosphere is ozone which is a type of oxygen molecule formed
of three atoms than two. It is found only in very small quantity in the upper atmosphere. It is
less than 0.00005 percent by volume, and is not uniformly distributed in the atmosphere. The
greatest concentrations of ozone are found at altitudes between about 19 and 30 km, although
it is formed at higher levels and transported downward. It is the most efficient absorber of the
burning ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In the absence of the ozone layer found in the
atmosphere and in the event of the ultraviolet rays reaching the earth’s surface, our planet
would have been rendered unfit for human habitation as well as for all living organisms. The
ozonosphere protects us from excessive quantities of these deadly rays.

Water vapor:

Water vapor is one of the most variable gases in the atmosphere, which is present in small
amounts, but it is nonetheless very important. Water vapor is always present in some proportion
in the lower atmosphere. The water vapor content of air may vary from .02 per cent by volume
in a cold dry climate to nearly 4 percent in the humid tropics. The variations in this percentage
over time and place are very important considerations climatically.

The significance of atmospheric moisture to all forms of life is a well known fact and hardly
needs any elaboration. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor pays a significant role in the insulating
action of the atmosphere. In addition, it absorbs not only the long wave terrestrial radiation,
but also a part of the incoming solar radiation. Thus, it is an important control in regulating the
energy transfer through the atmosphere. Water vapor is the source of all clouds and
precipitation. Through the condensation of water vapor, vast amount of energy is released into
the atmosphere in the form of latent heat of condensation, the ultimate driving force for most
of the storms.

The most important as well as the most interesting thing about water vapor is that about 90
percent of it lies below 6 kilometers of the atmosphere. It is estimated that only less than 1
percent of the total atmospheric moisture in the atmosphere is found above 10 kilometers.

When the maximum possible quantity of water vapor that the air can hold at any given
temperature and pressure is present, the air is said to be saturated. But the moisture holding
capacity of the air varies in direct proportion to its temperature. In other words, the higher the
temperature of the air, the larger its capacity to hold moisture. As can be seen in table the
amount of water vapor in saturated air is different at different temperatures.

Table: amount of water vapor in a cubic meter of saturated air at different temperatures.

Temperature ᵒC Grams ᵒC
-5 3.261
 0 4.847
5 6.797
10 9.401
15 12.832
20 17.300
25 23.049
30 39.371
35 39.599
40 51.117

Dust particles:

Innumerable dust particles are held in suspension in the lower layers of the atmosphere. It may
be pointed out that the term ‘dust particles’ includes all the solid particles present in air
excepting the gases and water vapor. This is a great variation in the amount of dust over the
earth’s surface. Even over the oceans, the air contains thousands of dust particles per cubic
centimeter. Many particles are invisible to the naked eye and are microscopic. They originate
from different sources, both natural and man-made. They include sea salts from breaking sea
waves, pollen and various organisms lifted by the wind, smoke and soot from fires and tiny
sand particles raised from active volcanoes. These dust particles are held in air by the
movements of the atmosphere. However, certain particles are too large to remain for very long
in the air.

At times, the ascending air currents carry the dust particles to great heights in the atmosphere.
The upper atmosphere also receives a very small amount of dust from the disintegration of
innumerable meteors passing through it.

From a meteorological viewpoint, these tiny solid particles may be very significant. They
absorb a part of the incoming short-wave solar radiation. Also part of the insolation, especially
the short wave lengths of blue light, is scattered by the molecules of air and fine dust. A certain
percentage of the solar radiant energy is reflected back by these solid particles. Dust particles,
by the process of scattering, contribute to the varied colors of red and orange at sunrise and
sunset. The blue color of the sky is due to selective scattering by dust particles. Some of the
dust particles are hygroscopic in character and, therefore, act as nuclei of condensation. Thus,
dust particles are a major contributory factor the formation of clouds and fogs. (D.S.Lal, 2016)
Greenhouse gas

The three most powerful log lived greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide. Water vapor is the single most powerful greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere. Water vapor has approximately twice the effect of the second most powerful
greenhouse gas-carbon dioxide. Human activities do not have any significant direct impact on
the level of water vapor in the atmosphere. (www.eolss.net>ebooks, n.d.)

Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the earth’s surface. When the suns energy
reaches the earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed
and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the
surface of the earth. This process maintains the earth’s temperature, allowing life on earth to
exist.

1: The solar radiation reaches the earth’s atmosphere-some of this is reflected back into space.
2: The rest of the suns energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans, heating the earth. 3:
Heat radiates from earth towards space.

4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the earth warm
enough to sustain life.

5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are increasing
the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.

6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the earth’s temperature to rise.
(www.environment.gov.au>greenhouse, n.d.)

Causes of greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere when people burn coal, oil, and natural gas fossil
fuels for transportation, factories and electricity.

Deforestation, or the cleaning of forest, also increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the air
because in photosynthesis plants take in carbon dioxide and remove it from the atmosphere,
they make oxygen.
Volcanoes, fires also add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

The heating and cooling of the atmosphere shows that the temperature of any particular place
depends primarily on the amount of insolation received there. The amount of insolation is
largely determined by latitudes. Thus, of all the factors controlling the distribution of
temperature on the earth’s surface, latitudes is undoubtedly the most important. Even in ancient
times Greeks were conversant with the fact that the equatorial region is the hottest on the globe
and the temperature decreases poleward. It was on this basis that they divided the earth into
five temperature zones. They also considered as boundary lines of these temperature zones, the
Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

The spatial and temporal distribution of temperatures is very significant because different types
of weather, climates, vegetation zones, animals and human life etc. Basically depend on the
distribution of temperature, weather horizontal or vertical. The study of distribution of
temperature is attempted in several ways viz.

i) Temporal distribution, ii) Spatial distribution.

The Spatial distribution is studied in two ways e.g. (a) Vertical distribution (b) Horizontal
distribution of temperature. The horizontal distribution of temperature is also termed as
regional distribution of temperature. The Spatial distribution of temperature is controlled by a
Varity of factors e.g.

Latitudes or distance from the equator

Height from sea level or altitude

Distance from the coast

Nature of land and water

Properties of ground surface

Nature of slopes

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

The Following factors control the distribution of temperature on the earth's surface:
Latitude

The temperature of the atmosphere of a particular place near the ground surface depends on the
amount of insolation received at the place. Since the amount of insolation received by the
ground surface decreases poleward from the equator i.e. from low latitudes towards high
latitudes because the sun's rays become more and more oblique (slanting) poleward and hence
air temperature also decreases pole ward.

It may be noted that though sun's rays are almost vertical over the equator throughout the year
but there is no maximum temperature on it rather maximum temperature is recorded along 20°
N latitude in July because major portion of the insolation is reflected by clouds and sizeable
amount of heat is lost in evaporation in the low latitude zone (equatorial zone) while tropics
are characterized by clear skies and high pressure due to subsidence of air from above.

The maximum heating of ground surface occurs around tropics of Cancer and Capricorn hence
maximum temperatures are also recorded near the tropics. The polar zones record lowest
temperatures. The highest temperature of 58° C was recorded in Al Aziz of Libya in September,
1922, whereas the second highest temperature of 57° C was recorded in July, 1913 in the Death
Valley of California, USA. These extreme temperatures are the results of extreme heating of
sandy surface near the tropics. The lowest temperature recorded till now is -89° C which was
recorded in 1983 at Vostock of Antarctica whereas the second lowest temperature of -68° C
was recorded at Verkhoyansk of Russia. There extreme low temperatures are the result of
maximum amount of insolation received from the sun and maximum loss of energy through
ground radiation to the atmosphere and space due to perpetually snow-covered ground surface
which also allow maximum reflection (albedo) of solar radiation.

ALTITUDE
The temperature decreases with increasing height from the earth's surface at an average rate of
6.5° C per kilometer because of the following reasons.

i) The major source of atmospheric heat is the earth's surface from where heat is transferred to
the atmosphere through the processes of conduction, radiation and convection. Thus, the
portion of the atmosphere coming in direct contact with the earth's surface gets more heat from
the ground surface than the portion lying above because as we ascend higher in the atmosphere
the amount of heat to be transported above decreases and hence temperature decreases aloft.

ii) The layers of air are denser near the earth's surface and become lighter with increasing
altitude. The lower of air are denser near the earth's surface and become lighter with increasing
altitude. The lower layer of air contains more water vapor and dust particles than layers above
and hence it absorb larger amount of heat radiated from the earth's surface than the upper air
layers.

DISTANCE FROM THE COAST

The marine environment moderates the weather condition of the coastal areas because there is
more mixing of temperature of the coastal sea and oceans and coastal lands due to daily rhythm
of land and sea breeze. Thus, the daily range of temperature near the coastal environment is
minimum but increases as the distance from the sea coast increases. Minimum daily range of
temperature is the characteristic features of marine climate while extremely high daily range
of temperature characterize continental climate.

NATURE OF LAND AND WATER

The contrasting nature of land and water surface is related to the incoming short wave solar
radiation largely affects the spatial and temporal distribution of temperature. It may be pointed
out that the land becomes warm and cold more quickly than the water body. This is why even
after receiving equal amount of insolation the temperature of land becomes more than the
temperature of the water body. The following reasons explain the differential rate of heating
and cooling of land and water.

i) The sun's rays penetrate to the depth of only one meter in land because it is opaque but they
penetrate to greater depth of several meters in water because it is transparent to solar radiation.
The thin layer of soils and rocks of land, thus, gets heated quickly because of greater
concentration of insolation in much smaller mass of material of ground surface. Similarly, the
thin ground layer emits heat quickly and becomes colder. On the other hand the same amount
of insolation falling on water surface has to heat larger volume of water because of the
penetration of solar rays to greater depth and thus the temperature of ground surface becomes
higher than that of water surface though the amount of insolation received by both the surfaces
may be equal.

ii) The heat is concentrated at the place where insolation is received and there is every slow
process of re-distribution of heat by conduction because land surface is static. It may be noted
that downward distribution of temperature in the land surface within a day (24 hours) is
effective up to the depth of only 10 cm. Thus, the land surface becomes warm during day and
cold during night very rapidly. On the other hand, water is mobile. The upper surface of water
becomes lighter when heated by insolation and thus moves away horizontally to the other
places and the solar rays have to heat fresh layers of cold water. Secondly heat is redistributed
in water bodies by sea waves, ocean currents and tidal waves. All these extend the period of
warming of water surface.

iii) There is more evaporation from the seas and the oceans and hence more heat is spent in this
process with the result oceans get less insolation than the land surface. On the other hand, there
is less evaporation from the land surface because of very limited amount of water.

iv) The specific heat (the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance by 1° C) of water is much greater (five times) than the land (specific heat of water
and land surface is 1.0 cel/g/C and 0.19 cel/g/C respectively) because the relative density of
water is much lower than that of land surface. It means more heat is required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1° C than 1 gram of land. More specifically the heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 cubic foot of water by 1° C is two times greater than the heat
required for the equal volume of land (1 cubic foot). It is apparent that same amount of
insolation received by same mass of water and land would increase the temperature of land
more than the temperature of equal mass of water.

v) The reflection (albedo) of incoming solar radiation from the oceanic water surface is far
more than from the land surface and thus water receives less insolation than land. It may be
mentioned that this is the generalized statement because the nature of ground surface varies
from low latitudes to higher latitudes because the percentage of snow covered surface increases
beyond 60° latitude and therefore the albedo also increases in the same proportion

vi Oceanic areas are generally clouded and hence they receive less insolation than land surface.
But clouds absorb outgoing terrestrial radiation and counter-radiate heat back to the earth's
surface. This process retards the loss of heat from the oceanic surfaces and hence slows down
the mechanism of cooling of the air lying over the oceans. On the other hand, land surfaces
receive more insolation at faster rate because of less cloudiness and simultaneously lose more
heat through outgoing terrestrial radiation very quickly.

NATURE OF GROUND SURFACE

The nature of ground surface in terms of color, vegetation, land use practice etc. affects the
distribution of temperature. The snow covered surfaces receive very low amount of insolation
because they reflect 70-90 per cent of incoming shortwave solar radiation and thus polar and
arctic areas are characterized by extremely low temperature throughout the year. On the other
hand, sandy surface record high temperature during day time in the tropical and subtropical
areas because they absorb most of the solar radiation very quickly as they reflect only 20-30
per cent of solar radiation.

PREVAILING WINDS

The prevailing winds help in redistribution of temperature and in carrying moderating effects
of the ocean to the adjacent coastal land area. The winds blowing from low latitudes to high
latitudes raise the temperature of region where they reach while winds blowing from high
latitudes to low latitudes lower the temperature. The winds blowing from oceans to coastal land
bring in marine effects and thus lower the daily range of temperature. The winds coming from
higher parts to the mountains lower the temperature in the valleys. The temperature rises at the
time of arrival of temperate cyclones while it falls sharply after their passage or their occlusion.
The winds associated with warm oceanic currents raises the temperature of coastal lands while
the winds coming in contact with cold currents lower the temperature of affected coastal lands.
For example the north Atlantic drift (extension of Gulf Stream) raises the temperature of coastal
areas of north-west Europe and Labrador cold currents lower the temperature in the
neighborhood of New Foundland. Sometimes, local wind changes the temperature
dramatically. For example the warm Chinnok winds raise the temperature by 30°-40° F within
a few minutes’ long eastern slopes of the Rockies in the USA and the snow melts as by magic
at the arrival of Chinnok. This is why pastures are open throughout the year.

OCEAN CURRENTS

The warm ocean currents flowing from the tropical area to temperate and cold zones raises the
average temperature in the affected area for example Gulf Stream raises the average
temperature of Japanese coast, Labrador, Peru, California, Kurile etc. Cold currents lower the
temperature of affected areas. In fact, ocean currents moving from one place to another equalize
the temperature.

CLOUD COVER
The cloudiness affects the local, daily and seasonal temperatures and hence ranges of
temperature. It is experienced fact that night time temperature during clear sky is much less
than clouded nights. Similarly, cloudy nights and days are warmer than cloudless nights and
days. This is because of the fact that cloud over reflects a portion of incoming short waves solar
radiation and hence lower the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface. On the
other hand, cloud covers retards the loss of heat energy from the earth through outgoing long
wave terrestrial radiation and reradiates it back to the ground surface and thud clouds cover
keeps the ground surface and boundary layer of air warm. Conversely, cloudless clear sky
allows more solar radiation waves to reach the earth’s surface during day time while it allows
rapid rate of loss of heat from the ground surface through the long wave radiation.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

As one moves from equator towards the poles, steadily decreasing temperatures are observed.
In the same way, there is a steady decrease o temperature with increasing elevation in the
atmosphere. This decrease of temperature with increasing altitude in the atmosphere is called
the vertical temperature gradient.

TROPOSPHERE

The lowest layer of atmosphere is known as troposphere. It has been taken from the Greek
tropos, means 'turn' or change. It contains approximately 90% of the total mass of the
atmosphere. Troposphere extends up to the tropopause, defined by temperature of -57° C [-70
F, Occurring at an altitude of 18 km [11 miles] at the equator 13 km [8 miles] in the middle
latitudes, and near the poles or lower altitude [8km]. Troposphere is also the home of biosphere.
Troposphere is characterized by a constant vertical decrease in temperature. On the average,
the temperature drops 6.4° C per 1 km increase in elevation. This decrease in temperature is
known as the Normal Lapse Rate. It may be mentioned that normal lapse rate is average but
actual lapse rate varies both spatially and temporally. Actual lapse rate is called environmental
lapse rate. In the lower Troposphere (1.5 to 2 km). There are frequent hourly changes of lapse
rate while it is less variable in the upper troposphere. (2km to Tropopause).

Summer registers high lapse rate then winter and day time lapse rate scores over night time
lapse rate. The decrease of temperature upward in the atmosphere proves the fact that the
atmosphere gets heat from the earth's surface through the processes of conduction, radiation
and convection. It is thus, obvious that as the vertical (height) distance from the earth's surface
(the source of direct heat energy to the atmosphere) increases (i.e. as the altitude increases), the
air temperature decreases. The following are the reasons for decrease of temperature with
increasing altitude in the troposphere.

i) Heat is transferred to the atmosphere from the earth's surface through the processes of
conduction, radiation and convection. Thus, as the altitude increases the amount of heat
transported upward decreases. Consequently, every air layer receives less heat than the air layer
lying below.

ii) The air pressure is higher in the lower portion of the atmosphere near the earth's surface
because of weight of all the air layers lying above and thus the air density is maximum in the
lower atmosphere but it decreases rapidly upward and the air becomes thin.

iii) The quantity of water vapor, dust particles, water droplets, carbon-dioxide etc. which absorb
outgoing long wave terrestrial radiation, is more concentrated in the lower portion of the
atmosphere and decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. Thus, the temperature of lower
atmosphere becomes more than the air layers lying above because of more and more absorption
of the terrestrial radiation in the lower air layers. In other words, the temperature decreases
upward because of decrease of absorption of terrestrial radiation with increasing height in the
troposphere. It may be pointed out that the decrease of temperature with increasing height is
confined to the troposphere only.

The height of the troposphere is 16 km and 6 km over the equator and the poles respectively
but this height also varies in different seasons therefore it becomes higher in summer than in
winter. The upper limit of troposphere is called tropopause. It is interesting to note that the
temperature of tropopause increases from over the equator towards the poles because the height
of the tropopause deceases from over the equator towards the poles. The height of the
tropopause during July and January over the equator is 17 km while temperature at the top of
tropopause is -70° C. The height of tropopause decreases to 15 km in July and 12.5 km in
January over 45 N Latitude but the temperature at the top of tropopause increases to -60° C in
July and -58° C in January. The height of tropopause further decreases to 10 km in July and 9
km in January over the poles but the temperature increases to -45° C in July and -58° C in
January.

Upward from the tropopause the temperature is reported to increase with increasing height in
stratosphere.

STRATOSPHERE

Stratosphere is that part of the atmosphere which lies above the troposphere, extending upward
to a height of above 50 km from a height of about 18 km at the equator and 8 km at the poles.
The base of the Stratosphere also represents the layer at which the normal fall of air temperature
with increasing height abruptly ceases. Strong and persistent winds blow in Stratosphere from
west to east. There is little mixing of air between the troposphere and stratosphere and so the
stratosphere normally holds very little water vapor or dust.

One important feature of Stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. As stated above, the
ozone layer absorbs solar ultra violet rays and thus shields earthly life from the intense harmful
form of energy. In fact, the warming of the stratosphere with altitude is caused largely due to
absorption of the solar energy by ozone molecules.

MESOSPHERE

Mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere, occurring between the stratosphere and the
thermosphere. It is bounded by the Stratopause (below) and the Mesopause (above). It lies
between 50 -80 km above the earth's surface. In the mesosphere, temperature falls with
increasing height. Within it temperature decreases from 0° C at the Stratopause to -90° C at the
Mesopause. It is designated by temperature criteria and very low pressure. Mesopause is the
upper limit of Mesosphere at an elevation in the atmosphere of some 80 km above the earth's
surface. Above this lies the Thermosphere.

THERMOSPHERE

This layer of the atmosphere exists above the atmosphere, some 80 km above the earth's
surface. It is a zone in Thermosphere, where the temperature increases with height. Some
Scientists regard the thermosphere and ionosphere is being synonymous but others would
regard the ionosphere only as the layer between 100 and 300 km, where electrons density is
very high. At the altitude of thermosphere, the density of the air is very thin and the air holds
little heat. Thermosphere contains the functional ionosphere layer. From the view point of gas
composition, the atmosphere is uniform for about 100 km of altitude, which includes the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and the lower portion of thermosphere. This region is
referred to as the homosphere. Above 100 km, gas molecules tend to become increasingly
sorted into layers by molecular weight and electric charge. This region is referred to as
heterosphere.

In general, the atmospheric temperature drops with increasing altitude. This happens because
the upper layers are farther away from the surface, which primary source of heating for the
atmosphere. At high elevations, either on mountains or high plateaus, we can expect
temperatures to be colder than at sea level, since these elevations are exposed to cooler air that
has been circulating far above the surface. At sea level, the air is compressed by the weight of
the air above it and so is relatively dense. At high elevations, the air is less compressed and less
dense, because of lesser weight of the air above. This means that above a mountain or high
plateau, there will be fewer air molecules and dust particles to scatter and absorb the sun's light.
Consequently, the air appears clearer and the sky dark blue.

Since the air is thinner at high elevations, incoming solar radiation will be more intense, and
temperature will rise more quickly during the day. Moreover, there will be less carbon-dioxide
and water vapor in the air above, so the greenhouse effect will be reduced. With the reduced
warming effect, temperature will tend to drop lower at night.

HORIZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

There are a number of factors that determine the horizontal distribution of temperatures. It has
already been pointed out that the effectiveness of insolation in heating the earth’s surface
depends on latitudes. We also know that there is general decrease in temperature from equator
towards the poles and thus low latitudes are characterized by highest temperature
corresponding to maximum insolation received within the tropics whereas high latitudes
records lowest temperature in response to minimum insolation received in the polar areas. It
may be mentioned that the highest temperature of the earth’s surface is never recorded at the
equator, instead it is recorded near the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn during northern and
southern summers respectively because: i) the Sun’s rays are near vertical for only 30 days in
a year within equatorial zone, demarcated by 6° N and 6° S latitudes, whereas sun’s rays are
near vertical for 88 days in a year within the latitudinal zone of 17.5° and 23.5° in both the
hemispheres, and hence the zone near the tropics (23.5°) receives the highest amount of
insolation resulting into highest temperature.

ii) Almost clear skies for most part of the year allow more inflow of solar radiation and
consequent heating of the ground surface whereas cloud cover reflects a portion of incident
solar radiation

iii) More heat energy is spent in evaporation and convection as latent heat in equatorial belt
while there is least evaporation near the tropics and very little amount of heat energy spent as
latent heat.

However, if effect of latitudinal variation in the receipt of solar insolation were the only control
of temperature distribution, the isotherms on a world temperature map would have been exactly
parallel to the parallel latitudes. But in spite of the fact the isotherms generally trend east-west
they are highly irregular. The isotherms over certain parts of the globe are closely spaced, while
elsewhere they are widely spaced. This is a clear proof of the wide variation in the temperature
gradient in various parts of the world. Besides, the isotherms showing the distribution of
temperature develop a number of bends and deformities in shape.

Generally, isotherms are straight but they bend at the junction of continents and oceans due to
differential heating and cooling of land and water. Isotherms lines are more irregular in the
northern hemisphere because of large extent of continents but they are more regular in the
southern hemisphere due to over dominance of oceans. Isotherms are generally closely spaced
in the northern hemisphere but they are widely spaced in the southern hemisphere.

The closely spaced isotherms denote rapid rate of change of temperature and steep temperature
gradient. On the other hand, widely spaced isotherms indicate slow rate of temperature change
and low temperature gradient. On an average, isotherms trending from the land towards the
ocean bend equator ward during summer and pole ward during winter. On the other hand,
isotherms trending from the oceans to the continent bend pole ward during summer and equator
ward during winter.

The isotherms during the months of January and July are taken as representatives for the study
of horizontal distribution of temperature during winter and summer season respectively
because they represent seasonal extremes. Following are the additional factors that also affect
the distribution of temperature on the earth’s surface:- a. Differential heating of land water, b.
Effects of ocean currents. C. Mountain barriers and d. Topographic relief.

SEASONAL HORIZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

As stated earlier, the months of maximum (June, northern hemisphere) and minimum
(December, northern hemisphere) insolation do not coincide with the months of hottest and
coldest months (July and January in the northern hemisphere) respectively and hence the month
of July (hottest in the northern hemisphere and coldest in the southern hemisphere) and January
(coldest in the northern hemisphere and hottest in the southern hemisphere) are taken as
representative to describe the seasonal (and also annual) distribution of average temperature.
The two isotherm map reveals the following trends.

i) The months of July and January are warmest and coldest in the northern hemisphere whereas
the warmest and coldest months in southern hemisphere are January and July respectively.

ii) Both the maps shows latitudinal shifts of isotherm in accordance with seasonal shifting of
overhead sun but this shifting of isotherm is more pronounced on the continents.

iii) The maximum temperature in January and July are always recorded on the continents.
Minimum temperature in January is observed in Asia and North America.

iv)January isotherm suddenly bend pole wards while passing through warm portions of the
oceans and bend equator ward while passing through the cold portions of the oceans in January
in the northern hemisphere while the trend is opposite in July. On the other hand, the isotherms
are more or less regular and straight in the southern hemisphere because of over dominance of
oceans.

v) Temperature gradient is more pronounced during winter than summer.

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

Horizontal temperature distribution is also described following regional approach wherein the
globe is divided into temperature zones. According to the ancient Greek thinkers the globe is
divided into three temperature zone on the basis of latitudes.

i)TROPICAL ZONE

II) TEMPERATE ZONE

III) FRIGID ZONE

TROPICAL ZONE: extent between the tropics of Cancer (23.5° N) and Capricorn (23.5° S).
The sun’s rays are more or less vertical on the equator throughout the year. Remaining areas
are also characterized by vertical sun’s rays at least once every year. There is no winter around
the equator because of high temperature prevailing throughout the year but as one approaches
the tropic of cancer and Capricorn summer and winter are clearly observed and differentiated.

TEMPERATE ZONE: extends between 23.5° and 66.5° latitudes in both the hemispheres.
Though the duration of day and night is longer in this zone but it is never more than 24 hours.
There are marked seasonal contrasts with in northward and southward (summer and winter
solstices) migration of overhead sun and thus the range of temperature between summers and
winters becomes exceptionally very high.

FRIGID ZONE: extending between 66.5° latitude and the poles in both the hemispheres is
characterized by more oblique sun’s rays throughout the year resulting into exceptionally very
low temperature. The length of the day and night is more than 24 hours. Days and nights are
of 6 month duration at the poles. Sun is never vertical and the round in covered with snow as
temperature more or less remains below freezing point. It may be pointed out that the Greek’s
gave undue importance to latitudes in determining different temperature zones and over looked
the controls of contrasting nature of continents and oceans in terms of their heating and cooling,
prevailing winds, ocean currents, nature of ground surface etc. Taking all these factors in
consideration Soupan divided the globe into temperature zone on the basis of isotherms.
According to him the outer limit of tropical zone should be determined on the basis of annual
isotherm of 68° F (20° C). The boundary between temperate and frigid zones in the northern
hemisphere should be demarcated by 50° F (10° C) isotherm of July while January isotherm of
50° F (10° C) should separate temperate zone from Frigid Zone in the southern hemisphere.

INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE

As we know that in the lower part of the atmosphere, temperature generally decreases with
increasing height, because as we go up in the atmosphere, the density of air molecules decrease
unlike near the earth’s surface where the air is held by the gravity resulting in high
concentration of air and hence high pressure, the molecules collide among themselves
generating heat causing high temperature. As the density decreases, so does the quantity of air
molecules, which means huge gap between the molecules allowing them to move freely
without colliding much with each other resulting in generation of less heat and hence there is
low temperature. The decrease in temperature with increase in altitude in the atmosphere is
known as Vertical temperature gradient or lapse rate. The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C/km in the
lower atmosphere.

But sometimes under special circumstances, this trend is reversed, i.e. the temperature instead
of decreasing starts increasing with altitude. This phenomenon is known as Negative lapse rate
or Inversion of tempearure in meteorological terms.

Types of Temperature Inversion:

Inversion of temperature occurs in several conditions. Sometimes, it occurs at ground surface

while sometimes it occurs at greater heights. Sometimes, it is caused in the static atmospheric
conditions while sometimes, it occurs due to horizontal or vertical movement of air. Thus,
according to the processes that cause them and the relative heights from earth’s surface at which
they develop, the temperature inversion may be classified in the following types:

Ground or Surface Inversions

Radiation Inversion

Advection Inversion

Upper-air Inversion

Subsidence Inversion

Turbulence and Convective Inversion

Frontal Inversions

Ground surface Inversions also called as:

Radiation Inversion

Such type on inversion occurs near the earth’s surface due to radiation mechanism. This is also
called as non-advectional inversion because it occurs in static atmospheric condition
characterized by no movement of air whether horizontal or vertical. Such inversion normally
occurs during the long cold winter nights in the snow-covered regions of the middle and high
latitudes. Infact, Radiation inversion is caused due to excessive nocturnal cooling of the ground
surface due to rapid loss of heat from the ground through outgoing longwave terrestrial
radiation. Thus, the air coming in contact with the cool ground surface also becomes cool while
the air layer lying above is relatively warm. Consequently, temperature inversion develops
because of cold air layer below and warm air layer above. The radiation inversion occurs under
the following conditions:

Long winter nights, so that the loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground surface
during night may exceed the amount of insolation received from the sun through incoming
shortwave electromagnetic radiation and thus the ground surface becomes too cold.

Cloudless and clear sky, so that the loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds more
rapidly without any obstruction. Clouds absorb terrestrial radiation and hence retard loss of
heat from the earth’s surface.
Temperature inversions is produced when there is little wind movement near the ground or
wind movement is very slow, so that there is little mixing in the lower layers of atmosphere
and the ground gets sufficient time to cool down adequately.

In higher latitudes where the ground is snow-covered, solar radiation falling on it is partly
reflected back. Thus, the ground heats little by day. On the other hand, at night there is
unretarded loss heat by earth radiation. Moreover, snow being a poor conductor of heat, it
retards the outgoing radiation from the surface lying hidden under it. Therefore, the air near
the surface undergoes rapid cooling, and a temperature inversion is fully developed. These
conditions are ideal for the occurrence of frost as well.

Surface inversions promote stability in the lower layers of atmosphere. Smoke rising from near
the ground, dust particles raised from the ground and from the chimneys, all collect beneath
the inversion layer and spread horizontally. Morning dense fogs are of common occurrence,
especially during winter. The atmospheric turbulence produced near the surface transports
water vapour to the base of the inversion layer which makes the lower air moister. In these
conditions, if there is light wind near the surface, fog is produced.

Advection Inversion:

Advection of a thick layer of warm air over a cold surface produces an inversion of temperature
in the lower layers of the atmosphere for the warm air is cooled by conduction.

This type of inversion occurring at a certain height, i.e. the height of the warmer layer of air, is
called Advection inversion. This type of stable inversion occurs when the warm air passes over
a cold water surface. Under these conditions, it may also occur over cold land surface or snow-
covered ground. In the same way, during summer the oceans are cooler than the adjacent land
masses. So when a cool mass of air is transported to the land, the presence of warmer mass of
air aloft produces the same type of advection inversion. Warm and moist air masses coming
from the oceans produce stable inversion over the vast snow-covered lowland of Northern
Eurasia and Northern Canada.
2) Upper-air Inversion:

Upper-air inversion is of two types viz. Thermal upper air inversion and Mechanical upper-Air
inversion. The Thermal upper air inversion is caused by the presence of ozone layer lying
between the height of 15 to 35 km, even up to 80 km. in the stratosphere. The ozone layer
absorbs most of the Ultraviolet rays radiated from the sun and thus the temperature of this layer
becomes much higher than the air layers lying above and below ozone layer. This inversion
occurs only when there is no vertical movement of air. The mechanical inversion of
temperature is caused at higher heights in the atmosphere due to subsidence of air and
turbulence and convective mechanisms.

Subsidence Inversion:

As the name indicates, it is produced well above the earth’s surface on account of subsidence
of air currents. This type of upper-air inversion occurs in air mass when a thick mass of air
subsides. The sinking air warms at the dry adiabatic rate of 10°C/km. In certain cases, the
subsidence continues to a particular level where the air diverges horizontally above a lower
layer. Temperature inversion of this type generally develops in a layer separating the upper
region of subsiding air and the lower region characterized by the absence of vertical motion.
Subsidence inversions are of common occurrence in regions of high pressure that are
characterized by sinking air. There are circumstances when during the night, two inversion
layers may develop in the high pressure regions, one at the ground produced by radiation
cooling and the other at considerable altitudes produced by subsidence.

For example, there are semi-permanent high pressure regions in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
in the latitudes of 30°N, where subsidence in the eastern portions of these anticyclones leads
to strong temperature inversions. The subsidence inversion is of great environmental
significance, for the pollutants from industrial sources become concentrated in the lower layers
forming great environmental hazard.

Trade Wind inversion: well-developed subsidence inversions are found over the lower trade
winds. The thickness of inversion layer varies from a few hundred to about thousand meters,
and increases as the trade winds proceed towards lower latitudes. Trade wind inversion is best
developed over the eastern parts of the subtropical anticyclones. It prevents the vertical
movement of air that is why precipitation in those areas is only modest. However, when
atmospheric disturbances lift the inversion layer, precipitation may be fairly large. Trade wind
inversion plays vital role in controlling the vertical circulation in the tropical atmosphere by
restricting the vertical development of clouds. It acts as a lid which effectively limits
convection.

Turbulence and Convective inversion:

This type of inversion is produced at altitudes above the surface by mechanical processes.
Turbulence and convection are the contributory factors in causing this type of inversion.
Because of the frictional forces, eddies form in the lower layers of the atmosphere which
transport lower air to higher levels and bring back the upper air to the lower levels.
Convectional currents set up in the air near the ground are mainly responsible for the exchange
of air between upper and lower levels of the atmosphere. The phenomena of turbulence and
convection cause a thorough mixing of the atmosphere in turbulent layers. However, the
turbulent or convective mixing is limited to a certain height beyond what it cannot penetrate.
It is at this height that convective mixing is formed. In the process of vertical mixing, the air
carried upward is cooled adiabatically. Similarly, the air brought downward is heated at the
same adiabatic rate. After a prolonged mixing in the atmosphere, the air at the maximum height
of turbulent penetration becomes colder than what it was before, and that at the bottom of the
turbulence layer will be warmer than was it originally was. The transition from this upper part
of the turbulence zone to the air above with its temperature unaffected by adiabatic cooling
comprises a temperature inversion. In case the inversion has formed at lower levels, smoke,
dust particles and other pollutants are carried up to the inversion where they spread beneath the
inversion layer and form distinct smoke or haze lines in clear weather.

3) Frontal Inversions:

The inverted lapse rate at the front is called frontal inversion. When different air masses are
brought together by converging movements, the warmer air being relatively higher tends to
overlie the colder and denser air in a horizontal layer. However, because of the Coriolis force,
the boundary zone between the air masses with contrasting physical properties are never
horizontal; they are rather sloping. In fact, the frontal zone itself is converted into inversion
layer in which the lapse rate is inverted. In other words, at the frontal zone as one moves up
from the lower to upper layers of the atmosphere, there is an increase in temperature with
increasing altitudes.

The following characteristics distinguish frontal inversion from other types of inversion:
The inversion layer associated with fronts is sloping, while in the other types of inversion it is
horizontal.

In frontal inversion, the moisture content shows a marked increase with elevation, while in
other types, the temperature increases and humidity decreases with the increasing elevation.

What happens is that the actual lapse rate becomes very low in the inversion layer. The warmer
air masses ascend the retreating wedge of cold air and they cool by adiabatic expansion. At
greater heights there is marked decrease in the lapse rate in the frontal zone, whereas just above
the top of the clouds formed by the rising warm air currents, the inversion is always present.

Significance of Temperature Inversions:

The climatic as well as economic significance of temperature inversions is very great. Cloud-
forms, precipitation and atmospheric visibility, are all greatly affected by inversion. The
inversion layer acts as a lid for the rising air currents. Thus, the convectional currents produced
by intense heating of the earth’s surface during daytime can ascend up to the base of inversion,
causing smoke and other atmospheric impurities to get confined to its lower layer. There are
several climatic effects of inversion which ae of great significance to man and his activities:

Fog is formed due to the situation of warm air above and cold air below because the warm air
is cooled from below and resultant condensation causes the formation of tiny droplets around
suspended dust particles and smokes during winter nights. The smokes coming out of houses
and chimneys intensify fogs and causes Urban smogs. When smog is mixed with air pollutants
such as sulphur dioxide it becomes poisonous and deadly health hazard to human beings. Fogs
reduce atmospheric visibility and thus are responsible for accidents of aircrafts and ships in the
oceans. Road and Rail transport are also badly affected by dense fogs and also are sometimes
unfavourable for few agricultural crops.

Frost is also formed due to temperature inversion when the condensation of warm air due to its
cooling by cold air below, occurs at temperature below freezing point. Frost is definitely an
economically unfavourable weather phenomenon mainly for crops because fruit orchards and
other agricultural crops like potatoes, tomatoes are totally damaged overnight.

Inversion of temperature causes atmospheric stability which stops upward and downward
movement of air. The atmospheric stability discourages rainfall and favours dry condition. The
inversion of temperature caused by the subsidence of air resulting into anticyclonic conditions
increases aridity. That is why the western parts of the continents situated between 20°-30°
latituides are characterized by anticyclonic conditions represent most widespread tropical
deserts of the world.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND UNITS

Temperature indicates the relative degree of molecular activity, or heat of a substance. It is an

index of sensible heat. To indicate the temperature, an arbitrary scale of reference is required.

Units of Temperature:

Fahrenheit:

Degrees Fahrenheit, developed in the early 1700’s by G. Daniel Fahrenheit, are used to record
surface temperature measurements by meteorologists in the Unites States. The Fahrenheit scale
which has its ‘triple point’ of water at 32° and boiling point at 212°. However, since most of
the rest of the world uses degrees Celsius, the units of Fahrenheit temperatures may be
converted to degree Celsius.

Celsius:

The Celsius scale developed in the 18th century, named for the Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius, is accepted internationally by scientists for reporting air temperature. Zero on this scale
is the ‘triple point’ temperature, at which gaseous, liquid and solid states of water are at
equilibrium under standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of water under standard
conditions is at 100°C.

Kelvin:

Kelvin is another unit of temperature that is very handy for many scientific calculations, since
it begins at ‘absolute zero’, meaning it has no negative numbers. It is commonly used to
indicate temperatures in the upper atmosphere and in studies involving energy exchange
processes. The value of each degree on the Kelvin scale equals to that of a Celsius degree, but
Kelvin is at -273.16°C. For ordinary purposes, we can convert Celsius to Kelvin simply by
adding 273.
Measurements of Temperature:

The word ‘Temperature’ was coined to describe the degree of hotness and coolness of a
material body. In the beginning of the 17th century, a thermometer – temperature measuring
instrument was developed. After that successive development of thermometers came out. The
importance of two reference fixed temperatures was felt while graduating the temperature
scales. They were used to measure the variation of atmospheric temperatures. With the
advancement of science and technology, we require temperature measurement to find out
different atmospheric conditions, and that too with high accuracy and precision. To cater these
needs, various temperature sensors have been developed:

Mercury-in-glass thermometer

The most common type of instrument for measuring air temperature is the mercury-in-glass
thermometer. The accuracy of temperature observations depends on the care with which the
thermometer is constructed on its exposure to the air.

Thermocouples

Indicate temperature electrically. Their accuracy and rapidly of response make them suitable
for microclimatic observations. The thermocouple consists of a pair of junctions of two unlike
metals. When one junction is kept at a constant temperature and the other is exposed to a
different temperature, the electromotive force is generated in the circuit, can be measured by a
potentiometer calibrated in degrees.

Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

Maximum thermometer is a mercury thermometer with a constriction in the bore near the bulb.
The constriction allows the expanding mercury to pass as the temperature rises, but when
cooling occurs, the column of mercury breaks at the constriction leaving a part in the bore to
register the highest temperature attained. The Maximum thermometer is mounted horizontally
and is reset by whirling so that centrifugal force pulls the detached thread of mercury down
past the constriction.

Minimum thermometer has a large bore and its fluid is colourless alcohol. A tiny, dark index
in the shape of a long dumbbell is placed in the bore below the top of alcohol column. The
minimum thermometer is mounted horizontally and as the alcohol contracts with the decreasing
temperature, the meniscus of the alcohol pulls the index down. When the meniscus moves up
the bore, it leaves the index behind to register the lowest temperature,

Thermograph

Where a permanent, continuous record of temperature is desired, a thermograph is used. It

consists of an element responsive to temperature changes, a system of levers to translate these
changes to a pen arm, and a cylindrical clock drum around which a calibrated chart is mounted.
A common temperature element employed in the Bourdon tube, a flat, curved tube of phosphor
bronze filled with alcohol. The tube changes its curvature in response to temperature changes.

INSOLATION

The sun is the primary source of energy on earth. This energy is radiated in all direction
into space through short waves. This is known as solar radiation. Income solar radiation
through short waves in termed as insolation. The amount of insolation received on the earth
surface is far or less than that is radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and
distance from sun.

In fact, the solar energy is radiated from the surface of the sun but the source of energy
is the interior of the sun. It may mentioned that the sun is a big gaseous mass heaving a diameter
of about 13, 82,000 km which is about 109 times that of the planet earth. The sun is supposed
to have been formed of four major zones, namely Core, Photosphere, Chromospheres, and
Corona. The bright outer surface of the sun is called Photosphere because of the dominances
of Photons which 7present bundle of energy of burning gases within a 300 km thick outer
surface. It may be mentioned that the Photosphere representing outer surface of the sun is not
characterized by even surface of uniform thickness rather it is uneven having numerous small
bright areas called as Granolas surrounded by dark areas heaving cool gases. The Photosphere
consists of 90 per cent hydrogen and 0 per cent helium. Within photosphere there are cool and
dark spots, known as the Sunspot and hotspots, known as faculae.

A thin layer of burning gases around photosphere but about 1,000,000 km away from the
sun is called chromosphere comprising ionized hydrogen and helium atoms. A stream of
electrons and protons released from the stream of electrons and protons released from the
photosphere into chromosphere and corona is called solar wind. The sudden and explosive
bursts of burning hot gases are called solar flares which released enormous of energy ant atomic
particles which after mixing with solar wind and reaching earth’s polar magnetic zones cause
aurora lights. Corona represents outermost zone of the sun’s atmosphere and is characterized
by very hot and rarefied.

