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. TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION .........•.............••.• 1.1 - 1.95

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1.1. INTRODUCTION ...•.....•••.....•.•...••.••..•......•......•...••.•....••..•••...••.•••.••••.•••• 1.1

1.2. STRUCTUREAND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE•.•.•.•••••... 1.1

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1.2.1. Structure of Atmosphere : .: .. 1.2
1.2.2. Other layers 1.7

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1.2.3. Elements of Atmosphere 1.10

1.3. AIR POLLUTION...•...••..••.•...•••..•.•.•••••..••••.....•....•••..•.•••.. -..•.•.••.••••...•••• 1.12

1.4. SOURCESOF AIR POLLUTION·······································--········· 1.15

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1.4.1. Natural Sources ·.. 1.15
1.4.2. Man Made Sources ; .. 1.16
1.4.3. Causes of Air Pollution 1.17

1.5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS •••.....•...•.........

·-·-·······1.18

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1.5.1. Classification Based on Origin 1.18

1.6. IMPORTANAT AIR POLLUTANTS •.....•..••••••..•••.•.•••.•.•.• - ....._...... 1.20

1.6.1. Oxides of Sulphur 1.20
1.6.2. Carbon Monoxide (CO) ...........................•........................ 1.21
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1.6.3. Nitrogen-Oxides NOx 1.22

1.6.4. Hydrocarbons (HC) and Organic Compounds 1.23

1.6.5. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) 1.24
1.6.6. Lead 1.27
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1.6. 7. Other Important Pollutants 1.27

1.7. PHYSICAL EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION - ••••• 1.29

1.7.1. Effects on Visibility 1.29
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1. 7.2. Effects on Urban Atmospheric and Weather Conditions 1.30

1. 7 .3. Effects of Atmospheric Constituents 1.iJO
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1.8. EFFECTOF AIR POLLUTION ·······-···········-····-·-····-····--- 1.30

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1.8. L Effects of Air Pollution on Hurna n Health 1.30
1.1l.9. Determination of-Gas Parameter's 1.77
1.8.2. Effects ofArr-Pollution on Plants 1.34
1.8.3. Effects of Air Pollution on Animals , 1.34 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS Al~D ANSWERS.•..:.••••••••..•...••.•...........••.... 1.83

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1.8.4. Effects of Air-Pollution on Materials and Services 1.35 RIEVIEW QUESTIONS···········---··················~··················~··················· 1.91
1.8.5. Effects of Air Pollution on Aquatic Life 1.37

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1.8.6. Economic Effect of Air Pollution 1.37
. UNIT 2. '"....• 2.1 - 2.69
METEOROLOGY•..•.....•••••....••..
1.8.7. Effects of Nuclear Power Reactors : 1.39
1.8.8. Global Environmental Issues - Effects of Air Pollution. 1.39 2.1. INTRODUCTION ·---···········································,···················2.1

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1.9. AIR QUALITY STANDARDS ...•. ~ ...•.....•.••.•........•••....•.......•••..•.......•. 1.44 2.1.1. Objectives of Meteorological Factor Study 2.1
1.9.1. Objectives of Air Quality Standards 1.45 2.1.2. Effects ofMeteoro]logy on Air Pollution 2.2
1.9.2. Steps in Air Quality Standards 1.45 2.1.3. Meteorological Factors :.·············· 2.3
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1.9.3. Ambient Air Quality Standards 1.46
2.2. LAPSE RATE ··················-·-·······························································2.8
1.9.4. Other Air 1QualityStandards 1.49 2.2.1. Dry and Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate 2.11
1.10. EMISSION STANDARDS ..•.......••...................•............•.•.......•........ 1.50
2.3. PLUl\llE AND PLUME RISE-.•••....••..•......••........•..........•..•................. 2.12
1.10.1. Emission Standards 1.50
2.3.1. Design ofStackHeighL. :············· 2.17

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1.10.2. Emission Standards by Air Act (1981) 1.52
2.3.2. Objectives of Study of Plume Behaviours 2.18
1.10.3. Main functions of the Central Pollution Control Board
2.3.3. Types of Plume (Plume Pattern) 2.18
(CPCB) 1.53
2.3.4. Wind Rose 2.23
1.10.4. Industries Specified in the Schedule 1.54
2.3.5. Pollution Roses 2.25
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1.10.5. Permissible Process Emission Standards for Specific
2.3.6. Types of Wind rose 2.25
Substances ~ · , 1.55
2.3. 7. Plume Rise and Dispersion Theories 2.25
1.11. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS •••.•••...••••.•••..•••.•....••..•.••••.••..•••••....•.•• 1.62
2.4. METHODS OF MEASURING METEOROLOGICAL
1.11.1. Objective of Sampling At Source 1.62
VARIABLES ...••.......•••...•.• ·--··························································· 2.34
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1.11.2. Sampling Study Planning : 1.62

2.4.1. Wind Direction Recorder····································'············ 2.35
1.11.3. Principles of Sampling and Analysis 1.65
2.4.2. Wind Speed Recorder 2.38
1.11.4. Stack Sampling - 1.66
2.4.3. Humidity Measurement 2.40
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1.11.5. Difficulties in Sampling Process 1.70

2.4.4. Temperature Measurement 2.40
1.11.6. Devices for Sampling 1.70
2.4.5. Solar Radiation Measurement 2.44
1.11.7. MethodsofSampling 1.72
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1.11.8. Isokinetic Conditions 1.76 2.5.. DISPERSION OF POLL.UTANTS.-········-·······························-·······

2.44
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3.5.1. Centrifugal Collectors ." 3.23
2.5. l. Factors affecting dispersion of pollutants 2.44
3.5.2. Dynamic Precipitator ·-·········································· 3.24
2.5.2. Dispersion Equations 2.45
3.6. CYCLONE COLLECTOR (OR CYCLONESEPARATOR) •..••...•• 3.25

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2.6. DISPERSION MODELS··························-········: •••.•.•••...••.••..•••.••..••••• 2.53
3.6.1. Working 3.25
2.6.l. Types of Air Pollution Dispersion Models 2.54
. 3.6.2. Design and Performance of Cyclone Separator 3.27

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2.6.2. Applications of Dispersion Models : 2.56
3.6.3. Factors affecting the cyclone efficiency 3.29
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
••••••••.•••.•••..••••••...••••••...••••. 2.61
3.6.4. Advantages of Cyclones 3.29
REVIEW QUESTIONS •••..•••..••••..••..••.•.•••..••.•.••••.••.•••......••..••••.••.••••••.•....•••.. 2.65

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3.6.5. Disadvantages of Cyclones 3.29

UNIT 3 CONTROL OF PARTICULATE 3.6.6. Operating Problems : 3.30

CONTAMINANTS ...............•........... 3.1 - 3.60 3.6.7. Applications 3.31

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3.7. FABRIC FILTERS ...•.••••.••..•.••.•.••••..••.••.• ·--·-············- .. ···-.:········-···· 3.31
3.1.· INTROUUCTION ..• : ••....••..•••••••.••.••.•.•...•.••••..••••.•.•....••.•.•••.....•• :.•...•.•..•• 3.1 3.8. SCRUBBERS(SEPARATORS OR WET COLLECTORS) ••••••••••• 3.35

3.1.1. Concepts of Air Pollution Control 3.1 3.8.1. Inertial Separators 3.35
3.8.2. Wet Scrubbers 3.36
3.1.2. Objective of Air Pollution Control.. 3.2
3.9. ELECTRO-STATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)•••••••••••.••..•••...•••.••••.••• 3.43

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3.1.3. Factors Affect.ing the Selection of Control Equipment 3.2
3.9.1. Working of Electro-Static Precipitators 3.44
3.1.4. Self -Cleansing Properties of the Environment 3.5
3.9.2. Classification of ESP 3.46
3.2. AIR POLLUTANTS CONTROL ••••••••••••.•••.•..•.•••••••••••••.•••••..••.•....•.•.••.• 3.8
3.9.3. Design and Performance of Electro-Static Precipitator. 3.49
3.2. l. Types cf Emissions 3.9
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3.9.4. Advantages of ESP 3.50
3.3. METHODS FOR CONTROLLING POLLUTION ••.•.••••••••••••••.••.• ~ •. 3.10
3.9.5. Disadvantages of ESP 3.51
3.3.1. Controlling Air Pollution at Sources 3.10
3.9.6. Industrial Applications of EH?s 3.51
3.3.2. Controlting of Air Pollution by Installing Equipments .. 3.13
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS---·························- 3.53
3.3.3. Control cf~articulate Pollutants in Industries 3.14
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REVIEW QUESTIONS················-·········-···--·---·--························· 3.58

3.4. GRAVITY SEPARATORS OR GRAVITATIONAL SETTLING
CHAMBER •••••••••••••••.••••••• ·-········-······~-··························-·············· 3.16
3.4.2. Working : 3.16 UNIT 4 CONTROL OF GASEOUS
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3.4.3. De.sign 2.U(l Performance equations of Gravity CONTAMINANTS ..........•.••••..•.••...•.

4.1 -- 4.60
Separators , 3.17
4.1. CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS~ - ••••••••••••••••• 4.l
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3A..4. Advantages and Disadvantages , 3.22

3.5. CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS-----···-·-·---···········- 3.23

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:· . . . . . -.- • / _ . 'Contents
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4.1.L-- Introduction-··········':·············'_.················-,··············--····:····· 4.1
4.8.3. Difference between Bio Filtration, Chemical -Oxidation and
4.2. ABSORPTION .:: •..•••.•.••••••.•....•.••.••.••.•.•...••.•.••.•••••.•••••••••••...•••••.•.•.••••••• 4.2
Thermal Processes···············-·······-··-···-··-························· 4.48
4.2. L Efficiency of Absorption Units 4.3

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4.8.4. Types of Bio-Filters 4.49
4.2.2. Absorption Units 4.3
4.8.5. Factors considering filter material ; 4.50
4.3. ADSORPTION .•.....•..••.•.•.....•....•..•.••.•....•.•...~·········-······················-·········4.8

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4.8.6. Filtration Process c •••••••••• 4.51
4.3.L Factors Affecting Adsorption Process: 4..9-
4.8.7. Design - 4.53
4.3.2. Adsorbent: .. : 4.10
4.8.8. Advantages of Biofiltration 4.54

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4.3.3. Adsorption Equipment : ~·-········-···_4.13
4.8.9. Disadvantages ofBiofiltration . 4.55
4.3.4. · ·
Applications ---:-, ' E qurpmen
of Adsorption · t 4 · 16
nvo MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ·--·-··························4.56
4.3.5. Design of Adsorption Process·············~···························· 4.18 REVIEWQUESTIONS •.••..•.•.••• ,, .••....•.....•••••••••....•... :.--::-····························· 4.59

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4.4. CONDENSATION .:: •••.•••.••••.•••••••••••••.• 4.20
4.5. COMBUSTION OR INCINERATION UNITS •••.••.•••.•••••••...••..••.•••• 4.23 UNIT 5 INDOOR .l\llR QUALITY
4.6. PROCESSCONTROL - CONTROL OF POLLUTANTS ••.••.••••.• 4.27 MANAGEMENT ......................•....... 5.1 - 5.70
4.6. L Control of Nitrogen oxides 4.27
S.:L. INDO•ORAIR POLILUTl()N .••......•..•••••.....•.. - 5.1

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4.6.2. Control of Oxides of Sulphur (Sox).....•............................ 4.34
5. 1. L Causes of In do-or A.ir Pollution 5.1
4.6.3. Control ofVOC and Hydrocarbons 4.37
5. 1.2. Types of Indoor Air Pollutants 5.4
4.7. BIO-SCRUBBERS 4.40
5.1.3. Factors Influencing Indoor Air Quality (Indoor Air
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4.7.L Introduction 4.40
Pollution) ·'········ 5.6
4.7.2. Bio-Scrubbers - Working 4.42
5. 1.4. Control of Indoor Air Pollutants 5.8
4.7.3. Design and Efficiency : 4.42
5.2. SICK BUILDING SYNDROME (SBS)•••••.••.•.•••- ..-.-- ••;••••••••.•••••.•••. 5.12
4.7.4. Restrictions to use Bio-Scrubbers 4.43
5.2.L Building Related Diseases 5.12
4.7.5. Waste Products from Bio-Scrubbers 4.44
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5.2.2. Difference between SBS and Building-Related Illness .. 5.12

4.7.6. Advantages 4.44
5.2.3. Symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome 5.13
4.7.7. Disadvantages ...•............................................................... 4.44-
5.2.4. Prevention and Control Measures of Sick Building
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4.7.8. Applications - 4.45 Syndrome ..........................................................•........................... 5.14

4.8. BIO-Fl LTRA TION ······-······-··········-·····-···-···················-············-·· 4.45 5.3.. NOISE POLLUTION ~ -·-··--·-·········- 5.15
4.8.1. Introduction 4.45
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5.3.L Types of Noise Pollution : 5.16

4.8;2. Components of a Bio-filter Unit 4.46
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5.3.2, Terms ~sed iii. N6ise Pollution ~.~--~--~: .. : .. :.: -5. i 7
5.4. TYPES OF NOISES AND EFFECTS - .•............ ~.2J.
5.4.1. Sources of Noise and Noise Levels ; 5.22

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5.4.2. Effects of Noise or Noise Pollution 5.26
5.5.' MEASUREMENTSOF SOUND ••...••..................••......• ·--················ 5.29

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5.5.1. Measurement of Sound - 5.30

"5.5.2. Objective of Noise Measurements·····························'····· 5.30

5.5.3. Instruments used for noise measurements 5.31

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5.5.4. Noise Assessment and Evaluation - Noise Study 5.31

5.5.5. Noise Rating System 5.34

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5.5.6. Sound Level Meter······························-··· ..········'··· 5.37
5.6. ACCEPTABLENOISE STANDARDS..•...·-·················-··-··········5.43
INTRODUCTION
5.7. NOISE CONTROL METHODS ·--··-········ 5.44
Structure and composition of Atmosphere
5.7.1. Control at Source : 5.45 Definition, Scope and Scales of Air Pollution

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5. 7 .2. Noise Control in the Transmission Path 5.50 Sources and classification of air pollutants and their
5.7.3. Control by Protecting Equipment 5.55
effect on human health, vegetation, animals,
property, aesthetic value and visibility - Ambient
5.8. DIFFERENCESBETWEENAIR POLLUTIONAND NOISE
Air Quality and Emission standards - Ambient and
POLLUTION-·-···--······························-···················---····-····· 5.5 7
stack sampling and Analysis of Particulate and
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5.9. NOISE CONTROL LEGISLATION.••.•.••..•• ·-···-····--·---········· 5.58 Gaseous Pollutants.
TillJOMARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS·-··········-····---········5.60
Rr:v;r::..v QUESTIONS ~ ·---··········· 5.66
MODELQUESTION PAPERS ·························-·-·········-····MQ.l - MQ.11
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INOEX - •••••••• 1.1 - 1.6

P.EFERENCES _.···············-·····---"···-··········-·
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INTRODUCTION -.
l.L INTRODUCTION

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The clean air is very essential for human life and human
health. It should be free from pollutants in any form. The
pollutants may be in the form of solid, liquid or gaseous

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form. Any considerable change in the composition of air may

affect the living system of the humans.
Air Pollution is defined as the pollution in the

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atmospheric air, due to the presence of solid, liquid,· or
gaseous material and causes the problems to humans, living
systems, plants etc.
A Pollutant is defined as a material (or substance) which
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creates the air pollution and jn the form of liquid, gaseous or
solid. Generally, any pollutant, solid, liquid or gaseous.
material affects the atmospheric air considerably and creates
· harmful effects on the environment.
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1.2. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere of earth is a layer of gases, surrounding

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the planet Earth, which is retained by gravitational force of

the earth. It extends to about 5 00 km from the Earth's
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surface.
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, I.'ntroduction
Air
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Pollution.
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, .' Gen~rally~ the air contains 78.09% Nitrogen, 20.95%
"Oxygen, 0.93% Argon, 0.039% Carbon-di-oxide and fewer
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The study of Earth's atmosphere and the process

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is called Aerology or Atmospheric Science.

1.2.1. Structure of Atmosphere ·

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Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers.
From the lowest to highest, these layers are,
L Troposphere (0 to 12 km)

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2. Stratosphere(12 to 50 km)
3. Mesosphere (50 to 80 km)
4. Thermosphere (80 to 500 km)

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5. Exosphere (above 500 km)
1. Troposphere
Troposphere is the nearest gaseous layer and the lowest
layer of the atmospheric Earth, extending from the Earth's ap111111v -------
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surface up to an average distance of about 12 km.: This Fig. I.I. Structure of the Atmosphere
altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30000 ft) at the
Most of the water vapour, clouds and storms of the
poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at equator, with some variations
atmosphere exist in this troposphere. Tropopause is the top
due to weather.
level of the troposphere (figure 1.1).
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Solar radiation is the main heat source and it is absorbed at Approximately,80% of the mass of the earth's atmosphere
the ground level and hence, the temperature deer.eases with is only troposphere. It is the denser layer than all other layers,
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increase in height of the troposphere. because larger atmospheric weights acts on the top of the
The rate at which the temperature decreases with the troposphere and make it to be most severely compressed.
increase in height is called Lapse Rate, and which is about 50% of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the
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s ·cfkm.
0 lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
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1.4 -- li1ttod1iction:
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Thermosphere and below the mesosphere extending to ~O km. Stratopause
100 {SP) is the top level of the stratosphere.
The temperature increases graduallyfrom about - 80°C to

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9J Mesopause --
0°C between the Tropopause (TP) to Stratopause (SP). The
80 increase: in temperature is due to the absorption of Ultra-

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Violet Radiation from the sun by oxygen and ozone, which
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~ . restricts turbulence and mixing. There is very little water
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50 Ozone layer is the layer in the stratosphere which exists
E between 20 km 40 km above the earth's surface. Hence
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stratosphere is sometimes refen-edas ozonosphere.
30 Stratosphere
!ozone layer protects all Ultra-Violet Radiation
20 ~,m the Sun.
90% Below
10 The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere

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Troposphere
0 (Stratopause) is ~pproximately equal to 10100 times the
- 80 -60 . 40 -20 0 20
Temperature (°C) pressure at the sea level.
The stratosphere is almost completely free from clouds
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Fig. 1.2. Temperature Variation with Height
and ,_.~her forms of weather. However,Polar stratospheric or
Troposphere is primarily consists of 70% of Nitrogen and
Nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower parts of
21 % of Oxygen with only small concentrations of other
the stratosphere, where the air is cold. This is the highest
gases.
layer that a .Iet-Power ed Aircraft can be accessed.
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Most conventional aviation activity takes place in

3. Mesosphere
the troposphere and it is the only layer that can be
The Mesosphere ts the third layer from the Earth's
accessed by Propeller-Driven Aircraft.
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surface, extending from stratosphereof about 50 km to 80 km

2. Stratosphere. from the ground surface. It is the coolest place of the earth's
The Stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere and has an average temperatureof about -85°C.
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atmosphere, just above the troposphere (Tropopause - TP)

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1.6 • f.ntrodu_ction . ". .
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The top level of the: mesosphere is called Mesopause Dependingupon the degree of ionization, the ionosphereis
(MP) and just below the mesopause, the air is highly cold. differentiatedas follows.
Within the mesosphere, the temperature decreases with 1. D - Region Ionosphere (80 to 95 km altitude)

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increasing altitude. This is due to the increasingcooling by - Region Ionosphere (95 to 140 km altitude)
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C02 relative emission and due to decreasingsolar heating.
3. F1 - Region Ionosphere (145 to 305 km altitude)

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The mesosphere lies above the maximum altitude for
4. F·2 ~ Region Ionosphere (305 to 480 km altitude)
. aircraft and below the minimum altitude for orbital
This atmospheric layer undergoes a gradual increase in
spacecraft. It has been only accessed through the use of

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temperature with height. The temperature of this layer can
sounding rockets. As a result, it is the most poorly
rise as high as 1500° C. This layer is completely cloudless
understoodpart of the atmosphere.
and free from water vapour.
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Thi: stratosphere, mesosphere and the lowest part
The International Space Station, orbits in this
of the atmosphere is collectively referred as
layer between 320 and 380 km altitude from the
'Middle Atmosphere', which has the altitudes
earth's surface.
approximately from 10 km to 100 km above the
earth's surface. 5. Exosphere

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The outermost layer (or region) of the atmosphere,beyond
4. Thermosphere the height of 500 km and above is called Exosphere. It is a
Thermosphere is the zone above the mesopause, and it low density, high temperature region with minimum atomic
extends that an altitude of about 80 km up to 500 km of the collisions. The exosphere merges with the emptinessof outer
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space, where there is no atmosphere.
Thermopause. The height of the thermopause varies
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities
considerably due to the· changes in solar activity. The
of H2, He and other heavier molecules such as N2, 02 and
therrnopauselies at the lower boundary of the exosphere and
C02 closer to the exobase. The exosphere is located too far
it is also called as Exobase.
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above the Earth, for any meteorological factor to be possible.