The solar energy is radiated from the photosphere in the form of electromagnetic
radiation waves of which the earth receives only 1\2 billion the part but even this energy is
equivalent to 23 trillion horse power which is capable for sustenance of all life-forms in the
biosphere and all weather phenomenon

DISTRIBUTION OF INSOLATION

On an average, the amount of insulation received at the Earth’s surfaces decreases

from equator towards the poles but there is temporal variation of insulation received at different
times of year. The amount of insulation received at the outer boundary of the atmosphere and
at the earth surface at the time of winter solstice (22 December), vernal equinox (21 March)
summer solstice (21 June) and autumnal equinox (23 September) as given by Bur and Phillips.

The amount of solar radiation arching the outer limit of our atmosphere is significantly
more at different latitudes than the amount of insulation received at ground surface. This tread
reveals the fact that a sizeable portion of incoming solar radiation is lost while passing through
the atmosphere due to cloudiness (reflection ),atmospheric turbidity( scattering), reflection,
absorption ( though ozone). A further reveal that maximum insulation reaches the outer limit
of that atmosphere at north pole at the time of summer solstice while maximum insolation
received at the ground surface between latitudes 300 -400 N on 21st June because of minimum
amount of cloudiness due to the presence of subtropical high pressure belt and anticyclone
conditions.

The fact that total amount of insulation received at the Earth’s surface decreases from
equator towards poles. The insolation become so low at the poles that they received at the
equator. The tropical zone extending between the tropic of Cancer (23.50N) and
Capricorn(23.50S) receives maximum insolation during winter and summer seasons because
every place experience overhead sun twice every year. The globe is divided into 3 zone son
the basis of the amount of insulation received during the course of a year.

Low latitude or tropical zone extends between the tropic of Cancer and Caparicon. All paces
experiences overhead sun (sun’s rays are vertical) twice during the course of a year due to
northward and southward march of the sun. Consequences, every place receives highest
amount of insulation of all other zones and there is little seasonal variation.

Middle latitude zone extends between 23.50 and 660 latitudes in both the hemispheres. Within
zone every places receives maximum (at the time of summer solstice- 21 June in the northern
hemisphere and at the time of winter solstice -22 December in the southern hemisphere) and
minimum (at the time of vertical equinox – 21 March in the northern hemisphere and at the
time of autumnal equinox -23 September in the southern hemisphere) insolation once during
course of a year. Insolation is never absent at any time of the year (singh, 2009)but seasonal
variation increases with increasing latitudes.

Polar zone extends between 660 and 900(poles) latitudes in both the hemispheres. Every place
receives maximum and minimum insolation once during the course of a year but sometimes
insolation becomes zero due to absence of direct solar rays.

FACTOR AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSOLATION

The actual amount of insulation received on any place on earth surface is controlled by the
weather condition of that time and prevailing seasons.

The weather condition as well as seasons of any place are controlled by several factors like
angle of incidence, duration of sunlight, solar constant, distance between earth and sun and
transparency of atmosphere.

Angle of incidence: - The angle of incidence the rays of the sun and the tangent to the surface
of the earth at a given place largely determines the amount of insolation to be received at the
place. The sun’s rays are more or less vertical (maximum angle of 900 between the sun’s rays
and the tangent to the earth’s surface) at the equator and become more and more oblique pole
ward. In other words, the angle of the sun’s rays decreases pole ward.

The amount of insulation received also decreases in that direction. The control of
the angle of the sun’s rays of the amount of insolation may be explained with the following
examples: Vertical rays are spread over minimum area of the earth’s surface and they heat the
minimum possible area and thus the energy received per unit area increases. On the other hand,
oblique rays are spread over larger area of the earth’s surface and thus the amount of energy
received per unit area deceases. I is, obvious from the sun’s rays are of uniform width and carry
equal amount of solar energy but the area (S) covered by A band ids much smaller that the area
covered by B band (O) and therefore the amount of insulation received per unit area over S
surface is greater than over O surface area.

Oblique rays have to pass though thicker portion of the atmosphere then than vertical
rays. Thus , the oblique rays have to traverse larger distances then the vertical energy lost due
to reflection, scattering and abortion increases with increasing distance of travel path covered
by the sun’s rays though the atmosphere. It may be summarized that the oblique rays lose more
energy than the vertical rays while passing though the atmosphere

Length of the Day: - Solar radiation is only available to the earth during daylight hours. Thus,
the longer the day, the greater the amount of insolation a given location will receive. Length of
the day is governed solely by latitude. At the equator, for example, the day of the length is
about 12 hours all the year round whereas at the poles, it varies between 0.21 hours from winter
to summer. But the length of day increases pole ward with northward march of the sun in the
northern hemisphere while its decreases in the southern hemisphere at the time of summer
solstice.

On the other hand, the length of the day increases from the equator pole ward in the
southern hemisphere but it decreases in the northern hemisphere at the time of winter solstice
(22) December (southward march of the sun ). It is important to ground surface decreases
considerably pole ward because of decrease in the angle of sun’s rays. Inspire of the longest
length of the day at the poles insolation becomes minimum because (i) The sun’s rays become
more or less parallel to the ground surface, and (ii) The ice cover reflects most of the sun’s rays
controls the amount of insolation received more effectively then the length of day. It may be
thus, concluded that the places having longer length of the and vertical sun’s rays will certainly
receive maximum insolation. (Siddhartha)

Solar constant: - The average amount revived per unit area (over a plane at the right angle to
the solar beam) per unit time at the outer most boundary of the atmosphere is referred to as
Solar Constant. It is usually given the value about 136020 watts square mater.Wm2or 1.96cal
cm2 and min2. However, this effective input varies consider sly over space and time. This
variation related to the amount and nature of radiation is relatively small, fluctuating within 12
per cent of the solar constant. This range, however, falls within the error range in the radiation
measuring techniques..
 The portion cause in the variation in the value of solar constant is thought to be because
of the occurrence of darker areas in the surface of Sun Spots. The Sun Spots, the sun spots
undergo an 11 years illustration in a regular manner known as Sun Spot Cycle. During sun spot
minima. However, there is 20 times more ultraviolet radiation than during sun spot minima.
However, there have been no clear – cut links between the weather phenomena and sun spot
activity.

Distance between the Earth and the Sun: - A longer period of sunshine ensures larger supply
of radiation. At the equator the length of the day and night is 12 hours. The maximum insolation
is receives at the equator and decreases towards the poles.

At the summer season the northern hemisphere has the longest day and shortest night. In
the winter the southern hemisphere has the day and northern hemisphere shortest night. Thus,
the longer period of sunshine and shortest at night the greater is the amount of solar radiation
received.

Transparency of the atmosphere: - The dust particles, smoke, salt and clouds presents in the
atmosphere reflect the short waves solar radiation back to the space. Therefore areas with heavy
cloudiness and turbid atmosphere will reactive lessor amount absorption.

Transparency of atmosphere is also related to latitude. In higher latitudes, the

sun’s rays are more oblique so they have to travel a longer distance through relatively thicken
layers of the atmosphere. Thus, a lot of energy is lost by reflection, scattering and absorption
and the amount of energy reaching the earth’s surface is less.

Reflection occurs when part of the incident radiation striking a body is reflected from its
surface. Reflections varies considerably in amount natural surface. (Clouds are most important
reflections with an effectively ranging between 40-90 percent depending upon thickness.

On the land surfaces reflections varies on different surface on snow and dray sand
being efficient reflection. The reflection is described but the Albedo. The albedo of surface is
the proportion of total incoming solar radiation that is reflected back to surface. For the planet
as a whole. The albedo is about 0.34. Which indicates that the earth reflects 34% of the
insolation.

Diffusion Diffusions the random mixing of air bodies either by turbulences or by slow
molecular will guitar diffusion. When the diameter of the particles is larger than the wavelength
of the incident beam of light, true scattering does not occur and the effect of the particles is of
the nature to diffuse reflection or diffusion.

Diffusion is effective for wavelength. It is non- selective and this process helps the
components colors of incident light not to get separated. This is the reason why the reflected
light from the clouds or fog appears pure white. It is because off diffusion of light heat. This
diffused light is called to suffers considerably loss thought diffusion light is called twilight.
Thus, insolation suffers considerably loss through diffusion.

Absorption Absorption refers to the retaining of a portion of incident energy (radiation) by a

substance and its conservation into heat energy (sensible heat).Thus, absorption raises the
temperature of the absorbing substance or body. The absorption of incoming solar radiation is
selective in nature and effected by water vapor, different gas (mainly oxygen, nitrogen and
ozone), haze, smoke, some dust particles etc.

Water vapor is by far the most effective absorber of the wavelengths of incoming solar
radiation waves ranging between 0.9 micron and 2.1 micron. Water vapor is a potent absorber
of inferred radiation waves of electromagnetic solar radiation and long wave terrestrial
radiation but it becomes transparent to shortwave ultraviolet solar radiation and hence no
absorption of incoming shortwaves ultraviolet solar radiation waves.

Scattering The diffusion of portion of incoming solar radiation in different directions by

particulate matter (dust particles) and molecules of gas in the atmosphere is called the process
of scattering. The lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) studied the process of scattering of solar radiation
and its multi- facet effect which is known as Rayleigh scattering. The process of scattering is
selective because it depends on the ratio between the diameter of the invisible dust particles
and gas molecules and the wavelengths of radiation.

In general, the process of scattering becomes effective when the diameters of the dust
particles and gas molecules are smaller than the wavelengths of solar radiation waves. The law
scattering states that ‘that amount of scatter is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength. This means that in given set of conditions, the shorter wavelength scatter more
readily than does long wave radiations.

HEAT BUDGET

Heat budget is the balance of incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation.
The heat budget can be understood by considering solar energy as 100 units. Out of 100 units
received from space, 35 unit’s experiences reflection back to the space in the form of short
waves. This phenomena is known as Albedo. Albedo:- It can be defined as reflection of solar
radiation of electromagnetic radiations back to the space without change in their wavelength.(
shortwaves).

Incoming Shortwave Solar Radiation (in percentage) The albedo accounting 35 units shows
breakup as follows: 27 units by clouds, 2 units from snowfields and 6 units due to scattering
(27+2+6=35 units of the remaining 65 units (100-35=65 units, 14 units one absorbed by various
gases and other particles of the earth’s atmosphere and therefore remaining 51 units reach the
earth surface (65-14= 51 units).

Outgoing Long wave Terrestrial Radiation and Heat Balance After receiving energy from the
sun. The earth also radiates energy out of its surface into atmosphere through long waves. The
terrestrial radiation is also called ‘effective radiation’ because it helps in heating the lower
portion of the atmosphere. Twenty three per cent energy (out of 51% energy which the earth
has gained from the sun) is lost through direct long wave outgoing terrestrial radiation out of
which 6 per cent is absorbed by the atmosphere and 17 per cent goes directly to the space.
About 9 per cent of the terrestrial energy is spent in convection and turbulence and 19 per cent
is spent through evaporation which is added to the atmosphere as latent heat of condensing.
Thus, the total energy received by the atmosphere from the sun (14%) and the earth (34%)
becomes 48 per cent which is radiated to the space in one way or the other.

RADIATION AND LATITUDINAL HEAT BALANCE

The difference between all incoming solar energy and all outgoing terrestrial energy by
both shortwave and long wave radiation is called net radiation. It is apparent from the aforesaid
discussion that the net radiation from the whole globe is at least theoretically zero but this is
far from truth. Similarly, in some areas the loss of energy through outgoing terrestrial radiation
is faster than the gain of incoming solar radian. This mechanism results in the development of
areas of energy surplus and energy deficit.

Energy received and lost from different latitudes is not same. This happens due to
spheriosity as well as inclination of planet earth. Area within 40th latitude experiences surplus
energy as they receive more then they lose. Whereas areas after 40th latitude experience deficit
of energy as they lose more energy than what they receive. Hence to maintain balance naturally
heat transfer takes place from lower latitude to higher latitude and zone of transfer is 30-50
latitude. 75% heat is transferred by atmospheric circulation (wind) and remaining 25% transfer
happens due to ocean currents. Latitudinal heat imbalance gave birth to global win and ocean
currents system.

HUMAN INFLUENCE ON RADIATION (HEAT) BALANCE

Radiation balance or heat balance is very important for biological communities

including both plants and animals together with micro-organisms and man. The changes in the
radiations balance may be grouped in two classes via; (i) natural changes and (ii) man-induced
changes or anthropogenic changes. Natural changes in the global radiation /heat balance take
place due to (i) periodic changes in solar constant, (ii) alteration of transparency of the
atmosphere through the addition of enormous quantity of dust and smoke to the atmosphere
ejected through volcanic eruptions. (iii) The global climate changes due to movement of
continents and ocean basins in relation to poles due to the mechanism of plate tectonic.

Besides these and many more natural changes of solar radiation balance and water and
climate, man is also capable of changing and altering the radiation balance and weather and
climate from local through regional to global scales.

At local scale: Man has largely been responsible ton affect and modify the variation balance
through his activities e.g. increasing urbanization and expanding industrialsation. Increasing
urbanization means covering of more and more bare ground surface by ‘pucca structure’ which
sets off a chain of effects and counter-effectives. Sprawling urban areas change the thermal
properties of the ground surface , reduce the albedo, change the aerodynamic character of the
surface , alter the pattern of air circulation, lower the speed of wind , reduce total insulation ,
increase mean annual temperature and create heat island in the city center and pollution dome
in the lower atmosphere above the major urban center.

The change of radiation balance at regional level: is caused due to weather modification
programmers’ viz. cloud seeding to induce more precipitation, prevention of hailstorms,
dispersion and diversion of clouds and other human activities like melting of ice –covered
surface, diversion of atmospheric storms etc.

The radiation balance at global level: is changed in the following manner- (i) Emission of
carbon dioxide through the burning of hydrocarbon fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.).
And its concentration in the atmosphere raises the temperature of the earth’s surface by
retarding the loss off heat from the ground surface through outgoing long wave terrestrial
radiation ,and (ii) The introduction of chlorofluorocarbon and nitrogen oxides in the
astrosphere depletes ozone layer and thus flows more ultraviolet solar rays to reach the earth’s
surface.

This results in the increases of incoming shortwave solar solar radiation which raises the
temperature of the ground surface and the lower atmohpere.This in turn changes the heat
balance of the earth and its atmosphere.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Although the earth’s atmosphere consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen, neither plays a
significant role in enhancing greenhouse effect because both are essentially transparent
radiation. The greenhouse effect is primarily a function of the concentration of water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and other traces gases in the atmosphere that absorbs the terrestrial radiation
the surface of the earth.

Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gas can alter the balance
of energy transfers between the atmosphere, space, land and the oceans. A gauge measures of
changes in the energy is called radioactive forcing, which is a simple measure of changes in
the energy available to the earth atmosphere system. Holding everything else content, increases
in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will produce positive radioactive forcing.

Gas and water vapor acts like glass walls and glass roofs allow shortwaves to enter and
block long waves to escape. Earth surface absorb short waves energy, convert it into long wave
radiation /energy and add it to atmosphere. Then gas and water vapor absorb earth’s long wave
energy and once again add it back to atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide absorb of CO2 more the temperature. Water vapor also absorb
shortwaves energy and add it back in the form of long wave energy. Then carbon dioxide and
water vapor act opaque to long waves inferred rays and blocks its way to escape to space.
Blocked long wave energy reheat the atmosphere still more.

MEANING OF GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

 A Green house is meant for plants mainly in the cold countries where total insolation
at least during winter season is not sufficient enough to support plant growth. The glasses of
greenhouse are such that these allow the visible sunlight to enter but prevent the long wave
inferred rays to go out. A green house also does not have any provision for artificial heating.
The greenhouse effect means ‘progressive warming-up of the earth’s surface due to the
blanketing effect of man- made carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

‘In a greenhouse, visible sunlight passes through the glass and heats up the soil a warms
the plants. The warm soils emit radiations in longer wavelength, it absorbs and reflects the
inferred radiation waves. Carbon dioxide and water vapor acts as a greenhouse in that these
allow visible light of the sun to reach the surface of the earth but absorbs and reflect back the
long wave outgoing terrestrial radiation mainly inferred rays back to the earth’s surface and
thus help in keeping the earth’s surface warmer. The gas with the properties of greenhouse are
called greenhouse gases such a carbodioxide.

MAJOR SOURCES OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The most significant greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide which is released to the
atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels for different purposes in various ways e.g. .(Electric
power stations based on fossil fuels mainly coal and mineral oil emit huge amount of
carbodioxide which reaches the atmosphere every year.(ii) Numerous factories spread all over
the world burn immense quantity of coal , mineral oil and natural gas and spew huge amount
of carbon dioxide together with other undesirable gases through their chimneys into the
atmosphere.(iii) The third major sources is the transport sector which includes various types of
vehicles run on coal and petroleum. For example, railways are larger consumers of coal mainly
in the developing countries are trying to phase out coal operated rail engines.

Similarly , large fleets of automobiles (trucks , buses, cars and two wheeler-motor
cycles , scooters, etc.), agricultural implements like tractors, combines etc.(iv) The fourth major
source of the production of carbon dioxide is deforestation and burning off woods. The people
are acquainted with the first three major sources of carbon dioxide as they directly spew carbon
dioxide through deforestation are little understood by common man.

EMISSIONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE

The climatic changes caused by global greenhouse effect due to higher concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are primarily related to the worlds over. It may be pointed
out that here only that part of climatic changes is being considered which is caused by
greenhouse effect only. The following trends of consumptions of fossil fuels and emission of
carbon dioxide may be highlighted. (R, 2016)

According to the report to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Tennessee, USA), based
on the analysis of the 37- years’ time series of emission, the total burning of fossil fuels
were dominated by a few developed and highly indursiled U.K, Germany, France, etc.)

The situation drastically changed by 1986 that is after a lapse of 36 years from 1950 base. The
relative percentage of the contribution of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels by the
developed and highly industrialized countries increased declined while the relative contribution
of the emission of carbon dioxide by the developing countries increases because of rapid rate
of industrial development taking place in the developing countries after 1950.

It is important to state that though the reactive contributions of carbon dioxide from the
combustion of hydrocarbons by developed and highly induserialsed nations have declined
because of the increases of carbon dioxide emissions from developing nations but the total
emissions based on per capita basis are still dominated by the carbon dioxide is highest in the
USA.

On a regional basis of the emission of carbon dioxide it is clear that the total emissions are
steadily incurring in China, most of Asia and Latin America.

The IPCC (International Panel On Climate Change) constituted by the United Nations
Environment (UNEP) and World Metrological Programmed (WMP) has been assigned the
main taken the study of climatic changes, and of preceding repots on the effects of greenhouse
gases on the earth from time to time.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND CLIMATIC CHANGE

The carbon dioxide is, in fact, a natural constituent of the earth’s atmosphere. It is not
necessarily a pollutes at least in the lower atmosphere but its increased concentration in the
atmosphere leaves adverse effects on biological communities through changes in the thermal
conditions and global radiation and heat balance. As stated beginning the carbon dioxide ,
present in gases form the atmosphere , has unique properties in that allows the solar radiation
to reach the surface of the earth trends to prevent the long waves terrestrial radiation from the
earth surface from escaping into outer space. This mechanism results in the increase
temperature of the surface of the earth and the lower atmosphere.
The ever increasing proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere through anthropogenic
sources changes the general compassion of the atmosphere overall heat balance because carbon
dioxide is more or less transparent to incoming shortwave solar radiation but it absorbs most
of the outgoing long wave radiation emitted from the earth’s surface.

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Your interactions with your environment provide a variety of experiences that are related to
the ideas of temperature and heat. Some of your first autonomous decisions may have been
your choices of clothing, choices at least partly influenced by the answer to the question, "What
is the temperature going to be today?" You have had many opportunities to influence the
temperature of your food. Have you not burned your mouth on something too hot? What
methods have you learned to use to cool your food down rapidly so that it is at the proper eating
temperature? Your experiences may have included a number of injunctions that contradict one
another. For example, you may think that all water boils at the same temperature, and that water
never gets hotter than its boiling temperature, yet the cookbook says to cook the rice in water
that is at a "rolling boil." Why? In addition to contradictions, our cultural lore is full of
interesting, and perhaps false, statements about temperature and heat: "Hot water placed
outside on a very cold winter day will freeze faster than cold water." "A steam burn is worse
than a hot water burn." "White clothes are cooler than dark clothes." Furthermore, your first-
hand experiences with heat and temperature are not without puzzles. On a hot summer day why
would a piece of metal lying on the sidewalk seem hotter to your bare feet than the concrete?
Such puzzles helped lead to the present quantitative ideas about temperature and heat. Count
Rumford, one of the forefathers of our modern concepts of heat, noted in his personal diary
that each time he saw a person burn his mouth on hot apple pie, he wondered what it was about
apples that made them seem to retain their heat much longer than other foods. The point of
these observations is that you already have had many encounters with the concepts of
temperature and heat. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss these concepts in a way that will
give you some quantitative understanding of them and will correct any misunderstandings that
you have.

What is Heat ?
The Universe is made up of matter and energy. Matter is made up of atoms
and molecules (groupings of atoms) and energy causes the atoms and
molecules to always be in motion - either bumping into each other or
vibrating back and forth. The motion of atoms and molecules creates a form
of energy called heat or thermal energy which is present in all matter. Even
in the coldest voids of space, matter still has a very small but still measurable
amount of heat energy.