The lower part of the thermosphere (from 80 to 480 km Most of the satellites, orbiting the earth are located in the
above the earth's surface) contains many ions and free exosphere.
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electrons. Cosmic rays and radiations from the sun produce

i.2.2. Other layers
the ions and this part of the thermosphere is called as
Within the primary layers, which are . differentiated by
ionosphere.
temperature, several secondary layers are also distinguished
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by other properties,and as follows. .

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·. 1ntr:oductiqn : .· - -.~~ ·:: :· 1 :9 ;; -y;,
·. - -

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L ·02:011~ i:~y~r 3 .. Magnetosphere
2. Ionosphere The ionosphere forms the mner edge of the
3. Magnetosphere magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it

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influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth.
4. Homosphere and Heterosphere etc.
4. Homosphere and Heterosphere
·s.

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Planetary Boundary Layer
The homosphere and heternsphcre are defined by
1. Ozone layer
whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface
• Ozone layer exists within the stratosphere. In this layer, based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, ·

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the concentrations of ozone is about 2ppm to 8 ppm, which is mesosphere;. and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where
little higher than in the lower atmosphere. However, it is very the chemical composition of the atmosphere does riot depend
small, when compared to the atmosphere. It is located in the

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lower portion of the stratosphere from about 20 km to 40 km
above the Earth's surface. The thickness ozone layer varies
seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in the
atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
on molecular weight because the gases are 'mixed by
turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the
rur'bopause which is found at about 100 km, which places it
about 20 km above the rnesopause.

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2. Ionosphere
Ionosphere is a region of the atni.osphere that is ionized
by solar radiation. During daytime, it stretches from 50 to
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1,000 km and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere and
parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the
mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are
normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere.
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Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes
the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. · Here, the
chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the
distance that particles can move without colliding with one
another is large compared with the size of motions that cause
mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight,
with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen. present
only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of

the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen,

An aurora is a natural light display in the sky,
the lightest element.
especially in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic)
5. Planetary boundary layer
regions, caused by the collision of solar wind and
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magnetosphere charged particles with the high altitude The planetary boundary layer is the part of the
atmosphere. troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and· is directly
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affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the

 J.10
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". .: .' . _ -. · '.
.. :· · .... :.- ..
.

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. '

. . day the planetary . boundary . layer usually is well-mixed,

Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of
whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or.....
the atmosphere. These particles are found in the form of sand,
intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary . boundary
smoke-soot, oceanic salt, ash, pollen, etc.

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layer ranges from as little as about I 00 meters on clear, calm
Table 1.1. Composition of.Air
nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

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I_.~.3.El_e.ments of Atmosphere
Concentration Concentration
SI.
Gas in ppm by of%by
The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are No·
Volume · - Volume
Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Argon. Water vapor accounts for

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78.09 ±
1. Nitrogen (N2) 280000
approximately 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The 0.004
concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies 20.946±
2. Oxygen (02) 209500
significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the eoldest - 0.002

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portions of the atmosphere. In order to know the air pollution 0.934±
3. Argon (Ar) 9300
and its control, it is very important to know the composition O.OOI
ofthe atmosphere, and it is given in Table I. I. Carbon-Di- 0.033 ±
4. 320
Oxide (C02) O.OOI

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The composition of the atmosphere is not static
and it changes according to the time and place, 5. Neon(Ne) 18 0.0018
Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases m the 6. Helium (He) 5.2
atmosphere and 99 percentage of the atmosphere is made up 7. Methane (CH4) 1.5
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of these two gases. 8. Krypton (Kr) LO
Gases form of water present in the atmosphere is called 9. Hydrogen 0.5
water vapour and it is ·the source of all kinds of 10. N20 o.2
precipitation. The amount of water vapour decreases with
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Carbon
altitude. It also decreases from the equator (or from the low 11. Monoxide 0.1
latitudes) towards the poles (or towards the high latitudes). (CO)
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Carbon dioxide (and water vapour) is found only up to 90 km 12. Xenon(Xe) 0.08
from the surface of the earth. 13. Ozone 0.02
14. N02 0.001
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15. NH3 0.006

 www.rejinpaul.com
:~ .'. . : . ... ·:: .·'.·;

. ··: 1.13

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The sun radiates its energy in all directions into - The AQI ·measures five criteria air pollutants (Particulate-
space in short wavelengths, which is known as Matter, Sulphur Di-Oxide, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Di-

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Solar Radiarion. Oxide and Ozone), and converts the measured pollutant
concentrations in a community's air to a number on a scale of
The energy received by the earth's surface in· the

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Oto 500.
form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar
The intervals on the AQI scale relate to the potential
"Radiation or Insolation.
health effects of the daily concentrations of each of these five

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1.3. AIR POLLUTION pollutants. The most important number on this scale is 100,
since this number corresponds to the National Ambient Air.
Afr pollution is one of the important pollution amongst Quality Standard established under the Clean Air Act, 19.70.
the environmental pollution. The air should be fresh and

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d - 1. AQI levelin excess of 100 means that a pollutant is in
clean.
the unhealthful range on a given day
Air pollution impairs health, reduces visibility, creates
2. AQI level at or below 100 means that a pollutant
death, brings about huge economic losses and contributes to reading is in the satisfactory range.
the general deterioration. Hence the study of air pollution is
The following table 1.2 was constructed by the EPA to

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very important. The study of air pollution helps to understand
identify the health effects associated with different levels of
the sources; effects and control of air pollution. air pollution, along with the cautionary statements that would
1.3.1. Scales of Air Pollution be appropriate if air pollution in a community were to fall
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· Air Quality Index (AQI), (or Pollutant Standards Index into one of the "unh~althful" categories on the AQI scale.

(PSI)), is a uniform system developed by United States - Table 1.2. AQI scale andGeneralHealth Effects
EPA, to enable the public to determine whether air quality
·General Health Effo cts and Cautionary Statements
levels m a particular location are good, moderate,
I
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unhealthful, -or worse. Index AQI Ge neral Health Cautionary

Value Descriptor Effects Statements
The AQI is used as an information tool to advise the
Upto N on e for the
public. It is often presented along with the weather report in Good None required.
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50 ge ne ral population.
· local newspapers. The AQI describes the general health
Fe 'V or none for
effects associated with different pollution levels, as well as Moderate r th eg eneral None required.
0
I
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necessary precautionary steps may need to be taken if air po pulation.

~
pollution levels rise into the unhealthful range.
 www.rejinpaul.com

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1.14_ -- 1.15
... , ·' .. .·.··-.:
. :··.'; .. ' - < [Ytiroducti~n - - -
: . ·. --- .
Persons with - At AQI levels general
.
. existing heart or above 400, population
.

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respiratory- premature death of should avoid
Mild aggravation outdoor activity.
ailments should - ill and elderly
of symptoms All people
reduce physical persons may

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among susceptible should remain
100 to exertion and result. Healthy
Unhealthful people, with indoors, keeping -
200 outdoor activity. people experience
irritation windows and
General adverse symptoms
symptoms in the

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population that affect normal doors closed,
healthy population. and minimize
should reduce activity.
vigorous physical
outdoor activity. exertion.

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-
-
Elderly and
L4. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION -
Significant persons with
aggravation of existing heart or The sources of air pollution can be classified as,
symptoms and lung disease

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decreased exercise should stay 1. Natural Sources
200to Severe tolerance in indoors and 2. - Man-Made Sources
300 Unhealthful persons with heart reduce physical
or lurtg disease; activity. General 1.4.1. Natural Sources
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widespread population The lower atmosphere of the earth extends to about 13 km
symptoms in the should avoid above the earth's surface. In the lower atmosphere, water
healthy population. vigorous vapour and other variable gaseous materials of natural origin
outdoor activity.
pollute the atmosphere. Various natural sources of air
Early onset of Elderly and
pollution are listed below.
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certain diseases in persons with

addition to existing diseases 1. N02 from electrical storms
significant should stay 2. HF and HCl from volcanoes
Over
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Hazardous aggravation of indoors and

300 3. H2S, S02 from volcanoes
symptoms and avoid physical
decreased exercise exertion. At 4. Dust and aerosols consist of salts from sea water.
AQI levels
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tolerance in 5. Air borne particles from soil and vegetation.

healthy persons. above 400,
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. introduction 1.17

The above natural air pollutants pollute atmosphericair in The above factors are listed below.
greater level and they are caused due to .the volcanic action,
L Burning of fossil fuels

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smoke of forest fires, mineral particles from erosion of rock
surfaces and have particles from vegetation. 2.. Burning of forests to clear the land

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In the lower atmosphere, natural chemical reactions take 3. .
Industrial activities etc.
. .
place which converts gases or vapours into solids and liquids
by oxidation, combustion and condensation or polymerization 1.4.3. CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

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mechanism. Following are the important causes of air pollution.·
In the upper atmosphere, photo chemical reactions may
l. Population
break down more complex molecules by absorption of high

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Fuel consumption has been increased due to the high
energy ultra-violet solar radiation and resultant oxidation,
increase in population rate, and hence the air gets polluted.
atomic and free radial chain reactions. Most of the Hydrogen
Sulphide (H2S) liberated to the atmosphere comes from 2. Industrial Development
natural sources, which is an estimated about 300 million tons Rapid industrial development is one of the major causesof

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per year. air pollution. The smokes from factories, furnaces, steam
engines etc. are some of the common sources of air pollution.
Carbon-di-oxide (C02) gas is released by all
forms of life during respiration and is assimilated 3. Radio-active materfals
Following are the important and dangerous source~from
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by green plants in photosynthesis.
radio-active materials.
Oxides of nitrogen which are discharged to the
1. Discharges (or leakages) from nuclear reactor.
atmosphere from the combustion of fuels and industrial
process are high reactive chemically and form products. that 2. Evolution of radio-active gases
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have relatively short life. 3. Suspended radio-active dusts from atomic

explosions.
1.4.2. Man Made Sources
4. Natural Causes
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. The important sources of air pollution are the combustion

Some of the natural causes such as grand dust, vegetation,
products of fuels such as gases, coals and exhaust gases from
cosmic dust, H2S evolution and salt sprays from seas, cause
vehicles. Due to industrial activities, the air gets highly
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the air pollution.

polluted.
 www.rejinpaul.comLl9.
JntroductiOn

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.·. >AirhiUutio/1a11d Contr6!Engin'ei!ring'
the global air poU~ion.
5. Increase in transport facilities
Air pollution 1. Oxides of Sulphur (S02 etc.)
Rapid increase in automobiles such

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created by the 2. Oxides of Carbon (CO, C02 etc.)
as cars motor-vehicles, · trains etc.
· ' · automobiles is 3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO, N02, generally NOx)
increase the air pollution. The exhaust

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called as disease 4. Volatile Organic Compounds (Generally
fumes from the automobiles cause the
of wealth. hydrocarbons)
pollution of atmospheric air in cities, . · · '------------'
5. Other Pollutants

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1.5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
(a) H2S
The air pollutants present in the atmosphere· can be
(b) H2F
classified based on the following.