Energy can take on many forms and can change from one form to another. Many different types
of energy can be converted into heat energy. Light, electrical, mechanical, chemical, nuclear,
sound and thermal energy itself can each cause a substance to heat up by increasing the speed
of its molecules. So, put energy into a system and it heats up, take energy away and it cools.
For example, when we are cold, we can jump up and down to get warmer.

1.3 TYPES OF HEAT ENERGY

(1) Mechanical energy is converted into thermal energy whenever you bounce a ball. Each time
the ball hits the ground, some of the energy of the ball's motion is converted into heating up
the ball, causing it to slow down at each bounce.

A thermal infrared image of a ball before (left) and after (right) being bounced.

(2) Thermal energy can be transferred to other objects causing them to heat up. When you heat
up a pan of water, the heat from the stove causes the molecules in the pan to vibrate faster
causing the pan to heat up. The heat from the pan causes water molecules to move faster and
heat up. So, when you heat something up, you are just making its molecules move faster.

(3) Electrical energy is converted into thermal energy when you use objects such as heating
pads, electrical stove elements, toasters, hair dryers, or light bulbs.
A thermal infrared image of a hair dryer and a flourescent light bulb.

(4) Chemical energy from the foods we eat is converted into heating our bodies.

(5) Light from the sun is converted to heat as the sun's rays warm the earth's surface.

(6) Energy from friction creates heat. For example when you rub your hands, sharpen a pencil,
make a skid mark with your bike, or use the brakes on your car, friction generates heat.

A thermal infrared image of a pencil after being sharpened (left) and of hot brakes in a car
(right). Notice the hot tip of the pencil.

There are many other examples. Can you think of some more?

The more energy that goes into a system, the more active its molecules are. The faster
molecules move, the more heat or thermal energy they create. So, the amount of heat a
substance has is determined by how fast its molecules are moving, which in turn depends on
how much energy is put into it.

Although molecules are too small to see, we can detect and measure their movement.

Summary: Heat is the energy an object has because of the movement of its atoms and
molecules which are continuously jiggling and moving around, hitting each other and
other objects. When we add energy to an object, its atoms and molecules move faster increasing
its energy of motion or heat. Even objects which are very cold have some heat energy because
their atoms are still moving.

1.4 What is temperature?

The atoms and molecules in a substance do not always travel at the same speed. This means
that there is a range of energy (the energy of motion) among the molecules. In a gas, for
example, the molecules are traveling in random directions at a variety of speeds - some are fast
and some are slow.

Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy

of the particles in a substance. Since it is an average
measurement, it does not depend on the number of particles in an
object. In that sense it does not depend on the size of it. For
example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water is the
same as the temperature of a large pot of boiling water. Even if
the large pot is much bigger than the cup and has millions and
millions more water molecules.

We experience temperature every day. When it is very hot outside or when we have a fever we
feel hot and when it is snowing outside we feel cold. When we are boiling water, we wait for
the water temperature to increase and when we make popsicles we wait for the liquid to become
very cold and freeze.

Art by Doris Daou

Summary: Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the particles in a
substance. Temperature does not depend on the size or type of object.

Measuring temperature
Many devices have been invented to
accurately measure temperature. It all
started with the establishment of a
temperature scale. This scale transformed
the measurement of temperature into
meaningful numbers.

In the early years of the eighteenth century,

Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) created the
Fahrenheit scale. He set the freezing point of
water at 32 degrees and the boiling point at
212 degrees. These two points formed the
anchors for his scale.

Later in that century, around 1743, Anders

Celsius (1701-1744) invented the Celsius
scale. Using the same anchor points, he
determined the freezing temperature for
water to be 0 degree and the boiling
temperature 100 degrees. The Celsius scale
is known as a Universal System Unit. It is
used throughout science and in most
countries.

There is a limit to how cold something can

be. The Kelvin scale is designed to go to
zero at this minimum temperature. The
relationships between the different
temperature scales are:

o
K = 273.15 + oC o
C = (5/9)*(oF-
o
32) F = (9/5)*oC+32
At a temperature of Absolute Zero there is no motion o
F o
C o
K
and no heat. Absolute zero is where all atomic and
molecular motion stops and is the lowest temperature Water boils 212 100 373
possible. Absolute Zero occurs at 0 degrees Kelvin or -
Room Temperature 72 23 296
273.15 degrees Celsius or at -460 degrees Fahrenheit.
All objects emit thermal energy or heat unless they have Water Freezes 32 0 273
a temperature of absolute zero.
Absolute Zero -460 -273 0
If we want to understand what temperature means on the
molecular level, we should remember that temperature
is the average energy of the molecules that composes a substance. The atoms and molecules in
a substance do not always travel at the same speed. This means that there is a range of energy
(the energy of motion) among the molecules. In a gas, for example, the molecules are traveling
in random directions at a variety of speeds - some are fast and some are slow. Sometimes these
molecules collide with each other. When this happens the higher speed molecule transfers some
of its energy to the slower molecule causing the slower molecule to speed up and the faster
molecule to slow down. If more energy is put into the system, the average speed of the
molecules will increase and more thermal energy or heat will be produced. So, higher
temperatures mean a substance has higher average molecular motion. We do not feel or detect
a bunch of different temperatures for each molecule which has a different speed. What we
measure as the temperature is always related to the average speed of the molecules in a system

For example…

If you look around your house, you will find lots of different devices whose goal in life is to
either detect or measure changes in temperature:

The thermometer in the backyard tells you how hot or cold it is outside.

The meat and candy thermometers in the kitchen measure food temperatures.

The thermometer in the furnace tells it when to turn on and off.

The thermometer in the oven lets it keep a set temperature (hot).

The thermometer in the refrigerator lets it keep a set temperature (cold).

The fever thermometer in the medicine cabinet measures temperature accurately over a very
small range.
1.5 Transfer of heat energy

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods: conduction in solids,
convection of fluids (liquids or gases), and radiation through anything that will allow radiation
to pass. The method used to transfer heat is usually the one that is the most efficient. If there is
a temperature difference in a system, heat will always move from higher to lower temperatures.

CONDUCTION:

Conduction occurs when two

object at different temperatures
are in contact with each other.
Heat flows from the warmer to
the cooler object until they are
both at the same temperature.
Conduction is the movement of
heat through a substance by the
collision of molecules. At the
place where the two object touch,
the faster-moving molecules of
the warmer object collide with the
A thermal infrared image of a coffee cup filled with a hot slower moving molecules of the
liquid. Notice the rings of color showing heat traveling cooler object. As they collide, the
from the hot liquid through the metal cup. You can see faster molecules give up some of
this in the metal spoon as well. This is a good example of their energy to the slower
conduction. molecules. The slower molecules
gain more thermal energy and
collide with other molecules in
the cooler object. This process
continues until heat energy from
the warmer object spreads
 throughout the cooler object.
Some substances conduct heat
more easily than others. Solids
are better conductor than liquids
and liquids are better conductor
than gases. Metals are very good
conductors of heat, while air is
very poor conductor of heat. You
experience heat transfer by
conduction whenever you touch
something that is hotter or colder
than your skin e.g. when you
wash your hands in warm or cold
water.

CONVECTION:

In liquids and gases, convection is usually the

most efficient way to transfer heat.
Convection occurs when warmer areas of a
liquid or gas rise to cooler areas in the liquid
or gas. As this happens, cooler liquid or gas
takes the place of the warmer areas which
have risen higher. This cycle results in a
continuous circulation pattern and heat is This thermal infrared image shows hot oil
transferred to cooler areas. You see boiling in a pan. The oil is transferring heat out
convection when you boil water in a pan. The of the pan by convection. Notice the hot
bubbles of water that rise are the hotter parts (yellow) centres of rising hot oil and the cooler
of the water rising to the cooler area of water outlines of the sinking oil. Image courtesy of
at the top of the pan. You have probably K.-P. Möllmann and M. Vollmer, University
heard the expression "Hot air rises and cool of Applied Sciences Brandenburg/Germany.
air falls to take its place" - this is a description
of convection in our atmosphere. Heat energy
is transferred by the circulation of the air.

RADIATION:

Both conduction and convection require matter to

transfer heat. Radiation is a method of heat transfer
that does not rely upon any contact between the heat
source and the heated object. For example, we feel
heat from the sun even though we are not touching
it. Heat can be transmitted though empty space by
thermal radiation. Thermal radiation (often
called infrared radiation) is a type electromagnetic
radiation (or light). Radiation is a form of energy
transport consisting of electromagnetic waves
traveling at the speed of light. No mass is
exchanged and no medium is required.

Objects emit radiation when high energy electrons

A thermal infrared image of the centre in a higher atomic level fall down to lower energy
of our galaxy. This heat from numerous levels. The energy lost is emitted as light or
stars and interstellar clouds travelled electromagnetic radiation. Energy that is absorbed
about 24,000 light years (about by an atom causes its electrons to "jump" up to
150,000,000,000,000,000 miles!) higher energy levels. All objects absorb and emit
through space by radiation to reach our radiation. ( Here is a java applet showing how an
infrared telescopes. atom absorbs and emits radiation) When the
absorption of energy balances the emission of
energy, the temperature of an object stays constant.
If the absorption of energy is greater than the
emission of energy, the temperature of an object
rises. If the absorption of energy is less than the
emission of energy, the temperature of an object
falls.

1.6 Temperature Scales

By Jon Zamboni; Updated April 26, 2018

Need to know if you should put a coat on before you go out? Want to check if you can put the
cookies in the oven? Temperature scales provide a way of quantifying and measuring how hot
or cold a material is. There are four major temperature scales that are used around the world –
Fahrenheit and Celsius are frequently used in everyday, around the house measurements, while
the absolute zero-based Kelvin and Rankine scales are more commonly used in industry and
the sciences.

Fahrenheit Scale

The Fahrenheit scale of temperature is the common form of temperature measurement used in
the United States and some parts of the Caribbean. It was created by the German scientist
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in the early 18th century, and adapted its measurements standards
from a previous scale created by Ole Roemer.
Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and boils at 212 degrees F. The Fahrenheit temperature
scale includes negative temperatures, below 0 degrees F. The coldest possible temperature,
absolute zero, is -459.67 degrees F.

Celsius Scale

Outside the United States, most of the world uses the Celsius scale to measure temperatures.
Two versions of the Celsius scale were created in the early 18th century – one by Swedish
scientist Anders Celsius, and another by the French Jean Pierre Cristin. The Celsius scale is
sometimes referred to as the centigrade scale, because it is based on a 100 degree division
between the freezing and boiling points of water: water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and boils
at 100 degrees C. Because of how the boiling and freezing points are arranged, each degree of
Fahrenheit is 1.8 times the size of a degree Celsius. Like Fahrenheit, Celsius includes negative
temperatures. Absolute zero falls at -273.15 degrees C.

Kelvin Scale
The Kelvin scale was adapted from the Celsius scale in the 19th century by the British scientist
William Thompson, later Lord Kelvin. Kelvin was designed in order to set the zero point of
the temperature scale at absolute zero. Because of this, absolute zero is located at 0 K – Kelvin
does not use degrees in its notation. You can convert from Celsius to Kelvin by adding 273.15
to a Celsius temperature. Water freezes at 273.15 K, and boils at 373.15 K. Because of its direct
relation to absolute zero, Kelvin temperature is widely used in scientific equations and
calculations. For instance, the ideal gas law, used to show the relationship between mass,
pressure, temperature and volume, uses Kelvin as its standard unit.

Rankine Scale

While not widely used – apart from some U.S. engineering fields – the Rankine scale provides
an absolute zero-based equivalent to the Fahrenheit scale. Essentially, it is for the Fahrenheit
scale what Kelvin is for Celsius. The scale was created by Scottish scientist William John
Rankine in the 19th century, shortly after the creation of the Kelvin scale. Temperatures can be
converted from Fahrenheit to Rankine by adding 459.67. Absolute zero is thus located at 0
degrees Rankine. Water freezes at 491.67 degrees R, and boils at 671.67 degrees R.
1.7 Difference between heat and temperature

The interaction of incoming solar radiation (insolation) with the atmosphere and the earth’s
surface creates heat. This is measured in terms of temperature.

While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance, the
temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.

So, heat is the energy which makes things or objects hot, while temperature measures the
intensity of heat (degree of hotness/coldness).

Heat and temperature are closely related to each other because gain or loss of heat is necessary
to raise or lower the temperature.

The Celsius scale is the internationally accepted scale for reporting air temperature.

Fahrenheit scale and Kelvin scales are other scales used to measure temperature.

The Fahrenheit temperature scale is based on 32 °F for the freezing point of water and 212 °F
for the boiling point of water, with the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.

On the Kelvin scale, 0 K represents absolute zero (-273 °C), the temperature at which the
molecules of a substance have their lowest possible energy.
2 FACTORS CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE

The temperature of air at every place is influenced by :

THE LATITUDE

The temperature of a place is determined by the insolation received.

The insolation differs according to the latitude, therefore, the temperature also differs
consequently.

THE ALTITUDE

The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation.

Therefore, the places adjacent to the sea-level record higher temperatures than the places
located at higher elevations.

The temperature usually decreases with increasing height.

The rate of decrease of temperature with height is called as the normal lapse rate.

DISTANCE FROM SEA

The main factor that influences the temperature is the position of a place with respect to the
sea.

The sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly compared to land.

Land heats up and cools down rapidly.

So, the difference in temperature over the sea is less compared to terrestrial surface.

The places located near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes
which regulate the temperature.

AIR MASSES AND OCEAN CURRENTS

The passage of air masses also affects the temperature like the land and sea breezes.

The places which come under the effect of warm air-masses experience higher temperature and
the places that come under the influence of cold air- masses experience lower temperature.

Likewise, the places situated on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher
temperature than the places situated on the coast where the cold currents flow.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air being a physical substance is an mixture of several gases in the atmosphere and hence it
has its own weight. Thus, the air exerts pressure through its weight. Air pressure is defined as
the force per unit area or total weight of mass of column of air above per unit area at sea level.
The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the sea. It exerts the weight of 14.7 pounds of the
area of one square inch at sea level.

Like any other material object the air also has weight. The pressure of the air at a given place
is defined as a force exerted in all directions in consequences of the weight of all the air above
it. Thus, the mass of a column of air above a given point determines the atmospheric pressure
at that point.

Air is an admixture of several gases. In order to clearly understand the concept of air pressure
the behaviour of gases and the principle that governs this behaviour must be grasped. Gas
molecules are in a constant state of collision and move above freely. If a gas is kept in a closed
vessel, this motion is restricted by the walls of the container. The gas molecules exert an
outward push because they continuously dash against the walls of the container. Similarly, our
atmosphere may be deemed to be a closed container bounded by the earths land-sea surface
from below, and from above by the force of gravity that does not allow it to escape to outer
space. Air pressure, therefore, is defined as the force exerted against a surface by continuous
collision of gas molecules. The amount of pressure exerted by air at a particular point is
determined by two factors, namely, temperature and density.

Since air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in
either temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the pressure. The following
equation, called ‘the gas low’, describes the relationship between pressure, temperature and
density:

Pressure = density x temperature x constant.

So, according to the gas law, an increase in either density or temperature will cause an increase
in pressure provided the other variable (density or temperature) remains constant.

Measurement of Air Pressure

The atmospheric pressure is measured most accurately with the help of a mercurial barometer.
For checking the accuracy of other types of barometer, the mercurial is considered as standard.

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is
measured by means of an instrument called barometer. The units used by meteorologists for
this purpose are called millibar (mb). One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square
centimetre. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square
centimetre. In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75cm high.
The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 centimetres (1013.25 millibars).
 Fig 1.1 Mercury Barometer
Source: teachengineering.org

Types of pressure recording instruments: Besides mercurial barometer, there are other types of
pressure recording instruments such as aneroid barometer, altimeter (altitude barometer),
barograph (an automatic recording aneroid barometer), micro-barograph and micro-
barovariograph. This last pressure-recording instrument is an extremely sensitive atmospheric
pressure recorder. It records very small changes in atmospheric pressure, changes of the
magnitude of hundredths to thousandths of a millibar. This instrument is so sensitive that it is
capable of detecting even the minute pressure fluctuations produced by the passage of waves
through air. Pressure fluctuations associated with the passage of a severe atmospheric
disturbance or even a large nuclear explosion in the atmosphere are easily detected by this
sensitive pressure recording device.

Pressure Gradient

The decrease of pressure between two points along a line perpendicular to the isobars divided
by the distance between the points is called the pressure gradient. In other words, pressure
gradient is the rate of change in the pressure per unit horizontal distance. It usually means a
change in a direction perpendicular to the isobars. In fact, that is the direction in which the
change is most rapid. The rate and direction of the change in air pressure are also known as
barometric slope. It is expressed in millibars per hundred kilometres, or per degree of latitude.
A decrease of 34mb in a horizontal distance of 24km is considered to be a unit of pressure
gradient. Thus, a decrease of 3.4mb in 48km or a fall of 10mb in 160km signifies a steep
pressure gradient.

A steep pressure gradient cause’s greater acceleration of a parcel of air than does a weak
pressure gradient. Thus, closely spaced isobars represent a strong pressure gradient and high
velocity winds, while wide spaced isobars include a weak pressure gradient and light winds.

Types of pressure system

Air pressure is generally divided into two types, namely: 1) High Pressure and 2) Low Pressure
which are indicated by the shapes of the isobars. This shapes are simply known as high and
low.

High Pressure System:

They are characterised by air pressure in the centre of almost closed isobars wherein pressure
decreases from the centre outward and the lowest pressure is found at the outer margins of the
high pressure system. The high pressure in the centre is called high and is displayed by ‘H’ on
the weathered maps. This system is also called as anticyclones. The high or anticyclone is
characterised by divergent wind circulation wherein winds blow from the centre outward in
clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The high pressure systems are indicative of dry weather conditions and hence anticyclones are
called as weatherless phenomena. High pressure system is caused due to thermal (excessive
cooling) and dynamic (subsidence of air from above) factors.

Low Pressure System:

Low pressure system is called low or simply ‘L’ or cyclones or depressions. These are centres
of low pressure having increasing pressure outward and close air circulation from outside
towards the central low pressure in such a way that air blows inward in anti-clockwise in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Cyclonic low pressure system
is also termed as atmospheric disturbances. They range in the shape from circular elliptical to
V shape. The elongated isobars is called low.
 Fig. 1.2 High and Low Pressure
Source: learner.org

Variation in Atmospheric Pressure

Air pressure vary both spatially and temporally; horizontally and vertically. As regarded
temporal variation in atmospheric pressures, diurnal and seasonal variation are climatically
more important. The 24 hourly average of atmospheric pressure which is more or less constant.

Daily variation: of air pressure is controlled by the heating of the ground surface and boundary
air layer by solar radiation, called as insolational heating, and cooling of the ground surface
and boundary air layer by outgoing terrestrial radiation, called a radiational cooling. The
insulation heating results in the development of low pressure due to ascent and expansion of
warm air while radiational cooling results in high pressure due to decent and contraction of
cold air. It is apparent that daily cycle of low and high pressure of a place is of thermal origin
but the maximum and the minimum pressures do not correspond to the time of daily maximum
and minimum temperature. This difference of time between the occurrence of daily maximum
temperature and lowest pressure on one hand, and minimum daily temperature and highest
pressure may be termed as pressure lag.

Seasonal pressure variation: are related to changes in pressures during summer and winter
seasons. Seasonal pressure variation is also called as annual pressure variation. Since the air
pressure is mostly the function of insolational heating and terrestrial radiational cooling at
global, regional and local levels and there is vast variation in the amount of insolation received
at the ground surface during winter and summer seasons, hence it is natural to observe seasonal
variation in air pressure. The equatorial zone displays the smallest seasonal variation in the
pressures because the amount of insolation received at the ground surface remains almost
constant throughout the year. The tropical and subtropical areas records largest seasonal
variation of atmospheric pressure due to extreme weather conditions during summers and
winters. The size of continents also determines the magnitude of seasonal pressure conditions.

Vertical pressure variation: denotes decrease of air pressure with increasing altitude because of
decrease in air density with increase in height from the sea. The density depends on volume of
air and the volume depends on expansion (decrease in density) and contraction (increase in
density) of air which are the result of heating and cooling of air respectively. The ascending air
expands aloft and becomes less dense resulting in the decrease of air pressure but the rate of
decrease of air pressure is not constant, rather the rate of decrease also varies with altitude.

Factors controlling Pressure Systems

There are two main causes, thermal and dynamic for the pressure differences resulting in high
and low pressure systems.

Thermal Factors: When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally
leads to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases the density
and thus leads to high pressure.

Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and thermal highs
respectively.

Dynamic Factors: Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may
be explained by dynamic controls arising out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of the
earth (Coriolis force)

Example: After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away from
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. This dry and cold
wind subsides at 300N and S.

So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the equatorial
region which descends after becoming heavy.
The rate of deflection increases with the distance from the equator (Coriolis force). As a result,
by the time the pole ward directed winds reach 25o latitude, they are deflected into a nearly
west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking effect and the air piles up. This causes a general
subsidence in the areas between the topics and 35oN and S and they develop into high pressure
belts.