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( c) Methyl and Ethyl mercaptans
1. Classification based on the origin.
II. Secondary Air Pollutants
(i) Primary Air Pollutants
Primary pollutants react with. one another or with water
(ii) Secondary Air Pollutants
vapour in the presence of sunlight forms, a new form of
2. Classification based on the chemical composition.

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pollutant, called secondary pollutants.
(i) Organic Compounds
Secondary pollutants are more harmful than the primary
(ii) In-Organic Compounds
pollutants. Various secondary pollutants are as follows.
3. · Classification based on the state of matter.
a. Sulphuric Acid (H2S04)
.re
(i) Particulate Pollutants
b. Ozone (03)
(ii) Gaseous Pollutants.
c. Formaldehydes
1.5.1. Cfassification Based on Origin d. Peroxy-Acyl-Nitrate (PAN) etc ..
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According to the origin of air pollutants, these are Sulphuric Acid (H2S04)
classified as, It is formed by the chemical reaction between H20 and
a. Primary Air Pollutants S02. It is more toxic than S02•
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b. Secondary Air pollutants

03, Formaldehydes and PAN
I. Primary Air Pollutants The above secondary pollutants are formed by the
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Pollutants, directly emitted from the identifiable sources Photo-chemical reactions, in the presence of sunlight.
are called primary air pollutants.
 www.rejinpaul.com l.21 '.
_1.20 Air Poilution and Control Engineering - .· Jntrpductio1~_ ·
"• ~-'~ . ,.·_.·

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1.6~I MPORTANAT'AIRPOLLUTANTS 6. Open burning of garbage
7. Incineration plants of municipalities.
1.6.1. Oxides of Sulphur
Limit of S02

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Sulphur-di-oxide and sulphur-tri-oxide are the pollutants
in the oxides of sulphur and S02 is the harmful one. As· per the Indian Ambient Air Quality Stand~rds, t~e
annual and 24 hours concentration of S02 for industrial

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S02 is an irritant gas and it is a major air pollutant emitted
residential, rural and other areas is given as 50 and 80 µg/m3
from various man-made sources, causes very serious effects
respectively.
on human beings.

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Methods to Measure S02
1. It increases t~e breathing rate and creates the 02
1. Modified West-Gaekes Method
deficiency in blood circulation.
2. Ultra-Violet Fluorescence Method
2. Asthma patients are affected very worst due to this

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pollutant. 1.6.2. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
3. . S02 is also responsible for causing acidity in fogs, Carbon Monoxide is a colourless, odourless and toxic
smokes and in rains and major sources of corrosion of gas, produced when the organic materials (such as coal, wood

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buildings and metallic materials. etc.) are burnt incompletely.
When S02 reacts with Oxygen, it forms Sulphur-tri-oxide. Sources of CO
This S03 may dissolve in body fluid and forms H2S04, which When these organic materials burnt completely, the carbon
is a strong and corrosive acid. present in such materials get oxidized completely a~d forms
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S03 + H20 --+ H2SO 4 carbon-di-oxide (C02) and the incomplete combustion leads
.H2S04 causes high irritation at lower concentrations and to CO.
Complete
leading to Broncho-Spasm, c + 02 C02t
Burning
Sources of S02
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Incomplete zcot
1. Refineries 2C + 02 Burnmg
2. Chemical plants Tue exhausts from the automobile vehicles are also
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3. Smelting Operations important and major sources of carbon. monoxide pollutants

4. Burning of fossil fuels in air.
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5. Thermal power plants

r.22 Air Pollution and Control Engineering Introduction
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. 1.23

'f6nils (J~ides of. Nit;o~en •· shch 'a~ No: Nb~- -~(l;·:N26:':' ·.

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generally expressed as NOx.The nitric oxide (NO) is_jl v_ery
Carbon monoxide has a greater blood-affinity property and
harmful pollutant at high concentrations and may cause
'Yhich has been affected by blood hemoglobin 200 times

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more than 02. This CO, replaces "the 02 present in the ~udden death.
hemoglobin and forms Carboxy-hemoglobin. (CO.Hb)- The nitrogen oxide again combines with atmospheric
Oxygen forms Nitrogen-di-oxide (N02). N02 is a harmful

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If the quantity of Carboxy-hemoglobin is less, it produces
gas; which irritates the human eyes and nose and. creates
the little headache, reduction in reaction time etc. on human
discomfort in respiration system.
beings.

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If the quantity of CO.Hb concentration is high, it creates Sources of NOx
difficulty in breathing, heart problems etc. Also, if 1. Automobile Exhausts
COHb.quantity is about 50% of Hg, it makes death of human

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2. Incineration Plants
.being.
3. Furnace smokes
The death due to the presence of CO.Hb in blood can be·
4. Combustion of fuel at high temperatures
easily identified by the appearance of bright pink colour in
Methods to Measure NOx
the human body.

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However, CO is not a permanent pollutant and all COs are 1. Modified Jacab and Hochheiser Method

converted into other harmless compounds, naturally. 2. Gas Phase Chemi-Luminescence Method
Limits of CO 1.6.4. Hydrocarbons (HC) and Organic Compounds
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As per the Indian Ambient Air Quality Standards, the Hydrocarbons are the group of simple compounds only
maximum allowable concentration of CO on hourly weighted consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
average basis, is given as 4 mg/rn-.
They are either evaporated from petroleum fuel supplies or
Methods to Measure the CO emitted from automobile exhausts when it has not completely
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1. Non-Dispersive Infra-red Method (NDIR Method) burnt.

2. Spectroscopy Method Methane (CH4) is an important hydrocarbon which is
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produced in nature by bacterial decomposition in swamps,

1.6.3. Nitrogen-Oxides NOx
marshes etc.
During the combustion process of fuels, atmospheric
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nitrogen combines with Oxygen at high temperatures and

 www.rejinpaul.com . l.2.5
- L24 Air Pollution and Control Engineering . Introduction.. . ·

. ~ ~·~~ai ;s~~~~~<l~d· ;:P'~rticulate Matter (TSPM) · is ·the

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·. · ·Lhnit.ofHC· -.
As per new revised Ambient Air Quality Standards of particles, which. includes both liquid and solid particles of
India, the_ maximum permissible limits on annual suspended particulate matter.

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concentrations of Benzene and Pyrene are · 5 ug/m? and Fig.1.3 shows the types of particulate materials present in
1 11g/m3 respectively. air with respect to their sizes.

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Test for Hydrocarbons (HCs) I. Sources of SPM in Air
(i) Benzene 1. By natural process such as winds, pollens and pores,
volcanic eruptions, decomposition of organic materials

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Gas Chromatography (GC) based continuous
analyzer method etc.
' .
Adsorption and Desorption followed by GC 2. By human activities such as mining, burning of fossil

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Analysis method fuels, industrial processes etc.

(ii) Pyrene · II. :Effects of SPM

Solvent extraction followed by HPLC/GC analysis Larger particles (of size more than 10µ) can be trapped by
method the hairs, present in the lining of nose and particles from 5µ

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1.6.5. Suspend~d Particulate Matter (SPM) to 1 Oµ are also trapped-by the· mucus, and they are sent back
The particulate substances present in air, may occur in by Spitting{or) Swallowing; ·
solid form (dust, smoke etc.) and liquid form (mist, fog etc.) Very finer particles less than 5µ 'size reach the lungs and
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An aerosol is d,efined as the particle, larger than a cause the following effects on human respiratory system.
molecule but small enough to remain suspended a-: · Damages the Jung tissues
in air. b. Causing diseases like Asthma, Bronchitis
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Dusts are the solid particles generated· by handling, c. Causes Cancer severely
crushing grinding of organic or inorganic materials such as
· rock, ore, metal, coal, wood, grain etc.
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A dust may be a solid-particle dispersion aerosol of any

particle size.
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 www.rejinpaul.com
1.26 "Air Pollution and Control Engineering.

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1 µ 10 µ 100 µ Smaller particles having size upto 1 Oµ in size are called
Fine Large
Ultra fine particles particles . particles
~espiratory Suspended Particulate Matters (RSPM), (or)

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1
10 µ ;MlO. Smaller particles of sizes upto 2.5µ are called PM2.5 .
. . • •
. . . .
• • • • • .••••••••• c..,· ...__,_ • ....:·c+-__._
As per the latest Ambient Air Quality Standards of

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.... ,• ..;
ndia, the maximum annual concentrations of PMlO and
· .
tija~k: Fly ash •M2.5 are given as 60 ug/m? and 40 ug/rn> respectively.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • : ~31"~(')~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
Some microscopic particulate materials, present in au,

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ause allergic reactions in, sensitive human bodies are called
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : .·....·,...:~·-: ,...·-t.· _P_ai_n_t P_ig.:..m_en_t_s,,_i----P_o:..:.11::.e:..:.ns:_--i .ller'gic agents. Sneezing is one of the symptoms of allergy
ollowed by skin troubles and Bronchitis, Asthma etc.

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: :. : : : : : : : : : : : : :9~?~ ~~~~ : :
Cement dust
~6.6. Lead
It is another important air pollutant, emitted by all
Milled flour
utomobile vehicles. As per the Indian Air Quality
aandard, the maximum of 0.5 µg/m3 is permitted as an

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...... ... nnual concentration of lead in air.
: ·: -. -. ·: •. :~m?u~ti?~:n~~i~i::: · Coal dust
.... · ..
.... . .... •
"est for Lead
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 1. ED - XRF (using Teflon filter Method
· · · · · · · · · · · ········OH Smoke
•••••••••••••••••••••••• - •...-.-·-,-. -·,.-f. ----
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2. AAS/ICP Method.
. . . . . .
. · . · . · . · . · . · : · : M~t~lt~rg(caj o:us~ and Fumes
.. 6.7. Other Important Pollutants
.........
· . · . · . · . · . · . · . · . · :P~ot9c~er}1iGaJ smog .moke
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -

It the resultant· of incomplete combustion

ts of
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Insecticide dusts
arbonaceous materials such as coal, oil, tar and tobacco .
. ·..,, .
It consists of carbon particles less than 0.1 µm in diameter.
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1 µ to µ 100 µ .moke may be condensation aerosol with solid or solid and

Particle Size
lquid particles.
Fig. 1.3. SPM in air (based on sizes)
'og
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Fog is an aerosol of liquid droplets near the grounds as

istinct from clouds.
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·.:
..
.· .. ·
· • -~ ·,rhli~d~~~km

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L29
· · · .· · Air Poilutfoiz :Z~d Control Engineering
For example, water droplets usually contain dissolved
Fumes
materialswhile solid aerosols contain absorbed gases.
Fumes are the solid · particles generated by condensation

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Smog - Smog is the mixture of smoke and fog.
from the gaseous state, _generally · after .volatilization from
molten metals etc. and. :·oft~n accompanied by a chemical. Haze - Haze is a suspension of small particles in the air

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reaction such as oxidation. Fumes are generally ·flocculating which makes distinct large objects indi_stjnct.-
particles. Smaze - Smaze is a mixture of haze and smoke.
Mists

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Radio-Activity - The nuclear disintegrations of atoms
· Mists · are suspended liquid droplets generated by undergo in giving off ionizing radiations.
condensation from the gaseous to the liquid state or solid Noise - Noise is an unwanted sound.