The location of pressure belts is further affected by differences in the net radiation resulting
from variation in heating of land and water surfaces

Thus formation of sub-tropical high and sub-polar low pressure belts are due to dynamic factors
like pressure gradient forces, apparent movement of sun and rotation of the earth (Coriolis
force).

Horizontal Distribution of Air Pressure

The horizontal distribution of air pressure on the globe is studied on the basis of isobars. The
regularity of pressure belts is disturbed due to unequal distribution of land and water on the
globe. The pressure belts are discontinued in the northern hemisphere are found more or less
in regular pattern in the southern hemisphere. There is no definite trend of distribution of
pressure from equator towards the poles. But this is not the case. There is low pressure near the
equator due to high mean annual temperature but the existence of high pressure belts near the
tropic of Cancer and Capricorn cannot be explained on the bases of temperature because the
tropics record very high temperature and hence there should have been low pressure if the
temperature would been the only content of air pressure. The air pressure should increase pole
ward from the tropic of Cancer and Capricorn because there is rapid rate of decrease of
temperature belt near 60o latitude. High pressure belts exist near the poles due to exceedingly
low temperature throughout the year.

Global Pressure Belts

It is obvious that pressure belt are not only induced by thermal factor but they are also induced
by dynamic factor. In all, there are 7 pressure belts that exist on the globe which is as follows:

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or Doldrums:

Subtropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitude

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

Polar High Pressure Belt

Except the equatorial low pressure belt, all other forms matching pairs in the northern and
southern hemisphere.

Fig. 1.3 Major Pressure Belt System

Source: pmfias.com

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or Doldrums:

The equatorial low pressure belt is thermally induced because the ground surface is intensely
heated during the day due to almost vertical sun rays and thus lowermost layer of air coming
in contact with the heats the ground surface also gets warmed. Thus, warm air expands becomes
light and consequently rises upward causing low pressure.

It lies between 5o N to 5o S. this belt is characterised by extreme low pressure with calm
conditions hence called as Doldrums. Surface winds are absent in the belt. The equatorial low
pressure belt represents the zone of convergence of north-east and south-east trade winds hence
called as intra tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). There are light, feeble and variable winds
within this convergence belt. This belt is characterized by pronounced diurnal pressure
variation.
As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds obtain huge
amount of moisture. Vertical winds carrying moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and lead to
thunderstorms (conventional rainfall).

Subtropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitude

This belt extends between 25o-35o north and south. The wind from equatorial region rises
upward and it blow towards poles due to earth’s axial rotation and Coriolis force the wind is
pushed down forming high pressure belt in subtropical region. Thus, the belt owes its origin to
the rotation of the earth and sinking and setting down of winds. Hence subtropical high pressure
belt is dynamically induced. The convergence of winds at higher altitude above this zone results
in the subsidence of air from higher altitudes. Thus, decent of winds results in the contraction
of their volume, increases in density and ultimately causes high pressure. This is why is zone
is characterised by anticyclonic conditions which causes atmospheric stability and aridity. This
is one of the reason for the presence of hot deserts of the world in the western part of the
continents.

This zone of high pressure is called “horse latitude” because of prevalence of frequent calms.
In ancient times, the merchants carrying horses in their ships had to throw out some of the
horses while passing through this zone of calm in order to lighten their ships. This is why this
zone is called horse latitude.

Fig. 1.4 Deserts of the World

Source: nationalgeographic.com
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

This belt is located between 60o-65o latitudes in both the hemispheres. This low pressure belt
is dynamically induced. In fact, the surface air spreads outward from this zone to rotation of
the earth and low pressure is caused. The sub-polar low pressure belt is more developed and
regular in the southern hemisphere because of over dominance of water while it is broken in
the northern hemisphere. Instead of regular and continuous belt there are well defined low
pressure centres over the ocean in the northern hemisphere e.g. in the neighbourhood of
Aleutian Islands in the Pacific Ocean and between Greenland and Iceland in the Atlantic Ocean.
Due to the contrast of temperatures of the continents and oceans during the northern summers
the low pressure belt becomes discontinuous and is found in a few low pressure cells while the
temperature contrast between the continents and oceans is much reduced during winters and
hence low pressure belt becomes more or less regular and continuous in northern hemisphere.
The mid latitude low pressure belt is regular and unbroken because of vast extent of oceans
and hence the contrast of heating and cooling of the continents and oceans is minimized in the
southern hemisphere.

Polar High Pressure Belt

It persist at the poles through the year because of prevalence of very low temperature (below
freezing point) all the year round. Both thermal and dynamic factors operate at the poles. There
is thinning out of layers of air due to diurnal rotation of the earth as the air spreads outward due
to this factor but this is overshadowed by thermal factor and hence high pressure is produced
due to very low temperature.

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034gm per square cm at sea level. This amount of
pressure is exerted by the atmosphere at sea level on all animals, plants, rocks, etc

Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low. Along
30o N and 30o S are found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs. Further pole
wards along 60o S, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles are
the pressure is high and it is known as polar high.

These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent movement
of the sun in the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer
northwards.
In January the equatorial low pressure belts shifts a little south of its mean equatorial position,
due to apparent southward position of the sun.

The lowest pressure pockets occur on the landmasses of South America, South Africa and
Australia because landmasses become much hotter than the adjoining oceans

In July, the equatorial low pressure belt shifts towards the north following the apparent
movement of the sun.

This shift is maximum in Asia.

The landmasses of the northern hemisphere become excessively hot and low pressure areas
develop over them.

CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

WIND MOVEMENT

Movement of air is caused by temperature or pressure differences and is experienced as wind.

Where there are differences of pressure between two places, a pressure gradient exists, across
which air moves: from the high-pressure region to the low-pressure region. This movement of
air however, does not follow the quickest straight-line path. In fact, the air moving from high
to low pressure follows a spiralling route, outwards from high pressure and inwards towards
low pressure. This is due to the rotation of the Earth beneath the moving air, which causes an
apparent deflection of the wind to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere. The deflection of air is caused by the Coriolis force. Consequently, air
blows anticlockwise around a low-pressure centre (depression) and clockwise around a high-
pressure centre (anticyclone) in the Northern Hemisphere. This situation is reversed in the
Southern Hemisphere.

Wind caused by differences in temperature is known as convection or advection. In the

atmosphere, convection and advection transfer heat energy from warmer regions to colder
regions, either at the Earth surface or higher up in the atmosphere. Small-scale air movement
of this nature is observed during the formation of sea and land breezes, due to temperature
differences between seawater and land. At a much larger scale, temperature differences across
the Earth generate the development of the major wind belts. Such wind belts, to some degree,
define the climate zones of the world.
Air temperature is generally higher at ground level due to heating by the Sun, and decreases
with increasing altitude. This vertical temperature difference creates a significant uplift of air,
since warmer air nearer the surface is lighter than colder air above it. This vertical uplift of air
can generate clouds and rain. Sometimes air from warmer regions of the world collides with
air from colder regions. This air mass convergence occurs in the mid-latitudes, where the warm
air is forced to rise above the colder air, generating fronts and depressions.

The general circulation of winds arises from the global redistribution of heat from warm low
latitudes to cold high latitudes, driven by the development of surface pressure gradients. Wind
blows from high to low pressure regions, although airflow is deflected by the Coriolis force as
a result of the Earth's rotation, and tends to follow more east-west trends rather than north-
south trends.

TYPES OF WIND

TYPES OF WIND

Planetary wind Periodic wind Local wind

Trade wind Manson
Westerlies Land and see breeze
Polar winds Mountain and valley wind

PLANETARY WINDS

Equatorial low pressure belts (inter-tropical convergence zone):

This is known as Doldrums (Gloomy and sultry air)

Northeast and south east trade winds converge on Doldrums.

In this zone strong heating causes surface air to expend and rise.

The humid, rising and expanding air loses moisture as conventional rainfall (tropical rain
forests)

Doldrums migrates about 5 degree north and 5 degree south.

Sub-tropical high pressure belts

The sub-tropical high pressure belts lie adjacent to tropical zone but just outside the tropic of
cancer and tropic of Capricorn. (40 degree north to 40 degree south)

These are the regions of anti-cyclones.

The sub-tropical high pressure belts are however not contiguous. They are best developed on
oceans.

In these belts the air descends. The descending are is generally arid.

The great hot deserts are found in both the hemispheres in the sub-tropical high pressure belts.

This belts also now as horse latitudes.

Low pressure belts

The sub polar low pressure belts lay between 60 degree and 65 degree latitude is both of the
hemispheres.

These are dynamically produced by the rotation of the earth on its axis.

The sub polar low pressure belt is more developed in the southern hemisphere.

In the northern hemisphere it is more developed on the Aleutian Islands and lceland.

Polar high pressure belts

Polar Regions are cold through the year.

These are the areas of the high pressure.

The polar wind moves outward.

More developed in Canada and Siberia.

Trade winds (Easterlies)

Origin from Latin word “trado” meaning constant direction.

The trade winds are the surface winds of the Hadley cells as they move from the horse latitudes.
In northern hemisphere they blow from NE to SW and in southern hemisphere from SE to NW.
(winds are named by the direction from which they blow).

Trade winds blow with great regularity on oceans.

Trade wind help in maintaining the global heat balance.

With the change in seasons, the trade winds move 5 degree latitudes between the two trade
winds is the Doldrums.

Anti-Trade wind blow from sub-tropical high pressure towards the poles.

In winter they move southward and in summer northward affecting the Mediterranean region.

Polar Easterlies

They blow from polar areas towards the mid-latitudes.

They are more pronounced is the southern hemisphere.

In northern hemisphere they blow from north east to South west and southern hemisphere from
northwest to southeast.

Fig. 1: The generalized global pattern of planetary winds (zonal circulation of atmosphere)

PERIODIC WIND
The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions
of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is
noticed in the monsoons, especially over Southeast Asia.

Monsoons winds

Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that predictably change direction with the passing
of the seasons.

Summer monsoon: - During summer monsoon winds blow from the cooler ocean surface onto
the warmer continents. In the summer, the continents become much warmer then the oceans
because of a number of factors .these factors include:-

-Specific heat differences between land and water.

-Greater evaporation over water surfaces.

-Subsurface mixing in ocean basins, which redistributes heat energy through a deeper layer.

Precipitation is normally associated with the summer monsoons. Onshore winds blowing
inland from the warm ocean are very high in humidity, and slight cooling of these air masses
causes condensation of rain. In some cases, this precipitation can be greatly intensified by
orographic uplift. Some highland areas in Asia receive more than 10 meters of rain during the
summer months.

Winter monsoon:- in this winter, the wind patterns reverse, as the ocean surfaces are now
warmer. With little solar energy available, the continents being cooling rapidly as long wave
radiation are emitted to space. The ocean surface retains its heat energy longer because of
waters high specific heat and subsurface mixing. The winter monsoons bring clear dry weather
and winds that flow from land to sea.

LAND AND SEA BREEZES

Land breezes:-

A movement of wind from land to sea.

Land breeze occurs when the skies are clear (by radiation)

It is confined to coastal regions and lake sides, epically in the equatorial regions.

It generally starts blowing after midnight or a few hours later.

Its maximum intensity is in the morning hours.

Sea breezes:-

A local air movement from sea to land.

The greatest intensity of the sea breeze is in the afternoon.

It is a regular phenomenon in the equatorial region, where it ameliorates the hot and humid
weather of the coastal areas.

It varies considerably in speed and strength along the sea coast, being influenced by
topography.

Sea breeze noramally has a depth of more than one km and does extend inland more than 50km.

It beings offshore around 10 am and gradually extend inland.

Towards evening it subsides

MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WIND

The mountain and valley winds termed as diurnal winds

Valley wind:-

On warm sunny days, the heating of mountain slopes result in the development of low pressure
on the peaks, ridges and higher slopes. The valley bottom develop are latively high pressure.

The wind in the day blows from valley to mountains.

As the cool valley wind moves upward, it moderates the surface temperature.
Mountain wind:-

In the evening, the mountain slopes cool the surrounding air more quickly then the air found
lower in the atmosphere.

This creates a high pressure which causes winds to blow the mountain towards the valley floor
thus known as mountain breeze or mountain winds.

In general, the mountains winds are stronger than valley winds.

The valley winds result into the formation of cumulus clouds in the day time in mountainous
areas.

This clouds disappear in the evenings.

LOCAL WINDS

Unequal heating of land and sea resulting into the land and sea breeze.

Unequal heating and cooling of the mountain slopes.

Local winds originate because of the formation of air-currents, crossing the mountain ranges,
and physical barriers.

Conventional local winds are caused by steep pressure gradients and steep variations in local
temperature.

Factors affecting Wind Movement

Wind == horizontal movement of air

Currents == vertical movement of air.

Winds balance uneven distribution of pressure globally.

Winds help in transfer of heat, moisture etc. from one place to another.

Sun is the ultimate force that drives winds. Pressure differences force winds to flow from high
pressure are to low pressure area. Pressure differences in turn are caused by unequal heating of
the earth’s surface by solar radiation.
The wind at the surface experiences friction. In addition, rotation of the earth also affects the
wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.

Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces
– the pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.

In addition, the gravitational force acts downwards. Centripetal acceleration produces a circular
pattern of flow around centers of high and low pressure.

Pressure Gradient Force and Wind Movement

The differences in atmospheric pressure produces pressure gradient force.

The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.

Pressure Gradient Force operates from the high pressure area to a low pressure area and causes
wind movement.

The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the
isobars are apart.

Since a closely spaced gradient implies a steep pressure change, it also indicates a strong wind
speed.

The wind direction follows the direction of change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to the isobars.

Coriolis force and Wind Movement

The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the
Coriolis force. It has great impact on the direction of wind movement.

Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient
force directs, but get deflected from their original path.

This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis
force.

Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their path and
those in the southern hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s Law (the law that wind is
deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere,
derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air masses).

This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases with
wind velocity, air mass and an increase in latitude.

The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force (pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to an isobar)

As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas
the wind blows around it (cyclonic conditions).

Causes of the Coriolis Effect

The main cause of the Coriolis effect is the earth’s rotation. As the earth spins in a counter-
clockwise direction on its axis anything flying or flowing over a long distance above its surface
appears to be deflected.

This occurs because as something moves freely above the earth’s surface, the earth is moving
east under the object at a faster speed.

As latitude increases and the speed of the earth’s rotation decreases, Coriolis effect increases.

A plane flying along the equator itself would be able to continue flying on the equator without
any apparent deflection. A little to the north or south of the equator, the plane would be
deflected.

In addition to the speed of the earth’s rotation and latitude, the faster the object itself is moving,
the more deflection there will be.

Impacts of the Coriolis Effect

Some of the most important impacts of the Coriolis effect in terms of geography are the
deflection of winds and currents in the ocean. It also has a significant effect on man-made items
like planes and missiles.

Myth about Coriolis Effect

One of the biggest misconceptions associated with the Coriolis effect is that it causes the
rotation of water down the drain of a sink or toilet. This is not truly the cause of the water’s
movement. The water itself is simply moving too fast down the drain to allow for the Coriolis
effect to have any significant impact.

Pressure and Wind: Geostrophic Wind

The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.

The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 – 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect
of the surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.

When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced
by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as
the geostrophic wind.

The wind movement around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is called anti
cyclonic circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their
location in different hemispheres.

The wind movement or wind circulation at the earth’s surface around low and high on many
occasions is closely related to the wind circulation at higher level. Generally, over low pressure
area the air will converge and rise. Over high pressure area the air will subside from above and
diverge at the surface.

WIND

Wind can be defined as air in motion. The principal cause of wind is the difference in pressure.
Air always moves from areas of high pressure to those with low pressure.

The slope of the pressure from high to low is know as the pressure gradient and the direction
of this gradient decides the direction of the winds. .The force acts upon all moving object in
the opposite direction is called frictional force the forces occurring due to the rotation of the
Earth’s called the Coriolis force.

There are four types of wind :i Planetary winds , ii Periodic winds, iii Local winds, iv
Atmospheric disturbances ( such as Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones.)

Wind is movement of air caused by differences in air pressure.

The greater the differences, the faster the wind moves.

Air flows from area of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

Differences in air pressure are caused by the uneven heating of earth.

Ultimate energy source for most wind is the sun.

Anemometer used to measure wind velocity.

Wind vane is used to measure wind direction.

TYPES OF WINDS

1Planetary winds

2. Periodic Local winds

3. Non-Periodic Local winds

4. Atmospheric disturbances ( such as tropical cyclones and temperate cyclone

PLANETARY WINDS

These are wind systems that are bound to occur at the global level on any planet having
Atmosphere and rotating about its axis. The specific characteristics of trade winds, Westerlies
and Easterlies may be determined by several condition but the broad features are constant over
the globe.

1 Trade Winds

2 Prevailing Westerly

3 Polar Easterlies

4 Doldrum

5 Horse Latitude

Trade winds

The winds which blow from the subtropical high pressure towards the equatorial region of low
pressure regularly throughout year in many areas especially the oceans and the hot deserts
from north – east in the northern hemisphere.

2 It brings little rain except on the line of convergence of the two trade wind systems.

Westerlies
The Westerly winds are those wind blow with great frequency from the horse latitude towards
the polar region throughout the year with varying intensity and cause rain near the polar
region.

Westerlies are stronger in the southern Hemisphere because of the vast expanse of ocean
waters.

They are also described as “Roaring Forties ”.“Furious Fifties” and “Shrieking Sixties” which
were dreaded terms for navigation.

Doldrum

It is the equatorial belt of low atmospheric pressure where the north- east and south east Trade
winds coverage.

It is a region of calmness, the calm periodically broken by storm, accompanied by heavy rains.

Horse Latitude

They are the subtropical belts of high atmospheric pressure over the ocean between the region
of trade winds and westerlies

They are the region of calm, light variable winds and dry air.

They are also known as calms of cancer and calm of Capricorn.

Local winds

Periodic Local winds

1 Land and sea breezes
2 Mountain and valley breezes

Non- periodic winds.

Hot Local winds

Cold Local winds

Periodic Local winds

1 Land and sea breezes
2 Mountain and valley breezes
The winds originated from diurnal temperature and pressure variation is called periodic re
diurnal local winds.

The daily change in temperate and consequent pressure during day and night time are there
results constructing nature of heating and cooling of two surface.

Example land and water or two contrasting topographic features such as mountain and valley.

Periodic winds experience complete reversal in their direction and velocity within 24 hours
period.

The important periodic local winds are land and sea breeze or lake breeze and mountain and
valley breeze.

Sea breeze

During the day the land is heated and a low pressure is developed, whereas the sea surface is
relatively cooler than the land. So high pressure develop on the sea surface.

The wind moves from high pressure to low pressure area that is winds move from sea to the
land in the day and is called sea breeze

Land Breeze

At night, becomes cooler and a high pressure develops.

Where as the sea surface is warmer and low pressure develops.

Thus the wind moves from the land to sea and is called land Breeze.

Valley Breeze

During the day, upper slope of the valley is heated because the sun rays first strike on the uppers
slope low pressure develops at the upper slope of the valley and high pressure develops at
valley bottom.

The wind blow from the bottom of the valley to the upper slope of the valley are called valley
breeze.

Mountain breeze

At night the upper slopes of the valley shows high pressure due to nocturnal radiation. But the
valley bottom remains warmer and low pressure develops.
The wind blow from upper slope of the valley to bottom the valley the valley are called
mountain breeze.

The valley breeze is also called Anabatic winds. The mountain breeze is also called katabatic
winds.

Non- periodic winds.

The local winds other than diurnal system of air circulation having complete reversal in
direction within every 24 hours are called non- periodic local winds which are both thermally
and dynamically originated.

In some cases orographic ally forced ascent and decent of winds also give birth to a special
type of local winds

On the basis of thermal characteristics non-periodic winds are classified into warm and cold
local winds.

Hot local winds includes:(Chinook and foehn, Harmattan,sriocco, norwester, Kham sin and so
on.)

Cold local winds includes:(Mistral, bora, blizzard ,purga, Bise pampero and so on.)

Local winds Two types

Warm and Cold winds

Chinook and Foehn: Warm and dry local winds blowing on the leeward sides of the mountains
are called Chinook in the U.S.A and Foehn in Switzerland

Harmattan: The warm and dry winds blowing from north-east and east to Purga: a snow laden
cold wind in Russia Tundra.

Bise: It is cold wind in France

Pampero: It is a cold wind in a pampas region of south America.

Santa Ana: It is a warm ,dry wind in USA.

Yamo: It is a warm dry wind in Japan.

Zonda: It is a warm wind in Argentina.

Sirrocco: It is a warm, dry and dusty wind which blows in northly direction Sahara desert.
Bora: It is an extremely cold and dry north-easterly wind blowing in the Arabian desert.

Mistral: The cold wind which originates over the snow – covered mountains of Alps and blows
towards the Mediterranean sea.

Blizzard: It is a violent, stormy, cold and powdry polar wind laden with dry snow in Siberia,
Canada and U.S.A.

Other local winds

Purga: a snow laden cold wind in Russia Tundra.

Bise: It is cold wind in France

Pampero: It is a cold wind in a pampas region of south America.