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state by breaking up a liquid, into a dispersed state (such as
splashing and atomizing). It may be calied as liquid particle 1.7. PHYSICAL EFFECT Of AIR POLLUTION
aerosol of any size or any origin. ·Decrease in visibility is the important and immediate
Gases effect of air pollution . The frequency of fog is increased in

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Gases are defined as the formless, less dense, floating polluted areas. The physical effects of air pollutants can be
substances occupy the space of enclosure. They can be classifiedas follows.
changed to the liquid or S?lid state only by the combined a. Effects on Visibility.
effect of increased pressure and decreased temperature. ·oases b. Effects on urban atmosphereand climatic changes
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can be diffused.
c. Effects on atmospheric constituents.
Vapours
1.'7.1.Effects on Visibility
They are the gaseous form of substances and can also be
changed to liquid or solid states either by · increasing the Visibility depends on the transmissionof light through the
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pressure and decreasing the temperature alone. atmosphere and the capacity of eye to differentiate the object.
Aerosols Visibility can be reduced due to the pollutants in air depends
on the following factors.
Aerosols are the air (or gas) suspensions of solids or liquid
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particles usually less than 50µm in diameter. Aerosols seldom L Size, concentration and· physical characteristics of
occur as a single chemical species and may be physically particulate matter
complex as well.
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2. Nature of particulate matter in ambient air

. J. Volume of air into which it gets mixed up
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-- - - -· .... ;.
: .-'.l_jq: .• · Air Pbtlutzon 'andCdiirrof Engzheeritig • · Introdu'ction , · . 1.31"

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1.7.2. Effects on Urban Atmospheric and Weather Table 1.3. Various Effects ef Air Pollution on Health
Conditions
Urban air pollution may cause due to smoke, dust and
-
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0

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Cd ~
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Q)
<+-<
0
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cro :.0 Q)

other aerosols. Due to air pollution the solar radiation is <:!) ro es ..c
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Q)
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reduced by 3.6%. c
ro E "' -0 -0 ..?;>
::::::: ..... :..a...... .2
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SJ.No Air Pollutant Properties Important Sources
. ·H.
Effects on human health·
3. Nitrogen oxides 1. Reddish Brown 1. Thermal power I. Formation of Ozone
(Nox) (NO etc) gas stations.
2. N02 creates the irritation in
2. Highly Reactive 2. Combustion of ' nose and lungs.
fuels at high
3. Increases the possbility for

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temperature.
. viral attacks.
4. Carbon-Dioxide Colour less gas Combustion of coal, 1. Climatic changes
C02 diesel and petrol. ~··
2. Global wanting ·::;· ... ·

3. Green house effect

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1. Solid particles 1. Smoker from 1. Breathing effects
.
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Particulate Matter (Dust, Smoke,

Varous agencies 2. Cardio- Vascular diseases.
s
Fumes, Etc) ~'·.·
2. Burning of garbage 3. Lung diseases. ;:i.:

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2. Liquid Particles
(Mist and Fog) 3. Other burnings. 4. Affects the elderly people ·tl-J .
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Air Pollutant Properties
I 1. Colourless
Important Sources Effects on human health
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6. Head · 1. Leaded -petrol in I 1, Mental retaroanon

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(Heavy Metal) I vapour automobiles.

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• 1 2. Behavioural disorders
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2. Consumed with 3. lncreases blood pressure

the food, water, I
4. Heart diseases
I soil or dust. , .
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L Secondary pollutant •. t<,e uces '"'"o """'"••vu
I 7. I Ozone (O,) 1 Colour less gas I produced by photo 2. Creates cough sneezing,
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chemical pollution chest pain

3. Affects respiratory system
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8. Nuclear Wastes I Invisible Radio- I 1. Nuclear Weapon 1. Cancer

active emissions. Testing
2. Nuclear power 2. Mutations, deaths.
plants

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l.S.2. Effects of Air-Poll~tion on Plants

b. •· Lack ofapp~tite .
c. General ill-health
The "important effect polfutant c~use·s severe effect on
d. Reduced fertility

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plant is fluorine. Fluorihe is : mixed with air from .the
following ways. e. Growth reduction etc.
2. Arsenic creates Arsenic poisoning on animals with

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I. . Manufacturing process of Aluminium, Glass and
effective symptoms of thirst, vomiting uneasiness,
Phosphate fertilizers
irregular pulse and irregular respiration. ·
2. Clay baking operations

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3. Lead is a major air pollutant, creates harmful effect on
Effects
animals, which are emitted from coal based industries
I. Concentration of fluorine in excess of about 0.3 µg/m3 (such as smelters) coke ovens etc. It creates Lead .

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cause photo-toxicological effect on plants. Poisoning on animals. ·-
2. Reduces the yield of a crop (or Plant). The various symptoms of lead poisoning on animals are,
3. Reduces the photo-synthesis of plants. a. . Inability to stand and staggering
4. Reduces the quantities and nutrients present in the b. Prostration

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vegetables, fruit etc. c. Paralysis of digestive tract
5. Creates very harmful effect on animals and human d. Diarrhoea
health, using the affected plants.
1.8.4. Effects of Air-Pollution on Materials and
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1.8.3. Effects of Air Pollution on Animals Services

When animals eat the air polluted plants, grasses. and other Air pollution affects various materials and services in the
vegetation, it will be highly affected. The · important following ways.
pollutants affect the animals are, a. Corrosion
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a. Fluorine b. Chemicals attack (direct and indirect)

b. Arsenic c. Abrasion
c. Lead
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d. Deposition and removal

The above pollutants affect the animals either from the In urban areas, air pollution cm~sessevere economic losses
industries situated nearby (or) from dusting and spraying. by wastage of materials. The atmospheric deterioration of
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I. The fluorine affects the animals in the following ways

a. Reduced milkproduction
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air movement. - Materials Effects
No Pollutant F actors
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The following table 1.4 shows the effects of air pollution

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on various materials.
S02, Acids sun light Paper Embrittlement
6.

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Table .l.4. Effects of Air Pollution on Materials and gases a·nd
rrlOI sture
SI. Air Other
Materials Effects
No Pollutant Factors I.8.5. Effects of Air Pollution on Aquatic Life

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Atmospheric gas pollutants such as Carbon-Monoxide
S02, Acids With Building Colour (CO), Carbon-di-Oxide (C02), Sulphur Oxides (like S02) and
1.
and gases moisture Materials deformation

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~ Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) react with rain and forms acidic-rain
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S02, Acids moisture Building surface life (especially fishes) in the water bodies.
2.
and gases and Materials 2. Losses of 1.8.6. Economic Effect of Air Pollution

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temperature metal Various economic effects of air pollution are enlisted
Sulphur 1. Reduction in below.
With
,., Oxides, tensile 1. Wastage of fuel through improper combustion m
-'· moisture Textiles
acids, strength
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and sunlight automobiles.
gases 2 Vegetation and planting are also damaged due to
i. Reduction in various pollutants such as smog, dust etc. and hence
With
4. Oxidants Rubber tensile the economic development of a country also get
sunlight
strength reduced,
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·With 1. Cracking 3. Air pollutants cause the non-repairable damages to the

Sunlight 2. Colour art-treasures of a country. TajMahal, the Colosseum
sol> H2s
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5. and Paints Deformation in Rome, the San Marco Basilica in Venice have
and SPM
moisture, . shown signs of decay and deterioration due to the
furnrus sev•ereeffect of air pollution.
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i.8.7. ·Effects ~fNuclear Pow~r Reacto~s
air pollution. The low-power electricalconduits (such Nuclear reactors do not produce air pollution or carborr
as microamperes, milli-volts .used) in electrical dioxide while operating. However, the processes for mining

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devices are sensitive with air pollution, developing and refining Uranium ore and making reactor fuel all require
thin insulating film resulting in open circuits and large amounts of energy. Nuclear power plants also have

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malfunctioning of the equipment. large amounts of metal and concrete, which require large
. .
5. Paper industry is also affected by air pollution amounts of energy to manufacture. If fossil fuels are used for
problems. Books and writing paper become brittle and
I mining and refining uranium ore, or if fossil fuels are used

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difficult to fold, when 2 to 9 ppm _concentrationof when constructing the nuclear power plant, then the
S02 acts for a period of 10 days. I· emissions from burning those fuels could be associatedwith
6. Clothes, curtains and other textile materials '?Te highly the electricity that nuclear power plants generate.. -

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spoiled due to smoke, dust and sulphuric acid-mist. Generally, Nuclear Wastes from Radio-active emissions
These increase the additional ~ost on laundry and dry may create cancer in humans and sometimes mutationsand
cleaning. deaths also, during Nuclear Weapon Testing and Nuclear
· 7. Additional lighting is required to improve the power plants operations. However Nuclear Plants are

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visibility, where the poor visibility created by smog. operated in a controlled manner and hence the possibilityof
8. Glass materials and ceramic materials are highly health hazards can be avoided.
affected due to air pollution, when they are exposed to 1.8.8. Global Environmental Issues - Effects of Air
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atmosphere and moisture, and produce surface Pollution
degradation.
Following are the three major environment issues by
9. Effect of buildings and building components due to various air pollutants.
the air pollution is an important aspect because the
Air pollution is an international issue because the pollutant
buildings and constructions are the big economical
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created in a location affects not only the places nearby, but

flow of a country. Increased cost for repairing and
repainting for walls is the worst effect of air pollution also affects the entire environment throughout the world.
on buildings 1. Acid Rains
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10. Leather industries and rubber tyred wheels are get 2. Ozone Depletion (and Ozone Hole).
cracked because of the continued contact the 3. Global Warming
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atmospheric pollutants.
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Acid rain is-defined as the rain having pH value equal to
or less than 5.6, having harmful effects on humans, animals,
plants, aquatics and infrastructures.
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The other (but very little) pollutant which causes ~cid rain
is HCl. Emissions from the industries may- contain HCl,
which causes acidity to. the rain, but this 'is very little when
comparing with other pollutants.