Santa Ana: It is a warm ,dry wind in USA.

Yamo: It is a warm dry wind in Japan.

Zonda: It is a warm wind in Argentina.

Atmospheric Disturbances

Tropical Cyclones:

They develop where the trade winds begin to disappear in the doldrums.

Tropical Cyclones never originate over land.

They move in a general westerly direction and have very low pressure in the centers giving rise
to winds of great force, which extremely destructive.

It circulates in anti-clock wise direction in northern and clockwise in the southern Hemisphere.

Temperate cyclones

These rise in the belt of westerly winds and are caused by the mixing of cold air from the polar
region with warm, humid air of Tropical region.

They usually bring prolonged rain to coastal areas band often very windy whether.

The winds blow out in spirals in the clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and anti-
clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere.

They do not cause as tropical Cyclones.

Factors affecting winds

1. Pressure gradient

2. Coriolis force

3. Frictional force

Factor affecting wind

We discussed the upward movement of air and its importance in cloud formation. We now turn
attention to horizontal movement the phenomena we call wind.

Air flows areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Because unequal heating of earth
surface continuous generally these pressure differences. Solar radiation in the ultimate driving
force of wind.

Wind is controlled by a combination of forces.

1. Pressure gradient

2. Coriolis force

3. Frictional force.

Once the air starts to move the coriolis force and friction come into play but only to modify the
movement not to produce it.

Pressure Gradient

Region of high pressure from centers from which tend to blow outward they are areas of
divergence.

Region of low pressure are the foci of winds, areas of convergence.

Wind move from a high pressure area to a low pressure.

The velocity of winds can be determined by pressure gradient or spacing of isobars.

Closely spaced isobars indicate steep pressure gradient and high wind velocity.

Whereas widely spaced isobars indicate weak pressure gradient and light winds.

Corolis Force
The effect of the coriolis force the deflecting components produced by the rotation of the earth.

Due to corolis force, the winds in the northern hemisphere are deflected towards the right and
assume clockwise direction.

The winds in the southern hemisphere the winds are deflected towards left moving in anti-
clockwise direction.

The coriolis force is zero at the equator and its extent of deflection increases away from the
equator attaining 100% at the poles.

Friction Force

Wind approaching pure geostrophic flow are found in the upper atmosphere.

Friction tends to reduce the power of the deflection due to rotation, so the net result is that the
air crosses the isobars at a slight angle from high pressure to low pressure.

Frictional force acts upon all moving objects in the opposite direction .

Frictional force is least over the oceanic surface.

In the upper atmosphere the winds move parallel to the isobars as there is an absence of
frictional force.

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The earth and its components are both controlled primarily by the sun they make up
interconnected global system. Different climatic areas are the result of atmospheric movements
within the global system. The cause of these atmospheric movements is the difference in
temperature between equatorial regions and Polar Regions; this is causes by distance from the
sun and the amount of atmosphere to travel through.

The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which
influences the earth’s climate. The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises
because of convection caused by high Insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from
the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.

The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:

(i) Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;

(ii) Emergence of pressure belts

(iii) The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun

(iv) The distribution of continents and oceans

(v) The rotation of earth

The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up
to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes accumulation of air at about
30o north and south.

Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason
for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 north and South latitudes.

Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies. The
easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell
in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.

In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and
the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called
westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrell cell.

At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes
as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell. These three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher
latitudes maintains the general circulation.

MECHANISM OF GLOBAL CIRCULATION

The primary cause of atmospheric motions and global circulation is spatial imbalance
of heat energy.as earlier the primary source of heat energy of the earth is solar radiation which
is unequally received in the earth’s surface. As already started earlier the primary source of
heat energy of the earth is solar radiation which is unusually received at the earth surface
resulting into the development of heat energy surplus zone (tropical zone) and heat energy
deficit zone (polar zone). This energy imbalance causes variations in pressure and thus the
resultant pressure gradient, both at the earth’s surface and aloft, causes atmospheric motion at
large and small scales. Several models have been suggested for the horizontal and vertical
transfer of heat energy and for the general atmospheric circulation.

The second controlling factor of the general circulation of the atmosphere is a angular
momentum of the earth and its atmosphere which is gravitationally attached to the earth and
hence it also routes with the earth. The Absolut angular momentum is the highest at the equator
and decreases poleward and it becomes zero at the poles because the entire earth completes its
one rotation in about 24 hours and hence the rotation of speed becomes zero at the poles.
Because of decreasing poleward angular momentum the poleward blowing winds acquire
progressively higher eastward velocity due to conservation of angular momentum. It may be
mentioned that in order to maintain atmosphere motion and general circulation, like heat
transport from tropical to polar areas, there is also transport of angular momentum from equator
towards the poles.

There were two theories of Global atmospheric circulations are fallow

Tri-cellular theory

Eddy theory

TRI-CELLULAR THEORY

According to old concept of the mechanism of global circulation of the atmosphere the
movement of the air is temperature is dependent. In other words temperature gradient causes
air circulation on the earth surface. According to the advocates of thermal school of the
mechanism of general circulation of the atmosphere the tropical areas receive maximum
amount of solar energy which substantially decreases pole ward. Thus there is latitudinal
imbalance of solar radiation from lower to higher latitude. Consequently there is transfer of
heat through horizontal air circulation from the areas of high solar radiation (high latitude) to
the areas of low solar radiation (low latitude) in order to balance the heat energy so that areas
does not exist too much heat energy in the high latitude. Only the horizontal component of the
atmospheric circulation and does not considered the potential energy generated by unequal
heating of the earth and its atmosphere and its continuous transformation into kinetic energy.
It may be pointed out that the potential heat energy is continuously transformed into kinetic
energy by the upward movement (ascent) and downward movement (decent) of heated and
cold air respectively. It may be remembered that the kinetic energy is also dissipated due to
friction and small scale atmospheric disturbances upward. Thus it is necessary that there must
exist balance between the rate of generation of kinetic energy and the rate of its dissipation due
to friction. The modern concept of the mechanism of general circulation of the atmosphere,
thus, includes both, the horizontal and vertical components of the atmospheric circulation.

Fig 2 :- Idealized global circulation for the

three-cell circulation model on a rotating
Earth.

This model represents the average circulation of the atmosphere and is used to describe the
atmospheric transport of energy.

HADLEY CELL (TROPICAL CELL)

Tropical cell is also called as Hadley cell because G. Hadley first identified this thermally
in-duced cell in both the hemispheres in the year 1735. The winds after being heated due to
very high tempera-ture at the equator ascend upward. These ascending warm and moist winds
release latent heat after conden-sation which causes further ascent of the winds which after
reaching the height of 8 to 12 kilometres in the troposphere over the equator diverge northward
and southward or say pole ward.

The surface winds in the name of trade winds blow from subtropical high pres-sure belts to
equatorial low pressure belt in order to replace the ascending air at the equator. The upper air
moving in opposite direction to surface winds (trade winds) is called antitrade. These upper air
antitrades descend near 30°-35° latitudes to cause subtropical high pressure belt.

These antitrades after descending near 30°-35° latitudes again blow towards the equator where
they are again heated and ascend. Thus, one complete meridional cell of air circulation is
formed. This is called tropical meridional cell which is located between the equator and 30°
latitudes. It may be pointed out that the regularity and continuity of the antitrade wind systems
in the upper air has been refuted by a host of meteorologists on the basis of more upper air data
being available during and after Second World War.

FERREL CELL

The mid latitude cell is called as ferrel cell or polar front cell. Polar front cell or mid-
latitude cell-Accord-ing to old concept surface winds, known as westerly’s, blow from the
subtropical high pressure belt to sub polar low pressure belt (60°-65°). The winds ascend near
60°-65° latitudes because of the rotation of the earth and after reaching the upper troposphere
diverge in opposite directions (pole ward and equator-ward).

These winds (which diverge equator-ward) again descend near horse latitudes (30°-35°
latitudes) to reinforce subtropical high pressure belt. After descending these winds again blow
pole ward as surface westerlies and thus a complete cell is formed.

According to new concept of air circulation the pattern between 30°-60° latitudes consists of
surface westerly’s. In fact, winds blow from subtropical high pressure belt to sub polar low
pressure belt but the winds become almost westerly due to Coriolis force. It may be mentioned
that the regularity and continuity of westerlies are frequently disturbed by temperate cy-clones,
migratory extra-tropical cyclones and anticy-clones.

Contrary to the existing view of upper air tropospheric easterly winds in the zones extending
between 30°-60° latitudes Rossby observed the exist­ence of upper air westerly’s in the middle
latitudes due to poleward decrease of air temperature. According to G.T. Trewartha the middle
and upper tropospheric westerlies are associated with long waves and jet streams. Warm air
ascends along the polar front which is more regular and continuous in the middle tropo-sphere.
It may be pointed out that this new concept does not explain the cellular meridional circulation
in the middle latitudes.

POLAR CELL

Polar cell involves the atmospheric circula-tion prevailing between 60° and poles. Cold winds,
known as polar easterlies, blow from polar high pres-sure areas to sub-polar or mid- latitude
low pressure belt. The general direction of surface polar winds becomes easterly (east to west)
due to Coriolis force.

These polar cold winds converge with warm westerlies near 60°-65° latitudes and form polar
front or mid- latitude front which becomes the centre for the origin of temperate cyclones. The
winds ascend upward due to the rotation of the earth at the subpolar low pressure belt and after
reaching middle troposphere they turn poleward and equator-ward. The poleward upper air
descends at the poles and reinforces the polar high pressure. Thus, a complete polar cell is
formed.

Numerous objections have been raised against the concept of tri-cellular meridional circulation
of the atmosphere. The temperature gradient should not be taken as the only basis for the origin
and maintenance of cellular meridional circulation because not all the high and low pressure
belts are thermally induced.

For example, the subtropical high pressure and sub-polar low pressure belts are dynamically
induced due to subsidence and spreading of air caused by the rotation of the earth respectively.
Upper airs anti-trades are not uniformly found over ail the meridians. If the trade winds are
exclusively of thermal origin, then the ther-mal gradient must be present boldly throughout the
tropics but this is not true. At the height of 500 to 1000m in the atmosphere the winds become
almost parallel to the isobars which are generally parallel to the latitude. If this is so, the
meridional cell of air circulation may not be possible.

The pressure and winds in most parts of lower atmosphere are found in cellular form rather
than in zonal pattern. These pres-sure and winds cells are elliptical, circular or semi-circular in
shape. These evidences (cellular form of air circulation) no doubt contradict the old concept of
general pattern of atmospheric circulation but the cel-lular meridional circulation has not been
fully vali-dated.

JET STREAMS

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of some
planets, including Earth. On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the
tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths typically have a
meandering shape. Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one
stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the
jet.
The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, at 9–12 km (30,000–39,000 ft.) above sea level, and
the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10–16 km (33,000–52,000 ft.). The
Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet.
The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North
America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern hemisphere polar
jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round.

Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that
produces the large scale Polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the
Coriolis force acting on those moving masses. The Coriolis force is caused by the planet's
rotation on its axis. On other planets, internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet
streams. The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells;
the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells.

Discovery

After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the
effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke
stream". In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from
a site near Mount Fuji. He tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals (balloons used to
determine upper level winds), as they rose into the atmosphere. Oishi's work largely went
unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto. American pilot Wiley Post, the
first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet
streams. Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above 6,200 metres (20,300 ft.). In the
year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, and
noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed. German meteorologist
Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term, Strahlströmung (literally "jet
current"), for the phenomenon in 1939. (Modern German usage is "Strahlstrom".) Many
sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight-path
traversals during World War II. Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of
100 mph (160 km/h) in flights, for example, from the US to the UK. Similarly in 1944 a team
of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to
forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan.

Description
Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250(about 1/4 atmosphere) pressure level, or 7
to 12 kilometres (4.3 to 7.5 mi) above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are
much higher, between 10 and 16 kilometres (6.2 and 9.9 mi). Jet streams wander laterally
dramatically, and have large changes in their altitude. The jet streams form near breaks in the
tropopause, at the transitions between the Polar, Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells, and whose
circulation, with the Coriolis force acting on those masses, drives the jet streams. The Polar
jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affects weather and
aviation. The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30° and 60° (closer
to 60°), while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30°. The northern Polar
jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it slowly migrates northward as that hemisphere warms,
and southward again as it cools.

The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical
thickness often less than five kilometres (3.1 miles). Jet streams are typically continuous over
long distances, but discontinuities are common. The path of the jet typically has a meandering
shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the
actual wind within the flow. Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a
Rossby wave (planetary wave). Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with
latitude. Shortwave troughs, are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves, with
a scale of 1,000 to 4,000 kilometres (620–2,490 mi) long, that move along through the flow
pattern around large scale, or longwave, "ridges" and "troughs" within Rossby waves. Jet
streams can split into two when it encounters an upper-level low that diverts a portion of the
jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north.

The wind speeds are greatest where temperature differences (gradient) between air masses are
greatest, and often exceed 92 km/h (50 kn; 57 mph). Speeds over 398 km/h (215 kn; 247 mph)
have been measured.

The jet stream moves from West to East bringing changes of weather. Meteorologists now
understand that the path of jet streams affects cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the
atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather
forecasting. For example, in 2007 and 2012, Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of
the polar jet staying south for the summer.

The polar and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are
well separated.
Cause

In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during
tornadoes, tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different
temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density
difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does
not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows
along the boundary of the two air masses.

All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation. The balance of forces acting on
an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force
acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force, or the difference in pressure between
the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel. Any imbalance between these forces results in the
acceleration of the parcel in the imbalance direction: upward if the buoyant force exceeds the
weight, and downward if the weight exceeds the buoyancy force. The balance in the vertical
direction is referred to as hydrostatic. Beyond the tropics, the dominant forces act in the
horizontal direction, and the primary struggle is between the Coriolis force and the pressure
gradient force. Balance between these two forces is referred to as geostrophic. Given both
hydrostatic and geostrophic balance, one can derive the thermal wind relation: the vertical
gradient of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient. If two
air masses, one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South, are
separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed, the difference in
densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass. The
Coriolis effect will then cause poleward-moving mass to deviate to the East, while
equatorward-moving mass will deviate toward the west. The general trend in the atmosphere
is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction. As a result, winds develop an
eastward component and that component grows with altitude. Therefore, the strong eastward
moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than
the North and South poles.

Polar jet stream

The thermal wind relation does not explain why the winds are organized into tight jets, rather
than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere. One factor that contributes to the creation
of a concentrated polar jet is the undercutting of sub-tropical air masses by the more dense
polar air masses at the polar front. This causes surface low pressure and higher pressure at
altitude. At high latitudes, lack of friction allows air to respond freely to the steep pressure
gradient with low pressure at high altitude over the pole. This results in the formation of
planetary wind circulations that experience a strong Coriolis deflection and thus can be
considered 'quasi-geostrophic'. The polar front jet stream is closely linked to the frontogenesis
process in midlatitudes, as the acceleration/deceleration of the air flow induces areas of
low/high pressure respectively, which link to the formation of cyclones and anticyclones along
the polar front in a relatively narrow region.

Subtropical jet

A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet, that is more applicable to the
subtropical jet, which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell and to first order
this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude. Tropical air rises to the tropopause, and
moves poleward before sinking; this is the Hadley cell circulation. As it does so it tends to
conserve angular momentum, since friction with the ground is slight. Air masses that begin
moving poleward are deflected eastward by the Coriolis force (true for either hemisphere),
which for poleward moving air implies an increased westward component of the winds(note
that leftward deflection in the southern hemisphere).

Cause

On Earth, the northern polar jet stream is the most important one for aviation and weather
forecasting, as it is much stronger and at a much lower altitude than the subtropical jet streams
and also covers many countries in the Northern Hemisphere, while the southern polar jet stream
mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America. The term jet stream
in these contexts thus usually implies the northern polar jet stream.

Aviation

The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation. Commercial use of the jet
stream began on 18 November 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude
of 7,600 metres (24,900 ft). It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours. Not
only does it cut time off the flight, it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry.Within North
America, the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes
if an airplane can fly with the jet stream, or increased by more than that amount if it must fly
west against it.

Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear-air turbulence (CAT), caused by
vertical and horizontal wind shear caused by jet streams. The CAT is strongest on the cold air
side of the jet, next to and just under the axis of the jet. Clear-air turbulence can cause aircraft
to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard that has caused fatal accidents, such as the
death of one passenger on United Airlines Flight 826.

Possible future power generation

Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream. According
to one estimate, of the potential wind energy in the jet stream, only 1 percent would be needed
to meet the world's current energy needs. The required technology would reportedly take 10–
20 years to develop. There are two major but divergent scientific articles about jet stream
power. Archer & Caldeira claim that the Earth's jet streams could generate a total power of
1700 terawatts (TW) and that the climatic impact of harnessing this amount would be
negligible. However, Miller, Gans, & Kleidon claim that the jet streams could generate a total
power of only 7.5 TW and that the climatic impact would be catastrophic.

Unpowered aerial attack

Near the end of World War II the Japanese fire balloon was designed as a cheap weapon
intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean to reach the west coast of Canada
and the United States. They were relatively ineffective as weapons, but they were used in one
of the few attacks on North America during World War II, causing six deaths and a small
amount of damage.

How jet streams influence the weather we experience

Jet streams act as an invisible director of the atmosphere and are largely responsible for changes
in the weather across the globe.

A jet stream is essentially an atmospheric highway located at the level where jets cruise. Winds
in this high-speed river of air often reach 250 mph.

Storms are guided in a generally west-to-east fashion due to jet streams. if it were not for jet
streams, the weather would change very little from day to day. Some areas might never get
rain, while other areas may never see the sun.

During the winter, the jet stream is usually at its strongest and positioned farther south than
other times of the year.

Airline passengers may notice the impact of the jet stream on their flight time. Typically,
aircraft flying from west to east will make better time than when flying from east to west.
Aircraft flying from west to east often have a jet stream tail wind, as opposed to a jet stream
head wind, when flying from east to west.

There are three main belts (branches) of the jet stream over both hemispheres of the globe.
These belts are scattered from just north and south of the equator to just south or north of the
poles.

While the jet stream generally flows from west to east, it is often distorted with northward
bulges and southward plunges.

Meteorologists call the northward bulge a ridge and a southward plunge a trough.

On rare occasions, usually during major winter storms such as a blizzard, the jet stream may
bend so much that it flows from east to west over short distances. When this happens, the jet
stream may break off (close off) from the main branch and spin counterclockwise in a large
horizontal circle.

It was a large buckle in the jet stream that developed and created an east to west flow over the
mid-Atlantic states during late October 2012. This flow helped to pull Superstorm Sandy
onshore over New Jersey on Oct. 29.

"The jet stream is often located near zones of strong temperature contrast.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY MEANING

Atmospheric stability is the resistance of the atmosphere to vertical motion. The distribution
of temperature vertically in the troposphere influences vertical motion. A large decrease of
temperature with height indicates an unstable condition which promotes up and down current.
A small decrease with height indicates a stable condition which inhibits vertical motion where
the height , through an inversion, the atmosphere is extremely stable.

To determine stability conditions, temperature lapse rates are compared to dry-or moist –
adiabatic lapse rates. Between stable and unstable lapse rates we may have a conditionally
unstable saturated. During condensation in saturated air, heat is released which warms the air
and produce instability ;during evaporation, heat is absorbed and may increase stability.

DETERMINING ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

appropriate adiabatic lapse rates. The degree of stability or instability of an atmospheric layer
is determined by comparing its temperature lapse rate, as shown by a sounding-,with the
appropriate dry –or moist –adiabatic lapse rates.

The dry adiabatic rate is used for that is not saturated and the moist- adiabatic rate is used
saturated air. The adiabatic process is reversible.
Hence, stability determination for either upward or downward moving air parcels make use
similar comparisons with the

STABLE

A temperature lapse rate less than the dry adiabatic rate of 5.5 F per 1,000 feet for an
unsaturated parcel are considered stable , because vertical motion is damped

UNSTABLE

A lapse rate greater than dry- adiabatic (a super adiabatic lapse rate)favors vertical motion
and is unstable.

Since it is unstable, the air tends to adjust itself through mixing and overturning to a more stable
condition.

Super -adiabatic lapse rate are not ordinarily found in the atmosphere except near the surface
of the earth on sunny days.

When an unsaturated layer of air is mixed thoughly, its lapse rate tends toward neutral stability.

NEUTRAL

1. In the absence of saturated, an atmospheric layer is neutrally stable if its lapse rate is the
same as the dry adiabatic rate.

2. Under this particular condition, any existing

vertical motion is neither damped nor accelerated.

3. The term’ ’neutral’’ stability sounds rather passive, but we should be cautious when such a
lapse rate is present.

4. We should consider the terms stable , neutral, and unstable, sense.

5. A stable lapse rate that approaches the dry-adiabatic rate should be considered relatively
unstable
Stability of saturated air

As the parcel is lifting, it will cool at the dry-adiabatic rate until saturation occurs.

The parcel temperature at this point is therefore at the dew point. The altitude of the point is
thus at the condensation level.