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Generally the normal, clean rain fall having a pH value of Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts
including heart and lung problems, ·Asthma and

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about 6.9 (little acidic), when the atmosphere is free. This
little acidic is due to the presence of natural carbon-di-o~ide Bronchitis. It also affects forests, freshwaters, aquatic.
and Nitrogen oxides, which are the acid forming gases. animals and soils.

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When the concentration of SOx, NOx and C02 increases IL Ozone Depletion
in the atmosphere, the rain water.· become more acidic . , The reduction of thickness of Ozone layer due to the
attack of chemical pollutants is called Ozone Layer
sometimes it may even be less than pH <if 5 or 4. The a~iditv - -

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in the rain water is formed due to the chemical formation ~f Depletion.
Nitric Acids (HN03), Sulphuric Acids (H2.S04) and Ozone is formed from the molecular and atomic oxygen,
Sulphurous Acids (H2S02) from the oxides of Nitrogen and as follows, ~
Sulphur. 02 :;::---""' 0 + 0 (Atomi~ Oxygen)

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The primary pollutant which causes 2/3 of the acid rain is 02 + 0 :;:::---""' 02 (Ozone)
_ S02. S02 is produced by the burning of coals and oils largely
used· for generation of heat and power in industries and
domestic uses. Also, S02 is 'emitted from the large usage of The ulltra- violet radiations are highly harmful to all kinds
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petrol and diesel in automobiles. of life on Earth. If the UV rays are not filtered by the ozone
802 +OH ~ HOS02 layer, it creates several impacts on humans, animals and
HOS02+02 ~ plants on the planet Earth. The highest problem due to the
S02 + H20 UV radiation is to cause mutation in DNA, forming skin
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cancers, including deadlyMelanoma.
Nitrogen oxides like N02, N03 and N202 are other
important pollutant which causes 1/3 of the total acidic rain A 10% overall depletion of ozone is estimated to cause
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NOx are generally produced from emissions of automobiles 26% increase in the non-melanoma skin cancers,
. '
nitrogenous fertilizers, forest fires, grass lands etc. throughout the world.
N02 + OH ~ HN02
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 1.42
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_ Air
. P9llutionc:z_nd
. . -·· . . ...
Control.Engineeriny.
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The climate of the earth is mostly influenced by the first.;
Following are the reasons for·ozone · 1ayer depletion in the
stratosphere. 1 O to 12 km from the earth surface. If the earth is viewed
from the space, the climate layer of the atmosphere would be

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a. Use of Chloro-FluroCarbons (CFCs)
a thin layer as thick as the skin on an onion.
b. Nuclear Tests

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During the past few years, Earth's climate has been
c. Supersonic Transport,Rockets and space shuttles changed to be getting hotter and hotter, year after year.
d. Nitrogenous fertilizers Green House Gases in. the troposphere layer of the

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Ozone Hole is defined as the ozone depletion and in
which the thickness of the ozone layer at the Stratosphere is
less than 150 DU, (Dobson Unit) represent the shortage of
atmosphere act like the glass of a green house, trapping som~
of the heat, as it radiates back from the Earth into the space.
Earth is surrounded by a gaseous cover and the

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ozone and permits the UV radiation may enler to atmosphere
atmosphere provides oxygen to the living, maintains the heat
and reach the earth through these regions.
balance of the earth and protects the livings from the harmful
I 1 DU=0.01 mm I radiations. Low length radiation coming from sun is reflected
The maximum area covered by the ozone hole was found back in the form of IR long reflected, but part of- it is

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to be about 30 million km2 occurred at September 2000. intercepted by gases in the atmosphere and in turn provides
The ultra- Violet radiationsare highly harmful to all kinds heat on Earth to keep it.warm.
of life on Earth. If the UV rays are not filtered by the ozone · Green-house gases act like a glass in the green house
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layer, it creates several impacts on humans, animals and . trapping some of the heat as it radiates back from the Earth to
plants on the planet Earth. The highest problem due to the the atmosphere.
·UV radiation is to cause mutation in DNA, forming skin
The gases, which ·cause global warming (or climatic
cancers, including deadly Melanoma.
changes) by green-house effect, are called Green House
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III. Global Warming Gases.

Global warming is the increase of Earth's average surface I. Carbon-di-oxide (C02)
temperature, due to the effect of green-house gases (such as
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2. Methane (CI4)
C02) emissions from burning of fossil fuels or from
3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
deforestation. Global warming is the type of greenhouse
effect. 4. Chloro-Fluro Carbons (CFCs)
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5. Ozone (03) 1 .. 9.1. Objectives of Air Quality Standards -

6. Water Vapours Following are the objectives of air quality standards. Air

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quality standards are necessary to,
The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that increases
the temperature of the Earth's surface, which is caused by . ./ Assess current or historical air quality

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conversion of solar radiation into heat. ./ Guide decisions on the permitting of new or modified
When the heat energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, facilities
some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed ./ Guide decisions on episode management, such as air

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and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. It is the process by quality advisories
which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the earth's ./ Develop long-term air-management strategies and

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surface to a temperature above whfit it would be without its evaluate progress, and
atmosphere. ./ Aid regulatory development.
Greenhouse effect is the increase in the Earth's average
1.9.2. Steps in Air Quality Standards
lower atmosphere temperature (near surface) due to heat
Following steps are adopted in the development of air

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retention caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases
(including water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous quality standards.
oxides and chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs). l. Prepare the air quality criteria, which indicate the
relationship between the pollutant concentrations m
1.9. AIR QUALITY STANDARDS the air and its effects on the air. This· is called as
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Air quality standards are defined as the standard limits, 'Guide'.
placed on the levels of air pollution in the ambient air, during 2. Develop the quality goals from the quality criteria,
. a given period of time. which are the concentrations of pollutants.
3. · Develop the quality standards from the air quality
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Air . quality standards define the permissible level of a

criteria.
pollutant (or type of pollutants) in the atmosphere. These are
4. In order to develop the above standards, there must be
the expressions of public policy and that the requirements for
standard for measurement and testing of the ambient
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further action.
air and air pollution effects.
Air quality standards are not only based on the. quality of Complete elimination of air pollution is not practically
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air, but also based on the· economic, social, technical and · possible and some level of pollutants may be permitted in the
political factors. atmosphere. .
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. Th~ standard about the permissible level ~fair pollutants, Table 1.5.
maintained in the atmospheric air is called 'air quality
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

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standards'.
STANDARDS (as or2009)
Air quality standards are described by, Concentration in Ambient Air

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L Ambient Air Quality Standards (Industrial, Residential, Rural
. and Other Areas)
2. Other Air Quality Standards SI. Pollutants
Time·
Pollot -
Weighted
ants

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No (In µg/m3) Time
1.9.3.Ambient Air Quality Standards Average Methods of
(In Weighted
Measurement
Ambient air quality standards are defined as the legal µg/ Average
m3)
limits, placed on the concentration of air pollutants in a

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1. Annual* 50... 20 Improved West
community, where the people and things are exposed. Sulphur
and Gaeke
Di oxide 80 80
The first ambient air _quality standards where adopted in Ultraviolet
(S02) 24 Hours**
1982 by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Fluorescence

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revised in 1994 and again in 2009. 2. Annual* 40 30 Modified Jacob &
Nitrogen Hochheiser
Various agencies responsible for air quality standards are 80 80
Dioxide (Na - Arsenite)
24 Hours
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State (N02) Chemiluminescen
**
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). ce
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All of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards 3. Particulate Annual* 60 60
Matters Gravimetric .
are functioning under the control of the Ministry of 100 100
(Size less 24 Hours TEOM
Environment and Forest (MoEF).
than IOµm) Beta attenuation
**
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The CPCB, working with the SPCBs, provides technical orPMIO

advice to MoEF, in order to achieve the objectives formed in 4. Particulate Annual* 40 40

the Air Act, 1981. SPCBs can set more standards than the Matter
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60 60 Gravimetric
existing national standards in their respective states. (Size less
TEOM
than 24 Hours
** Beta attenuation
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2.Sµm) or
.PM2.5
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06 AASIICP Method
5. 8 Hours 100 100 - UV Photometric 11. Arsenic Ann: ual * 06
after sampling on
- (As), ng/m3

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180 180 · Chemilumine- - EPM2000or
Ozone (02) * l Hour
scence equivalent filter
**
Chemical Method - paper

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6. Annual* 0.50 0.50 AAS/lCP Method AAS/ICP Method
12. Nickel (Ni), Ann ual *. 20 20
LO after sampling on after sampling on
1.0 ng/m3
. EPM2000or EPM2000 or

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Lead
24 Hours equivalent filter equivalent filter
(Pb)
** paper paper
ED-XRF using
Annual Time Weighted Average (ATA) is the

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Teflon filter *
. Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at
7. Carbon 8 Hours** 02 02 Non dispersive
a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform
Monoxide 04 04 Infrared (NDIR)
l Hour** intervals.
<CO). Soectrosconv
* * 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as

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8. Annual* 100 100 Chemilurnine-
Ammonia 400 400 scence - applicablle, shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year.
(NH3) 24 Hours
Indophenol blue 2~Yo of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two
**
method
consecutive days of monitoring.
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9. 05 05 Gas
Note: Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two
Chromatography
(GC) based
consecutive days of monitoring exceed the limits specified
continuous above for the respective category, it shall be considered
Benzene adequate reason to institute regular or continuous monitoring
Annual* analyzer
(C6H6)
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Adsorption and and further investigations.

desorption
followed by GC l.l[).4. Other Air Quality Standards
The other air quality standards are,
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analvsis

IO. Benzopyre 01 01 (a) Point of Impingement Standards

Solvent extraction
ne (BaP)
followed by ( b) Soiling Index
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Particulate Annual*
HPLC/GC
phase only, (c) Odour Standards
analysis
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·. . ·~~iiutant o~ g;eenhouse gas emissions based on.the amount of
(d) Visibility Standards
. fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry,
(e) Standards for ParticulateMatter Deposited etc.
on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar
(a) Point of Impingement Standards

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activity data.
· Point of impingement standards (or Quasi-Emission Emission standards are of two types.

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Standards) are the limits on Specific Pollutants on the
(i) Emission standards for mobile sources
al11bientair at the ground level required by the National, State
(ii) Emission standards for stationary sources
or local regulations to be used in diffusion computations to
(i) Emission Standards for Mobile Sources .