The stability analysis of a sounding makes use of both the dry adiabatic and moist – adiabatic
lines shown on the adiabatic chart.

The level at which the parcel becomes warmer than the surrounding air is called the level of
free convection.

The 80F. temperature and 62 dew point indicate that the parcel is initially unsaturated
Stability of unsaturated air

We will first cons unsaturated air to which the constant dry-adiabatic lapse rate applies.

If it remains unsaturated , the parcel will change in temperature at the dry –adiabatic rate
indicated on the chart by red arrows.

Moved downward, the parcel warms at the dry adiabatic rate and becomes warmer than its
environment

Buoyancy forces the parcel back up to its original level. The damping action in either case
indicates stability.

A stable lapse rate that approaches the dry adiabatic rate should be considered relatively
unstable.

Once the lapse rate becomes unstable, vertical currents are easily initiated.

Advection of warm air aloft or cold air near the surface has the reverse effect of making the
atmosphere more stable.
FACTORS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Conditional Stability- An atmosphere that has a lapse rate lying between the dry and moist
adiabatic is said to be conditionally unstable. It is stable with respect to a lifted air parcel
remains unsaturated, but it is unstable with respect to a lifted parcel that has becomes saturated
.A saturated parcel in free convection loses additional moisture by condensation as it rises.

Layer stability

Atmospheric stability is affected by vertical movement of both parcel of air or whole layers of
considerable horizontal extend of the atmosphere.

When an entire layer of stable air is lifted it becomes increasingly less stable .

If no part of the layer reaches condensation, the stable layer will eventually becomes dry
adiabatic.

Lifting processes;

Lifting processes can cause air to be lifted into the atmosphere convection, orographic lifting,
Frontal lifting, turbulence, and convergence.
4.Convection

1.A common process by which air is lifted in the atmosphere is convection.

2.If the atmosphere remains stable, convection will be suppressed. But surface heating makes
the lower layers of the atmosphere unstable during the daytime.

3.If the unstable layer is deep enough, so that the rising parcels reach their condensation level,
cumulus- types clouds will form and may produce showers and thunderstorms if the
atmospheric layer above the condensation level is conditionally unstable

Frontal Lifting

This is referred to as frontal lifting and similar in effect orographic lifting.

Stable and unstable air masses react the same way regardless of weather they are lifted by the
scope of topography by the slope of a heavier air masses.

Warmer, lighter air layers frequently flow up and over colder, heavier air masses.
Diurnal variations in stability

Diurnal changes in surface heating and cooling produce daily changes in stability, from
inversions to daytime super-adiabatic lapse rate that are common over local land surfaces.

During a typical light –wind, fair- weather period, radiation cooling at night forms a stable
inversion near the surface, which deepens until it reaches its maximum development at about
daybreak.

This diurnal pattern of nighttime inversions and daytime super-adiabatic layers near the surface
can be expected to vary considerably.

Stability in the lower atmosphere various locally between surface that heat and cool different
rate.

Instability resulting from super heating near the surface is the origin

of many of the important convective wind. 6. 6. .Topography also affect

diurnal changes in the stability of the atmosphere

Seasonal variations in stability

1.The amount of solar radiation received at the surface during the summer is considerably
greater than in the winter.

2. This is due to the difference in solar angle and the duration of sunshine.

3.Temperature profiles and stability reflect seasonal variation accordingly .

4.In the colder months, inversions becomes more pronounced and more persistent, and super-
adiabatic lapse rates occur only occasionally.

In addition to the seasonal effects directly caused by changes in solar radiation, there is also an
important effect is caused by the lag in heating and cooling of the atmosphere as a whole.
Thermal turbulence in atmospheric stability

Surface wind often vary considerably in both speed and direction over short interval of time .

This irregular air motion is known as turbulence, which may be either mechanical or thermal
in nature.

At the surface turbulence is commonly identified in term eddies, whirls, and gusts; aloft it is
associated with ‘bumpy’ flying.

Thermal turbulence is associated with instability and convective activity.

It is similar to mechanical turbulence in its effect o surface wind, but extend higher in
atmosphere.

Thermal turbulence induced by the combination of convection and horizontal wind is the
principal mechanism by which energy is exchange between the surface and the winds aloft.

Unstable air warmed at the surface rises to mix and flow along with the wind above.
Local indicators of atmospheric stability

1.The continent-wide network of weather station that make regular upper-air soundings gives
a broad general picture of atmospheric structure over North America.

2. These soundings show the major pressure, temperature, and moisture patterns that promote
stability, instability.

To supplement these observation with local measurements or with helpful indicators. clouds,
winds-flow characteristics, occurrence of dust devils ,and other phenomena can be useful
indicators of stability.

stability in the lower layers is indicated by the steadiness of the surface wind .

Cumulus-types clouds contain vertical current and therefore indicate instability.

6.The heights of cumulus clouds indicate the depth and intensity of the instability.

STABILITY CONCEPT

A correct understanding of the concept of atmospheric equilibrium is the most important

prerequisite to appreciate different atmospheric processes associated with various kinds of
weather phenomena. It may be pointed out that in meteorology the term ‘Stability’ is used to
indicate a condition of equilibrium in the atmosphere.

There are three types of equilibrium which must be made clear to a student of climatology,
because it is only then that he can understand the implication of different forms of atmospheric
equilibrium/stability.
Stable Equilibrium

If an object after being slightly disturbed or displaced from its original position tends to return
to the same, it is said to be sin stable equilibrium. This property of an object is also referred to
as its Stability. For e.g. a cone resisting on its base will be in stable equilibrium. If the cone is
tilted a little, it returns to its original position as soon as the tilt force is withdrawn.

Unstable Equilibrium

An object is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it tends to continue in the direction of

displacement. In this state of equilibrium the object after being displaced or pushed occupies
an entirely new position. A pencil standing on one end on a flat table is in unstable equilibrium.
If the upper ends of these objects are disturbed slightly, they do not return to their original
position, but fall down so that they lie on their side in stable equilibrium. Similarly a cone
would be unstable if it were made to stand on its apex instead of its base. A slight disturbance
would cause it to fall and never return to its original position.

Neutral Equilibrium

If an object tends to stay wherever it is pushed, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium. In this

intermediary state of equilibrium, the displaced object neither return to its original position,
nor takes a new position. Rather it tends to remain in whatever position it has been displaced.
A bottle or a ball lying on the flat table it is the best example of an object in neutral equilibrium.
(Lal, 2015)

It is interesting to note that the state of unstable equilibrium of any object does not last for long.
A slight disturbance brings back an object from the state of unstable equilibrium to that of a
stable equilibrium. The return of an object from an unstable conditions to the state of stability
would mean the diminution of its potential energy. However, every object tends to keep away
from the state of instability because of its inherent tendency to have a certain minimum of
potential energy.
Stability of Atmosphere

Like solid objects the concept of equilibrium is equally applicable to the atmosphere as well.
But the following characteristics render the discussion of atmospheric equilibrium
complicated.

1) The atmosphere being compressible, the density of air undergoes progressive change as it
descends or ascends.

2) When a saturated air mass rises, the latent heat of evaporation is released which warms up
the air. The warming of rising air in this way affects its density. The changes brought about in
the density of an air mass materially affect the atmospheric equilibrium.

To test the stability or instability of the atmosphere, it is to be seen as to what happens to any
parcel of air which is displaced through a small vertical distance from its initial height. If in its
new position it is subjected to forces which tends to restore it to its original position, the
atmosphere is consider to be in stable equilibrium. Contrary to it, if in its new position it is
subjected to no forces tending either to restore it to its original level, or to displace it still further
from its original position, the atmosphere is said to be in neutral equilibrium. However, the
equilibrium is said to be unstable when in its new position, it is subjected to forces tending it
to displace still further from its original position.

It is true that a moving parcel of air will at all stage of its ascent taken up automatically the
pressure of its immediate environment. Therefore the relative densities of the moving parcel of
air and of its surroundings will be largely determined by the absolute temperatures.

When the distribution of temperature and density is such as to resist vertical movements, the
atmosphere is said to be in stable equilibrium. Under these condition, an element of air, even
if displaced, tends to return to its original position after some time. Thus, when the atmosphere
is in the state of stable equilibrium there is complete absence of convective activities and the
weather remains clear. Such a condition is not conducive to precipitation. On the contrary,
when there exists a tendency in the air to move still further after being displaced, it is said to
be in unstable equilibrium. Under these circumstance, the atmospheric condition are favourable
for convective activities which results in cloud formation and abundant precipitation.
Temperature Change Adiabatic Process

Adiabatic process are those where no heat is added to or subtracted from an ascending or
descending air parcel. The change in temperature that are brought about in such an air parcel
are referred to as adiabatic temperature changes. The rate of change in temperature through this
process is called the adiabatic lapse rate. Thus adiabatic process signifies thermodynamic
change of state of gaseous system in which there is no transfer of heat into or out of the system.

An ascending volume of dry air moves to regions of lower atmospheric pressure, expands and
cools at the rate of 10°C for every kilometre of ascent. Similarly descending air is compressed
and warmed at the same rate. This rate of temperature changes in dry air is called the dry
adiabatic loose rate.

The exact mechanism of the adiabatic temperature changes is simple to understand. When an
air mass is heated at the surface of the earth it expands and becomes lighter so that the
surrounding cold and denser sir forces it to rise. The rising air enters into a region of
progressively decreasing air pressure. Thus the rising air enters into a region of lower
atmospheric pressure from that of higher pressure. As we are aware that when an object
expands it needs certain amount of energy. If the required amount of energy is not available
from outside then the object undergoing expansion spends its own internal energy which results
in cooling. In this way an ascending air mass expands and cools in a continuous process. It may
be pointed out that in adiabatic process despite changes occurring in the temperature of a rising
air parcel, its heat content remains unchanged. It is clear that in adiabatic processes there is no
exchange of heat between an ascending air and its environment. (Bharatdwaj, 2006)
LAPSE RATES

The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic
process is called the adiabatic lapse rate. But the most important point to be remembered is that
the lapse rates of saturated and unsaturated air parcel are not the same. Moreover the adiabatic
rate of temperature changes in ascending or descending air parcels is also controlled by the
differences in the initial air temperature of such parcel. The initial temperature brings about a
wide variations in the heights of the condensation levels.

Dry Adiabatic lapse rate: when the ascending or descending air parcel is dry or unsaturated its
temperature changes at a constant rate. In meteorology the dry adiabatic rate of change in
temperature with height is referred to as dry adiabatic lapse rate. It’s always 10°C per 1000
meters.

Wet (Moist) Adiabatic lapse rate: When in an ascending air mass the process of condensation
starts after the temperature has come down to saturation point, the latent heat of condensation
is released leading to warming of the raising air. Since latent heat is returned to the ascending
parcel of air during the process of condensation the rate of cooling of raising air is reduced.
Thus the reduced rate of temperature changes caused by the addition of latent heat of
condensation is called the wet/moist adiabatic lapse rate. It varies from 0.5°C to 0.9°C per 100
meters.

Stability of atmosphere and lapse rate

Atmospheric stability is defined as that condition in the atmosphere in which vertical motions
are absent or definitely restricted and conversely instability is defined as the state wherein
vertical motions is prevalent.

According to Trewartha air is said to be stable and consequently antagonistic to precipitation

if it is no buoyant and resists vertical displacement. Voluntary vertical motions are largely
absent in stable air. On the other hand if displacement results in buoyancy and a tendency for
further movement away from the original position the air is unstable.

The stability of air is determined by the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere at various
heights. This measure of the change of temperature is called the lapse rate which is altogether
different from the adiabatic lapse rate. The environmental lapse rate prevailing in the
atmosphere makes it stable and unstable.

Absolute Stability

When the distribution of temperature is such that at every level the environmental lapse rate is
greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate the displaced parcel of air has a tendency to
continuously move upward till its temperature is equal to that of the surrounding air. Such a
state of continued vertical movement of the ascending air is called Absolute stability.

When there is greater instability in the atmosphere an impulse whatsoever is needed to displace
a given volume of air. Intense surface heating by the sun’s rays or physical barriers in the path
of air stream is such a mechanism which initially produces the trigger effect and forces the air
to move upward, under the condition of absolute instability the displaced air mass continues its
ascent till a level is reached where the temperature difference between it and the surrounding
air is reduced.

Mechanical Instability

At times there are abnormal situations when the lapse rate is too steep 100°C per 1000 meters
and the upper layers of the atmosphere becomes far more denser than the underlying layers.
Under these special circumstances there is an automatic overturning of air without any initial
impulse being applied to it. Such a situation is known as mechanical instability. This state of
equilibrium helps in the formation of tornadoes, the most violent revolving storms of very small
size.

Conditional Instability

The term Conditional instability refers to the state of a column of air when its vertical
distribution of temperature is such that the layers is stable for dry air but unstable for saturated
air. This occurs when moist air has a lapse rate between the dry and wet adiabatic rates (between
100°C to 1°C per 100 meters). The ascending air parcel is cooler than the surrounding air and
it is therefore considered stable. Since above the condensation level the latent heat of
condensation is returned to the raising air further cooling takes place at the wet adiabatic rate
which is less than the environmental lapse rate. However the lapse rate being greater than the
wet adiabatic rate from the level of fee convection upward the rising parcel of air is warmer
than the surrounding air. From this level long its ascent the parcel would continue to rise
without any impulse and is considered unstable. Thus the air that was initially stable is made
unstable by the forced ascent during which latent heat of conduction is added to it, a column
of rising air may be stable and unstable at different elevations as a result of condensation after
sufficient uplift and cooling. The word conditional is prefixed because only if the air is forced
upward initially can it become unstable. Conditional instability is said to be the most common
type of instability.

In conditional instability the lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic and greater than the moist
adiabatic lapse rate. Besides there are two most important requests for this state of equilibrium:

The ascending air parcel should be moist or saturated and

The air parcel should get a very strong initial uplift so that it would reach the condensation
level under the impulse.
Stability and Daily Weather

Stability or instability prevailing in the atmosphere largely controls the daily weather. If there
is stability in the atmosphere, it would resist vertical motions. Thus, stable air does not favor
cloud formation. However, when there are certain processes that force the stable air aloft, the
clouds that form do not have great vertical thickness, rather they are fairly widespread.
Precipitation itself is a sure indicator of the type of stability prevailing in the atmosphere. Light
drizzle and overcast sky suggest the uplift or forced ascent of the stable air.

On the hot summer afternoon, when the earth’s surface is intensely heated, the lapse rate
becomes steeper leading to instability in the atmosphere. Surface irregularity often causes
pockets of air to be heated more than the free air in the atmosphere. The convectional currents
are set up, and if they can reach above the condensation level, clouds form to yield occasional
mid-afternoon shows. However, in such cases the cloud do not grow to great heights. The
reason is that the ‘instability caused by surface heating does not extend to more than a few
kilometres from the surface. Precipitation occurring in this way is generally of very short
duration, because it cools the surface.

A temperature inversion produces the most stable conditions in the atmosphere. Because of the
impact of an inversion layer in the atmosphere the air lying close to the earth’s surface is cooler
and heavier than the air in the upper layers. Therefore there is little vertical mixing between
the layers of the atmosphere. This results in a greater concentration of pollutants in the
lowermost layers. Similarly, an extensive fog is a sure indicator of atmospheric stability. The
development of clouds and the nature of precipitation occurring there from are all determined
by the air stability or lack of it. Hence the state of equilibrium prevailing in the atmosphere
determines to a large degree the type degree the type of weather we are going to have.
Stability Change

The movement of air and daily temperature changes are the two important factors that bring
about a change in atmospheric stability. It may be pointed out that the steep lapse rate renders
the air more unstable, while a smaller lapse rate promote stability. It is therefore natural that
any factor that causes the warming of air near the surface of earth promotes instability. Contrary
to it the chilling of surface air makes the air more stable. The cooling of the earth surface after
sunset by nocturnal radiation is one such factor that increases the stability of air.

Horizontally moving wind streams play an important role in determining the stability of air.
When warm air from lower latitude moves northward over the colder land surfaces in higher
latitudes, the air masses are cooled from below and become more stable. The cooling of lower
layers of the atmosphere reduces the prevailing lapse rate which in turn leads to stability. On
the other hand advection of cold air over warm surfaces leads to warming of the lower layers.
It steepens the lapse rate. Thus the air becomes unstable.

Besides vertical motion produced in the atmosphere influence instability. Subsidence of an air
column increases stability, while its upward movement usually enhances instability. The
conditional instability refers to the air that becomes unstable provided it is lifted to a certain
level. Similarly upward movement of air associated with general convergence enhances
instability. That is why the convergence and associated uplift aided by the intense day night
heating of the surface produce mid-afternoon thunderstorms in a certain favoured locality.

At times radiation cooling from cloud tops at at about sunset enhances their instability. This is
so because it steepens the lapse rate, so that warm air from below start flowing upward
adducing to the growth of clouds. Nocturnal thunderstorm are produced in this way. (Dr. Indira
Singh, 2006)

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES

The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic
process is called the adiabatic lapse rate. But the most important point to be remembered is that
the lapse rates of saturated and unsaturated air parcel are not the same. Moreover, the adiabatic
rate of temperature changes in ascending or descending air parcel is also controlled by the
difference in the initial air temperature of such parcels .The initial temperature brings about
wide variations in the height of the condensation levels.
Dry adiabatic lapse rate

When the ascending or descending air parcel is dry or unsaturated, its temperature changes at
a constant rate .It meteorology, the dry adiabatic rate of change in temperature with height is
referred to as the dry adiabatic lapse rate. It is always 10 celsius per 1000 meters. The dry
adiabatic lapse rate is defined as the rate of decrease in temperature with height experienced
by an air parcel being lifted adiabatically through an atmosphere in hydrostatic equilibrium.
While the environmental lapse rate is characterized by temporal as well as spatial variations,
the dry adiabatic lapse rate always remains constant.

Wet (moist) adiabatic lapse rate

When in an ascending air mass the process of condensation starts after the temperature has
come down to saturation point , the latent heat of condensation is released leading to warming
of the rising air .Since latent heat is returned to the ascending parcel of air during the process
of condensation, the rate of cooling of rising air is reduced . Thus, the reduced rate of
temperature change caused by the addition of latent heat of condensation is called the wet
adiabatic lapse rate.

The amount of latent head liberated by the process of condensation depends upon the moisture
content of an ascending air mass. The rate of cooling in a saturated air mass is, therefore, not
always the same. The wet adiabatic lapse rate varies from 0.5 to 0.9 celsius per 100 meters.
Higher moisture content in a rising air lowers down the rate of temperature change, where as
in relatively drier air mass there is higher rate of temperature change.

It is to be noted that any volume of rising air first cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate from the
surface to the condensation level. Beyond this level the rate of the cooling is lowered because
of the reasons mentioned above, and the same is known as the wet adiabatic lapse rate .Thus,
higher the temperature of the rising air, slower will be the rate of its cooling from the
condensation level upward .

Moreover, the wet adiabatic lapse rate depends on such other factors as the pressure of air, the
amount of condensed moisture in the rising air, and its temperature . However, beyond the
condensation level there are two opposing forces that work together: (a) adiabatic cooling by
expansion and (b) warming of the rising air by the addition of latent heat of condensation . The
net effect of these processes working simultaneously is to reduce the rate of decrease of
temperature.
The wet adiabatic rate of cooling is highly variable and depends on the temperature of the rising
air. It is so because the specific humidity of warmer air is far more than that of the colder air.
Therefore at higher temperature the latent heat of condensation is greater in quantity. So the
rate of cooling beyond the condensation level is controlled by the latent heat liberated through
the process of condensation.

The difference between dry and wet adiabatic lapse rates at higher temperature is much greater.
on the contrary, when the temperature of the ascending air is low, the difference between the
two adiabatic lapse rates is substantially reduced .There are occasion when the air parcel
ascending through layers of the atmosphere is so cold and dry that both the dry and wet
adiabatic lapse rates are almost the same. In exceptional cases when the rate of cooling in an
ascending air mass is more than the dry adiabatic rate , it is called the super adiabatic lapse
rate.

Atmosphere stability and lapse rate

Atmosphere stability is defined “a that condition in the atmosphere in which vertical motions
are absent or definitely restricted; and, conversely, instability is defined as the state where in
vertical movement is prevalent.”

According to trewarths, air is to be stable , and consequently antagonistic to precipitation ,if it

is non-buoyant and resists vertical displacement .Voluntary vertical motions are largely absent
in stable air .on the other hand , if displacement results in buoyancy and a tendency for further
movement away from the original position , the air is unstable.

The stability of air is determined by the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere at various
height. This measures of the change of temperature is called the lapse rate which is altogether
different from the adiabatic lapse rate. As we know, the lapse rate always vary with time and
place. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is always the same. By nothing at any level the difference
in temperature between an air parcel moving upward and the surrounding atmosphere, stability
or instability can be ascertained. In other words, the environmental lapse rate prevailing in the
atmosphere makes it stable or unstable. If the lapse rate exceeds the dry adiabatic lapse rate,
the air is bound to be in the state of unstable equilibrium, and it will tend to rise further. On the
other hand, if the lapse rate is lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, there will be stability in
the air. Such an air parcel, even if pushed up strongly, tends to return to its original position.
Such a state of equilibrium resists vertical motions in the atmosphere .
Lapse rate and adiabatic processes

The atmospheric lapse rate is the change in temperature with height. For example, on average
the temperature cools 6.5c for every kilometers. Of course, this varies from location to location.
We can use observations to determine the lapse rate of a particular location .The observations
are gathered from a miniature weather –monitoring station that is attached to a balloon and
released into the twice a day at various sites throughout the world .(radiosonde)

The value of the lapse rate is strongly dependent on the amount of water vapor in the air. Dry
air cools at about 10 c/km, while moist air usually cools at less than 6c/km. The word adiabatic
mean that no outside heat is involved in the warming or cooling of the air parcels.

Why are the two lapse rates different ?

Remember that water vapor in a rising parcel of air will condense when the air become cold
enough. The phase change from gas to liquid takes a little work from the water molecules. As
they are working, they release heat. The heat decreases the cooling that occur in the air parcel.
Therefore, a rising parcel of dry air cools faster than a moist parcel of air. And conversely, a
sinking parcel of dry warms faster than a sinking parcel of moist air.

Now apply these concepts to mountains. Moist air that reaches a mountain range is forced to
raise. The rising air cools at the moist adiabatic lapse rate and eventually some or all of the
water vapor will condense .if the conditions are right, a cloud will form and it will either rain
or snow

.The air continues to flow over the mountain range and eventually descend on the other side
.The sinking air warms. Since the air has lost much of its moisture through precipitation, it
warms at the dry adiabatic lapse rate, which is greater than the moist adiabatic lapse rate. This
is means the air is now drier and warmer than it was before it encountered the mountain range.

CONDENSATION
The transformation of gaseous form of water (i.e. water vapour) into solid form (ice) and liquid
form (water)is called condensation. In other words, the process of change of water vapour into
liquid form is called condensation. It is evident that condensation is opposite to evaporation.
The process and mechanism of condensation depends on the amount of relative humidity
present in the air. The air having 100 percent relative humidity is called saturated air. An air
may become saturated in two ways examples either (i) the absolute humidity at a given
temperature is raised to equal the humidity retaining capacity of the air or (ii) the temperature
of the air is reduced to such an extent (i.e. the air is cooled that the humidity capacity becomes
equal to its absolute humidity. For example, the humidity capacity and absolute humidity of an
air with 60 degree F (about 16 degree C) temperature are 5.7 grains 4 grains per cubic foot
respectively (relative humidity being 72 percent), if the air is cooled to 50 degree F (10 degree
C) temperature, the humidity capacity decreases to 4.1 grains which equal to absolute humidity
of 4 grains per cubic foot, thus the air becomes saturated as relative humidity becomes 100
percent, and hence condensation begins. The temperature at which an air becomes saturated is
called dew point. It may be pointed out that condensation will begin only when the air is super
saturated i.e., if the relative humidity exceeds 100 percent, and this can be achieved only when
the air is further cooled. If dew point is above freezing point (30 degree F or 0 degree C),
condensation will occur in liquid form (example dew, fog, rainfall, etc.) but if due point is
below freezing point, condensation occurs in solid forms (ex. Frost, ice, snow, hailstorm, etc.)
the temperature at which condensation occurs (always below freezing point i.e. below 0 degree
C) is called frost point or frost point temperature.

It is apparent that condensation depends on (i) the percentage of relative humidity of the air,
and (ii) the degree of cooling of the air. The air becomes cool when it rises either due to thermal
heating and consequent volume expansion or is forced by topographic barrier to ascend, while
it gets heated when it descends. Thus, the ascending air may bring moist weather while
descending air cause dry condition. Much cooling of air is required in hot arids regions before
dew point is reached. On the other hand, very little cooling causes condensation in humid
regions. It is also to be remembered that heat energy is absorbed during the process of
evaporation but it is released during condensation. The heat energy released after condensation
is called latent heat of condensation.

COOLING OF AIR AND ADIABATIC CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE

The cooling of air by loss of heat is prerequisite condition for condensation process. The
moisture holding capacity of a given parcel of air at given temperature or decreases with
decreasing temperature.On the other hand, relative humidity is inversely related to temperature
ie. Relative humidity decreases with increasing temperature (because moisture holding
capacity increases) or increases with decreasing temperature (because moisture holding
capacity decreases) because the relative humidity is the function of absolute humidity and
moisture holding capacity of a given parcel of air at given temperature at a point of time. If the
air is not saturated (i.e. if the absolute humidity and moisture holding capacity of the air are not
equal or if the relative humidity is not hundred percent), it must lose heat by ascending so that
it is cooled, so that moisture holding capacity is reduced to such an extent that the moisture
retaining capacity equals the amount of absolute humidity and the air becomes saturated, so
that condensation may occur.

The required cooling of air for condensation is accomplished through two processes
(mechanisms) of diabatic process and adiabatic process.

1.DIABATIC PROCESS

Diabatic or non-adiabatic change of temperature and cooling of air involves the process
of cooling of air without the change of the amount of water vapour (either subtraction or
addition) and volume of the air (the volume of th air remains constant). Thus, diabatic cooling
of the air involves loss of heat through radiation, conduction or mixing of a given parcel of air
with colder air. Thus, the diabatic cooling processes can be grouped into three types e.g. (1)
radiation cooling, (2) contact cooling, and (3) advection cooling.

RADIATION COOLING:The loss of heat through direct radiation from the layer of moist air
ia called radiation cooling which is exceedingly a slow process. It may be mentioned that this
diabatic process cannot exclusively cause condensation but may help condensation if other
factors controlling condensation are favourable. Radiation cooling cannot cause precipitation
but may produce fog, dew, frost or thin light clouds.

CONTACT COOLING :

The lost of heat from an air layer having relatively higher temperature to relatively colder air
layer through the precess of conduction of transfer of heat is called contact or conduction
cooling. It is to be remembered that air is poor conductor of heat and hence this daibatic process
of cooling is also very slow process of transfer of heat.
Moreover , the rate of transfer of heat from warmer air to colder air depends on the degree of
difference of temperature between two air layers. The higher the difference of temperature, the
higher the rate of conduction and hence cooling and vice versa.

ADVECTION COOLING :

The loss of heat from an air mass due to hirizontal movement of air and consequent mixing of
two air masses of varying temperature is called advectional daibatic cooling. If a warm and
moist air having high vapour pressure (near saturation level) reaches a cold moist air having
high vapour pressure (near satuaration level) and lies over it, there is mixing of two air layers
and ultimatly the warm moist air is cooled and condensation takes place.

It may be concluded that the daibatic process of cooling of air does not involve changes in the
moisture contents of the air and changes in its volume due to expansion. This is very slow
process of cooling and involves thin layer section of the atmosphere and hence causes
condensation to limited extent resulting into the foormation of dew, fog (when condensation
occures above freezing-dew point) and frost (when condensation take place below freezing
point). Sometimes thin clouds can also be formed but these cannot yeild much precipitation,
rather light shower or drizzle in limited area may occur.

2. ADIABATIC PROCESS

Adiabatic process of cooling of air (and also warming of air, infact change of temperature)
involves loss of heat from the air due to expansation of air (increase in volume, warming occurs
due to contraction of air) caused by (i) Mechanical lifting or (ii) Dynamic lifting, or (iii) By
cyclonic (frontal) lifting. The adiabatic process of cooling of air are the only processes of
effective condensation and substantial precipitation. The adiabatic processes involving cooling
of air through increase in volume due to expantion of air are explained as follows:

Temperature decreases with inncreasing altitude at the rate of 6.5degreeC per 1000 meters or
3.6degree F per 1000 feet. The rate of vetical decreases of temperature is callled normal lapse
rate or standard lapse rate whch is calculated ‘from the difference between the average surface
temperture(15dereeC) and the average temperature at the tropopause (-59degreeC at 11
kilometers). It is apparent that there is change in temperature of air due to ascent or descent but
without addition or subtraction of heat. Such type of change of temperature of air due
contraction or expansation is called adiabatic change of temperature. The rate of change of
temperature of ascending air (decrease of temperature or cooling of air at the rate of 10degreeC
per 1000meters before condensation level is reached) or descending air (increase of
temperature at the rate of 100 C per thousand meters) is called adiabatic lapse rate. Standard
lapse rate is measured value. Since it measures the temperature of the environment, it is called
enironmental lapse rate.’

Adiabetic change of temperatures is of two types examples (i) Dry adiabatic change, and (ii)
Moist adiabatic change. The temperature of unsatuarated air decreases with increasing altitude
at the rate of 5.50 per 1000 feet or 10degree C per 1000 meteres. On the other hand, if a parcel
of air decends, its temperature increases downward at the rate of 10 degree C per 1000 meteres.
This type of change of temperature of unsatuarated ascending or descending air is called dry
adiabatic rate. This is called moist adiabatic rate wherein temperature of an ascending air
beyond condensation level decreases. The moist adiabatic rate is also called retarded adiabatic
rate. As mentioned above the ascent of parcel of air in the process of adiabatic cooling may be
effected either by thermal convection, or by mechanical lifting caused by physical barrier
(example : Hills and Mountains), or by cyclonic (frontal) lifting. It may be mentioned that for
effective condensation to cause substaintial precipitation the vertical movement of air and its
consequent expansion due to decrease in density and pressure is a necessary condition. In a
more simple terms, arising moist warm air expands, becomes less than dense, loses temperaturs
and hence cools, relative humidity increses and ultimately condensation occurs after saturation
level (dew point) is reached. The upward movement of parcel of air requires the mechanism
which may effects the ascent of air. Such mechanism is called lifting mechanism and falls into
three catogories e.g. (1.) Mechanical Lifting, (2.) Dynamic Lifting, and (3.) Frontal or cyclonic
Lifting. The mechanical lifting, also called as physical barrier lifting, or orographic lifting, is
caused by orographic barriers wherein a horizontally moving air encounters hills or mountains
and is forced to rise along the wind ward slope of the hills. The dynamic or conventional lifting
is caused due to warming of surface air due to insolation heating. The frontal or cyclonic lifting
is caused due to meeting of two thermally contrasted air masses and consequent formation of
cyclonic front.

CONDENSATION NUCLEI

The necessary condition for condensation to occur include (1)saturation of air(hundred

percent relative humidity), and (2)surfaces on which condensation may occur (e.g. hygroscopic
nuclei). The mechanism of cooling and saturation of air has been described in previous
sections. The hygroscopic nuclei include solid objects like dust particles, salt particles and
smoke. (1)The salt particles are provided by sea spray and comprise sodium chloride and
magnesium chloride, (2)dust particles include flyash emitted from factories, dust from volcanic
erruptions, sands and dry soil particles blown by wind, and (3)smokes and soots. Besides,
sulphur dioxide released from the combustion, nitric oxides, ammonium sulphate, carbon
iodide etc. also form nuclei for condensation. It may be pointed out that these condensation
nuclei are called hygroscopic nuclei because these particles have affinity to warer. Salt particles
are most significant condensation nuclei because these have more affinity to water as
electrically charged ions of salt particles attract more water molecules which are deposited
around the particles during condensation process. On the other hand, terrestrial (of land) dust
particles attract less water molecules and hence are less hygroscopic but may become effective
hygroscopic nuclei when they are in large number and the air is supersaturated.

It is significant to mention that the air is never pure in nature because it is mixed with
numerous impurities of natural asa well as antropogenic sources and therefore they(impurities)
provide constant supplyof hygroscopic nuclei. Condensation is a continuos process but it is not
necessary that condensation will always produce precipitation on the ground surface because
if the condensation is slow and weak, the resultant forms of condensation may be evaporated
in the transit. The continuos deposit of water molecules around hygroscopic nuclei through
condensation results in the formation of water droplets for precipitation. The water droplets
formed around larger hygroscopic nuclei are called cloud droplets. The aggregation of large
number of cloud droplets forms clouds. Rainfall does not occur unless these cloud droplets
become so large due to coalescence that the air becomes unable to hold them. This is why,
sometimes the sky is overcast by thickclouds but there is no rainfall.

FORMS OF CONDENSATION

As mentioned above condensation of water vapour around hygroscopic nuclei results

ultimately in the formation of water droplets. The forms of condensation vary considerably
depending on a host of factors, namely the nature of moist air(i.e.the quantity of moisture-
vapour in the air and level of saturation,whether the parcel of air is undersaturated,saturated or
oversaturated depending on the percentage of relative humidity), rate and mode of cooling of
ascending air(e.g.radiation cooling, contact cooling,or advection cooling), temoerature of air,
nature and rate of movement of air, turbulence in the air, nature and amount of hygroscopic
nuclei, place of condensation etc.
 Condensation occurs both (1)near the ground surface, and (2)up in the air above the ground
surface.

1.CONDENSATION NEAR THE GROUND SURFACE

The condensation of vapour of supersaturated air near the ground surface may be effected by
radiation cooling ,or contact cooling or advection cooling (the mechanisms of cooling of air
have already been discussed. The ground levelcondensation occurs in several forms depending
on local environmental conditions, of which climatically important are dew, frost, rime, mist,
fog, etc.

(1)DEW:refers to direct deposition of water vapour without hygroscopic nuclei on the surfaces
of objects on the ground (like vegetation to mention) after condensation of moist air caused by
radiation and contact cooling of air lying above the ground surface. The necessary conditions
for dew formation include high relative humidity, almost calm air with low wind velocity,
suitable rafiating surface, effective nocturnal (night time) radiation (terrestrial outgoing
longwave radiation during night) is not retarded etc. If a particular day receives rainfall during
photoperiod, the night becomes cloudless (clear skies), and wind speed is very low (calm air),
the loss of heat from the ground surface by nocturnal radiation makes it cool. Since there is
sufficient moisture in the overlying air, it gets cooled because of its contact with underlying
cool ground surface, the air is saturated and ultimately condensation occurs and water vapour
is deposited on the leaves of vegetation and other objects to form dew. It may be mentioned
that dew formation occurs when condensation takes place above freezing point of the saturated
air. The tempearture at which the condensation occurs in liquid form is called dew point.
Conversely, cloudy sky(cloud covers obstruct outgoing longwave terrestrial radiation and
hence keep the ground surface warm), windy weather(high wind speed causes mixing if air and
taboos the air to reach saturation and condensation level-dew point), less moisture in the air
etc. disfavour the formation of dew. This is why dew formation is more frequent during rainy
season and winter season.

(2)FROST:is defined as trasformation of gaseous form of water(water vapour) directly into

solid form (the process being called sublimation) at the ground surfaces, in the soils and in the
air layer just lying over the ground surface due to condensation occuring below freezing point.
Frost is generally divided into two types, namely (i)ground frost, and (ii)air frost. Ground frost
occurs when the cooling of ground surface and the air lying over it is not very much effective,
consequently only thin layer of air in direct clotact with the ground surface is cooled and
reaches condensation level (dew point) below freezing point (less than 0degree C temperature)
and hence thr moisture in the soils is frozen. Air frost, on the other hand, occurs, when the
entire air layer overlying the ground surface is cooled to such an extent that it reaches its dew
point(condensation level) below freezing point and the moisture is frozen. When the vapour is
directly transformed into ice (by the process of sublimation) which is deposited on roofs,
grasses, pavements etc., it is called boar frost wherein the ice crystals having silvery white
colour look like jewels and are very attractive. When thin ice sheets as a result of frost
formation are deposited on road, the resultant frost is called black ice or glazed frost. When the
drizzles or very light rains occur below 0 degree C temperature on the ground surface, they are
frozen before reaching the ground surface and hence these are called as freezing drizzle and
freezing rain. These are also called as crachin. Such frost generally causes deposition of thin
ice over leaves and twigs of plants, telephone poles and wires etc. The frosts caused by cooling
of ground surface and overlying air due to radiational loss of heat are also called radiation frost.
Frosts are economically hazards as these damage orchards and such crops which have fibrous
roots like potato, peas, oil seeds etc.

(3)RIME: ‘is an opaque coating of tiny, white, granular ice particles, caused by rapid freezing
of super-cooled water droplets on impact with an objects’(Weber’s Encyclopedic Unabridged
Dictonary,p.1658) below freezing point(below 0 degree C). Rime is deposited mainly on the
edges and points of objects.

(4)MIST:Mist is less dence fog. The suspended water droplets restrict Visibility between 1000
to 2000 meters or 4 on the cooled scale (IMD). The obscurity is known as mist. Relative
humudity is at least 75% mist dissapears with rising sun.

(5)SMOG:The combined effect of smoke and fog droplets may reduce visibility and this
phenomenaon is called smog.

(6)HAZE:some solid particles like dust, smoke from fire and industry restrict visiblity is haze.

(7)FOG:Fog is a complex atmospheric phenomenon, which can be considered as a type of low-

lying cloud. Formation of fog is influence by nearby water bodies, topography, wind speed and
even human activities.

Fog is defined as visibility of less than 1000 meters. This limit is suitable for aviation purposes
but for people on the roads an upper limit of 200 meters is more realistics.

Severe disruption to road,rail and air traffic occurs when the visibility fails below 50 meters.
TYPES OF FOG

Fog which is compose entirely or mainly of water droplets is called a generally classified
according to their process of formation. Follwing are the main types of fog

RADIATION FOG

Clear skies and calm condition during the winter season generally lead to radiation fog. The
land gets cooled over night by thermal radiation, which in turn cools the air close to the surface
as well. This reduces the ability of the air to hold moisture leading to condensation and
occurrence of fog. Radiation fog gradually dessipets after sunrise as the ground warms up.

ADVECTION FOG

When moist airpasses over a cool surface, it get cooled considerably. This gives rise to
advection fog, which is very common at the sea when moist tropical air moves over cooler
water. This kind of sea fog can get transported over the coastal areas. Advection fog is also
appears when a warm front passes over an area with snow cover.

VALLEY FOG

As an when cold dence air settles into the lower parts of a valley , it condenses and forms fog.
This is known as valley fog. It is the results of a temperature inversion and is confind to the
local topography. Such for can last for several days in calm conditions during the winter season.

UNSLOPE FOG

Unslope fog or hill fog forms when winds blow up a slope, which is also known as the
orographic uplift. As the air rises, it gets cooled down, allowing moisture in it to condence.

FREEZING FOG

Freezing fog is made upof super cooled water droplets – which remain in the liquid form even
when the temperature is below freezing point. In this type of foggy weather, rhyme (composed
of feathery ice crystal) gets deposited on the wind ward side of vertical surfaces such as lamp
posts, over head wires pylons, fence post, transmitting mast.

EVAPORATION FOG

Evoporation fog is formed when cood air passes over a warmer surface – could be water or
moist land. Sometimes this types of fog often produces freezing fog. When this relatively warm
water evoporates into the lower layers of air it warms the air. This causes the warmed up air to
rise and mixed with the cooler air that has passed over the surface. The meeting of the moist
warm air with the colder air allows condensation and fog to occure.

CONDENSATION ABOVE GROUND SURFACE

The condensation of saturated air above the ground surface caused by adiabatic cooling of
ascending miost air results in the formation of clouds which are defined as aggregate of
innumerable tiny water droplets, ice particles or mixture of both in the air abovethe ground
surfac. Clouds are form due to condensation of water vapour around the hygroscopic nuclei
caused by cooling due to lifting of moist air and consequent expansion of volume, generally
known as adiabatic cooling. Clouds are very significant because all forms of precipitation
occurs from them.clouds also play major roles in the heat budget of the earthand the atmosphere
as they reflect, absorb, and diffuse some portion of incoming shortwave solar radiation and
absorb some portion of outgoing long wave terrestrial(ground) radiation and and re-radiate it
back to the earth’s surface.

OTHER FORMS OF CONDENSATION

1.SNOWFALL:the fall of larger snowflakes from the clouds on the ground surface is called
snowfall. In fact, snowfall is ‘precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice’. The
snowfalloccurs when the freezing level is so close to the ground surface (less than 300m from
the surface) that aggregation of ice crystals reach the ground without being melted in a solid
form of precipitation as snow.

2.SLEET:refers to a mixture of snow and rain bur in American terminology sleets means falling
of small pellets of transparent or translucent ice having a diameter of 5mm or less.

3.HAIL:consists of large pellets or spheres of ice. In fact, hali is a form of solid precipitation
wherein small balls or pieces of ice, known as hailstones, having a diameter of 5 to 50mm fall
downward known as hailstorms. Hails are vaery destructive and dreaded from of solid
precipitation because they destroy agricultural crops and claim human and animal lives.

4.DRIZZLE: the fall of numerous uniform minute droplets of water having diameter of less
than 0.5mm is called drizzle. Drizzles fall continuosly from low stratus cloud but the total
amount of water received on the ground surface is significantly low.

FACTORS AFFECTING CONDENSATION

TEMPERATURE OF GAS IS LOWER

The average partical energy in the gas is lower so more particles with slow down enough to
clump together and formed droplets.

AIR FLOW IS LESS

The concentration of the substance in the air will be higher and so, the rate of condensation
will be greater.

THE DENSITY IS HIGHER

The forces between the particles will be stronger fewer particles will have enough energy to
overcome this forces and will instead, clump together and form a liquid.