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determine the limits of emission from specific sources.
(b) Soiling Index . Mobile sources include ships, aircraft, automobile and
locomotives in the railroads. Once air quality standards. are
Soiling index is the measurement of transmitted (or

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-established, such standards. can be used as the basis for
reflectedj light or from a spot of particulate matter collected
formulating the emission standards. Hence, the emission
on a filter for a defined period of time.
standards represent the emissionlevels not be exceeded, if air
1..10. EMISSION STANDARDS quality goals are to be achieved.'

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LIO.I. Emission Standards Bharat Stage Emission Standards are emission
Emission Standards are the limits, establish the permitted standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate
levels of emission from the specific groups of emitters and the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine
require that all members of these groups emit, not more than equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and the
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these permitted emission levels.. timeline for implementation are set by the CPCB under the
MoEF.
The emission standards are applicable to all national,
regional and local emitters. Emission standards are completed The standards, based on European regulations were first
based on the air quality standards. introduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have been
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Emission Standards are generally designed to achieve air rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufactured after the
quality standards and to protect human life. implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the
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regulations. As of 2014, the country is under a combination

Emission· intensity (also carbon intensity, C.I.) is the
emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a of Euro 3 and Euro 4-based norms. Euro 6 rn?_r:IVS are planned
specific activity, or an industrial production process. . to be introduced across the country by the April I, 2020.
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· Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air

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1.52 ·. ~. ·~~- •' ,:·:.::_ :·:: ~--. '."· , ·. <: ' . ~-: ... ·'

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. ~~insidering. the quantity and the composition of the emissions
EmissionstMd:3Idsh~ve been adopted for the following
+of; air pollutant into the atmosphere from these industrial
categories of new engines and/or vehicles:
plants.
./ Cars and Light Trucks - Emissions

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It is identified that there are two types of limits on
./ Cars and Light Trucks - Fuel Economy
emissions from major polluting scheduled industries, which

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./ 2- and 3 ... Wheel Vehicles
are,
./ Heayy-Duty Truck and Bus Engines 1. Standards laid down under section. 17(1}(g) and
./ Non-Road (Off-Road) Diesel Engines applicable over the entire state which the industry

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./ Generator Sets concerned will have two comply with, wherever it
(ii) Emission Standards for Stationary Sources might be located.
2. Specific emission limits that may be prescribed by

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Stationary sources include the sources except all other - _
mobile sources. These standards relating to the stationary site,
process, stack, chimney or vent intended to achieve the
desired air quality. The emission standards also include the
the . pollution control boards in the concerned
conditions under seotion 21 (5). These limits should
generally be more stringent than the standards set
under section 17(1) (g).

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standards for buff er zones, stack height, design of the
equipment, fuel composition, etc. 1.10.3. Main functions of the Central Pollution
Emission Standards may be derived from, Control Board (CPCB)

(i) Process and Equipment Considerations The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
.re
describes the main functions of the Central Pollution Control
(ii) Air Quality Considerations and
Board (CPCB)_as follows.
(iii) Both the above
"" To advise the Central Government on any matter
1.10.2. Emission Standards by Air Act (1981) concerning the improvement of the quality of the air
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Section 17(1) (g) of the Act, empowers the State Board to and the prevention, control and abatement of air
lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having pollution.
regard to the standards for the quality of air laid down by the "" To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide
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Central board. programme for the prevention, control and abatement

This section also provides for laying down different of air pollution.
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standards for emission for different industrial plants

 l..)4.
Air Pollution and'Control Engineering Introduction
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1.55
: -.- ...-
tli~:·. ·

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-~- - t<>rprovide t~qfui1cit(:k;-sist~c((an~:gliiJail2e··iti ..

· State Pollution Control Board. beneficiatiori,pelletization, etc.:

~ -To carry out and sponsor investigations and research·
-
14. Power (coal, petrol~um and their products) generating·
.

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related to prevention, control and abatement of air plants and boiler plants
pollution. 15. Paper and pulp (including paper products) industries

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"'° To collect, compile and publish technical and 16. Textile processing industry (made wholly or in :partof
statistical data related to air pollution; and cotton)
"'" To lay down and annul standards for the quality of air 17. Petroleumrefineries

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The mandate provided to the CPCB under the Air 18. Petroleum products and petro-chemical industries
(Preventionand Control of Pollution) Act empowers it to set
19. Plants for recovery from and disposal of wastes ..
. standardsfor the quality of air.

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~ - 1.10.4.Industries Specified in the Schedule
20. Incinerators

1.10.5. Permissible Process Emission Standards for

Various industries enlisted in the schedule under the Air Specific Substances
Act (1981), are as follows.

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Table 1.6. Permissible Process-Emission Standards for
1. Asbestos and asbestos products industries Specific Substances '; ;
..:··

2. Cement and cement products industries

Substance Maximum Permissible
3. Ceramic and ceramic products industries Concentration, ppm
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. 4. Chemical and Allied industries Chlorine 5
5. Coal and lignite-based chemical industries Benzyl chloride 5
6. Engineering industries Bromine -0.5
Fluorine 0.5
· 7. Ferrous metallurgical industries
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Mercaptans 0.5
8. Fertilizer industries
Phosgene 0.5
9. Foundries
Phosphorus trichloride 2.5
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10. Food and Agricultural Products industries Sulphur monochloride 5

11. Mining industry Sulphur pentafluoride 0.1
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12. Non-Ferrous metallurgical industries Acetic anhydride 25

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,·. .. :- . . ... · ... ··.·: ... · .. ·:·. ,·; . . .. _ .. ,
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·. Aniline . standards for Mmimum Stack Height
25
Cresol 15 - Due to an effective dispersion and dilution of pollutants in
-
Dimethyl amine 30 the atmosphere, the maximum ground level concentration

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Trimethyl amine 0.5 will be less for the tallest stack or chimney. The minimum
Total amines 1 stack height to be provided in an industry is given m

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'Dimethyl sulphide 0.1 . table 1.7.
Ethanolatnine 10 Table 1. 7. Guide Lines for Minimum Stack
Formaldehyde 10

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Height (Hmin)
Vinyl chloride 500
St No Plants Hmin(m)
Ethylene dichloride 150
For Thermal power plants, releasing q

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Formic acid _15 I.
Hydrazine 3 kg I hour of so; emissions per hour
Hydrogen bromide 10 Boiler Size
Hydrogen chloride 25 Less than 200JVIVV 14 Q03

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Hydrogen fluoride 10 200MW to SOOMW 220
Hydrogen sulphide 25
500MW and more 275
Hydrogen cyanide 10
2. For particulate emission rate of Q1 74 Qi 0.27
Nitric acid 10
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tonnes/ hour
Nitrogen oxides 15
3. For all plants (Except thermal power 30
Pyridine 10
plants)
Hydrocarbons 25
Sulphur dioxide 15 I Note] If the stack height _arrived at by using the above
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Acetic acid 50 criteria are different, then the higher value should be taken as the
Ammonia 250 minimum stack height. However, in no case should the height of
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Benzene 30 the stack be less than 30 m,

Carbon-di-sulphide 50
Carbon tetrachloride 30
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,_.
Table 1.8. Stack Gas Emission Standard. Vi
ee:
SI. .
I
Industry
No Standard for particulate matter emission
'
1. Cement Industry . Capacity Protected Other Area
Area ...

om
1·

200 tpd and less 250 mg/Nm3 400 mg/Nm3 x

.
.Greater than 200 tpd 150 mg/Nm3 · . 250 m_g/Nm3 ;~
''
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2. Thermal Power···· Boiler size
I
' Protected 1·. ~.
Plants .
·other Area re::::::
Area ~

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Old - Before New-After • (S•
;i:
1979 1979 §,
<200MW 150 mg!Nm3. . ()"+..
600 mg!Nm3 · 600mg!Nm3 · g
>200MW 150 mg/Nm3 - .

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600rrtg/Nm3 ;.[ ~
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Cl)
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3. Iron and Steel Process ' Emission limits for particulates ~~
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Manufacturing ' ··~
Sintering plant 150 mg/Nm- . :I ·!4.
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· Coke oven - ~ .• 1

Blast furriace
''

- F·
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Steel Making-during normal · 150 mg/Nm-
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operation ..
.. \

During oxygen lancing ; ~ 50 mg/Nm-

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Fertilizer (Urea) Standard for particulate matter emission from prilling tower is 50
4. Industry mg/Nm- I
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Nitric Acid Standard for oxides of nitrogen is 3 kg of NO per tonne of weak acid
5. Manufacturing (before concentration) produced

.: l :., .
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·' ·::..,_
:~
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6. Sulphuric Acid ' o-,···

Process Standard for sulphur dioxide and acid mist 0.';

Manufacturing emission
Sulphur dioxide emission Acid mist emission
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Single 10 kg/tonne of 50 mg/Nm3

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Conversion - concentrated
Single (100%) acid produced
Absorption
Double 4 kg tonne of concentrated 50 mg/Nm- ::i:..:
.::;~. ·.:

Conversion - '11
c.·.;
(100%) acid produced

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~-:··.
~··
Double . ~._.< .
;:::
Absorption . Cl.·
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R<...
7. Calcium Carbide Source 0
Emission limit for particulates c

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Industry 'f'
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Kiln 250 mg/Nm3 tii···
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Arc furnace 150 mg/Nm? Si'.
Cl)
Cl)
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. j 8, I Copper, Lead 11 Source I· Emission limit for narticulates \\, ~·.
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and Zinc I Concentrator . I ~5-~~~m' . • I

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n....
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Smelting Ott-gases ipust go for H2S04

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Stneiter and converter
manufacturing No release of SOzlS03
shall be permitted from the smelter or
converter.
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I I I ---

9. Carbon Black Standard for particulate matter emission is 150 mg/Nm-

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10. Fertilizer
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(Phosphatic) Process Emission

Industry
Acidification of rock phosphate 25 mg/Nm-as total fluoride (F-}
Granulation, mixing, rock 150 mg/Nm3 of particulate
grinding matter from each process. ·. . '. : ,'
~·;

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3. Sample time and sample period.
1:11. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 4. Quantity of sample required

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1.11.1. Objective of Sampling At Source 5. Location of the source of the sample

The important objective of the sample collection (or _· I. Analysis· of Air Pollutants

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sampling) at source are, T_~e following analyses are carried out on the air pollutants
L To measure the quality and quantity of pollutant for control and reduction of air pollution.

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produced by the source. • Gas composition analysis

2. To determine the effect of emissions throughout the • Moisture content determination

·• Temperature .analysis

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year and monthly variations in a year.
• Pressure andVelocity analysis etc.
3. To determine the effect of emission in different
zones/areas of the country. II. Concentration of Pollutants
4. To know the nature of pollutant source. Moni1toringof Air Pollutants

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5. To estimate the single pollutant and multiple pollutant Source Ambient
I As per WHO ambient
sources.
monitoring protocol
Point Llne
6. To estimate the variations of ermssions of air
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SOx co SOX
Essential
NOx NOx NOx
pollutants. HC SPM
CQ
PM RPM HC
7. To determine the method of control of air pollutant. co Additional
03
8. To implement the local air pollution-control system.
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1.11.2. Sampling Study Planning III. Components of ambient air sampling systems

Proper planning and survey is required for the effective _The important components of the ambient air sampling
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stack sampling. Following points should be considered in the systems are,

planning of stack sampling. "" Inlet manifold - Inlet manifold transports sampled
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1. Methods of sampling pollutants from ambient air to collection medium

2. Process and operation of sampling
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or analytical device in an unaltered condition. The Grab Samples <ire air pollutants samples which
.·manifold should not be verylong. are collected over a very short period of time in
.;. Air mover - Air mover are the pumps, provide sampling bags etc. This is used for air quality

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force to create vacuum or lower the pressure at the monitoring or any . time pollutants need to · be
end of sampling systems. collected and .identified.

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· ·.;. -Cdllection medium ... collection mediums are. 1.11.3. Principles of Sampling and.Analysis
liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters
.;. The components of an air pollution monitoring system

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or chamber for air analysis (automatic instruments)
include the
1 .;. Flow measurement device - The flow device like
r.
'
collection or sampling of pollutants both from
rotometers measure the volume of air sampled. _

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the ambient air and from specific sources,
the analysis or measurement of the pollutant
IV. Characterfsttcs for ambient air sampling systems
. concentrations, and
Various important characteristics are, the reporting and use of the information
collected .

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./ Collection efficiency
.;. Emissions data collected from point sources are used
./ Sample stability
to determine compliance with air pollution
./ Recovery
regulations, determine the effectiveness of air
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./ Minimal interference pollution control technology, evaluate production
./ Understanding the mechanism of collection efficiencies, and support scientific research.

The first three must be 100% efficient. For e.g. for S02, .;. The EPA has established ambient air monitoring
methods for the criteria pollutants, as well as for toxic
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. the sorbent should be such that at ambient temperature it may

organic (TO) compounds and inorganic (IO)
remove the S02 from ambient atmosphere 100%. Sample
compounds.
must be stabled during the time between sampling and
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.y. · ·The methods specify precise procedures that must be

analysis.
followed for any. monitoring activity related to the
compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act.
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1~67'

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These procedures regulate sampling, analysis, contaminants must not be modified or altered in the
calibration of instruments, and calculation of process of collection.
emissions.

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Stack
Wall
oto The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per
unit volume, usually micrograms per cubic meter Nozzle
J Probe
Probe
Thennocouple

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(ug/m"). I

Basic considerations for sampling

S-Type
Pilot
Tube 11 stack
Thermocouple

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oto Sample must be . representative in terms of time, Manometer
Hot Box Jee Bath
Vaaun
Thermocouples
fine
location, and conditions to be studied. r--~----~----------eypass-------:
-:•' valve
G~:
Vacuum :

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""' Sample mustbe large enough for accurate analysis,
. . ·."• . ' • . I .
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•• Coarse l
•
""' The sampling - rate muse be such as to provide I
I vaJve II
t _
-- -------..1
maximum efficiency of c~llection. .. Orifice Airtight
Manometer Pump

oto Duration o_f:-. sampling must· accurately reflect the

Fig. 1.4. Diagrammatic view of Stock Sampling

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fluctuations·~ irt-:: pollution levels . i.e, whether
lmpingers are glass bubble tubes designed for the
I-hourly, 4-hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly
collection. of airborne particles into a liquid medium.
sampling.
When using an air sampler, a known volume of air
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oto Continuous sampling is preferred.
bubbles is pumped through the glass ·. tube that·
oto Pollutants must not be altered -,or modified during contains a liquid specified in the method. The liquid is
collection. then analyzed to determine airborne concentrations.
1.11.4.Stack Sampling I. Selection of sampling location
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oto The sample collected must be representative in terms The following points are to be considered in the selection
of time and location. The sample volume should be of sampling location.
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large enough to permit accurate analysis. . The 1. The selection of sampling site should be done by the
sampling rate must be such as to
well experienced staff.
provide maximum efficiency of collection. The
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.. . L69

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- 2. The sampling point should be free from the disturbing '3. A flange is riveted to close the opening, during the
agencies such as elbows, bends, transition pieces, .non-sampling period.

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battles (or) other obstructions. ,4. The sample should be collected at various points
3. , Sampling point should be at distance of 5 to 10 times across the stack. This is done because the

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temperature and velocity during
. the sampling.
. .
the diameter downstream from any obstructions -. .

5. Traverse Points are the sampling points, from

4. . Sampling point should be at a distance of 3 to 5 times
which the samples are collected across the section.

diameter upstream from the obstructions.
The size of the sampling point may be made in the range
of 7 to I 0 cm, in diameter. Isokinetic conditions
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These traverse points are to be located at the centre
of each of a number equal area in the selected
exist when cross-section o:fthe stack, as shown in figure L6.

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the velocity in the stack 'Vs' equals the velocity at the top of
the probe nozzle 'Vn' at the sample point.
• • • • •
• • • • •
• •• • • •
• • • • •

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• • • • •
Rectangular Stack
(Measure at center of atleast 9 equal areas)
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AirFlc1w
~-··-- Flow of SPM
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0.946R
Fig. 1.5. Isokinetic conditions 0.837 R
0.707 R
0.548 R
II. Sampling Point Size 0.316 R.
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Circular Stack
I. On opening has to be made to collect the samples. (1 O - Point Traverse}

2. The size of the sampling may be varying from · Fig. 1.6 Location of Traverse-Points
e-
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7. cm to 1 Ocm in diameter.
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... ·:•.: : -'.·. : '6: -: '.Th~ follo~~g·;~bl~ shows-the number ·.~fpointsfor - thermometers,:_ to indicat~ the· pressure and temperature of the
various cross-sectional area of the· stack. gas stream sampled .

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. Table 1.9. Number of Points for various ds area of Stack (ii) Probes
Cross-Sectional area of No.of These are the tubes, suitable for penetrating into the gas

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the stackIm-) Points stream and should be constructed of non-corrosive materials.
Less than 0.1858 .. 4· .•
These tubes can withstand very high temperature and

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0.19 to 2.32 12 prepared by using the materials wJ:Uch do not react with the
samples, to be collected. Generally Glass, Stainless Steel and
Morethan 2.33 20 .
Quartz materials are used for these tubes._ In order to obtain

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1.11.5. Difficulties in Sampling Process the iso-kinetic condition, the opening of the probe should face
The result of the sampling operation highly depends on the the gas stream (to be. sampled) and it should have suitable
. sample collection and its preservation. Following are some of length and diameter,
the difficulties, faced in sampling techniques.

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(iii) Suction Devices
1. Difficulties m collecting samples of true
Any suction device with suitable volumetric capacity can
representative samples
be used. Generally vacuum pumps driven by electric motors
2. Errors in collection and separation of the various
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are commonly used.
components of pollution
b) Devices for Sampling Gases and Vapours
3. · Difficulties in maintaining "the concentration of
(i) Absorbers
pollutants till testing.
Absorbers used for the determination of Ozone, HCs and
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1.11.6. Devices for Sampling

Organic solvents. The efficiency of the process depends on
In general, following sampling devices ate used,
the following factors.
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a) Devices for general Use ../ Amount of surface contact between gas and liquid
(i) Meters ../ Contact Time
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Accurate volume of the sample can be determined by the

../ Concentration of .absorbingmedium
device meters. They are fitted with manometers and
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• A,ir Pollut~()n <;If1:dConirolEngineerin_g

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Speed of reaction between the absorbent and gas .r. Thermal Precipitation
(ii) Adsorbers .r. Centrifugal J\Tethods

· This type of sampling is particularly.used for Ozone ·and

.r. Solution Impinges.

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LightHCs. . a) Sedimentation

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Sedimentation is one · of the simplest methods for
(iii) Condensers
collection of particulate matters. This. method is adopted in
This method rs suitable for collecting the sample of
general for particles whose diameter exceeds about 1 Oµ. They

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Odouriferous substances
are known to settle from air and collect on horizontal surfaces
(iv) Collectors under reduced pressures and can be sampled completely by placing ~ open container
- in an out-door area, that should be .free from overhead·

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For collecting the samples having high molecular weight
obstructions. The sedimentation collectors are .. generally
like Nitric Acids,· Aldehydes, Nitrogen Oxides etc., these
· types of materials are used. constructed by using Glass, Stainless Steel or polyethylene,
since the inside wall must be inert to atmospheric oxidative
(v) Plastic Containers

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flaking.
e) Devices for Sampling for Mass Spect1rometric Analysis b) Filtration o

./ - Compressing gas sample in pressure flask

Settleable particles measured by dust fall collectors in the
./ ·Filling in an evacuated container
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sedimentation method, represent only a portion of air-borne
1.11.7. Methods of Sampling dust particulates having a diameter of less than 10 µ, tend to
Particulate pollutants are classified as the particles settle as remain entered in to a gas stream. These particulates are
a dust and the particles remains suspended as an aerosol. The · called Suspended Partieulates. The most commonly used
particulate. matter in the air may be sampled by using
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methods ~f particulate sampling; employ the principle of

equipment based on the following principles.
.;. Sedimentation filtration, whereby, particles are q~titatively removed from
a gas-str~. flowing through a dense . material, containing
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.;. Filtration
.;. Impingement Methods sub-micrometer pore sizes .
.;. Electro-Static Precipitation
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L74.
.. .r.
· .:·.- ··.·.
.. ·

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The ~esult of the filtration process falls on the selection of particles from gas stream. Collection of .100% particles
suitable filter medium, and following points are considered, (approximately) over a reasonable length of gas path with
while selecting the filter medium. particles ranging in diameter from 10 to 0.2 µ.

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../ Type of particulates to be collected. e) Thermal Precipitation

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./ Chemical nature of the filter Thermal Precipitation method is based .on the principle
./ Effidency of Coilection that, if a gas contains suspended particles brought into contact
with a heat surface, a dust free space develops between the

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c) Impingement Methods
surface and the particles, owing to the action of thermal force
The basic principle of this method is the separation of that causes_the particles to migrate from a zone of high.
.

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particulates from- a- gas-stream, by collision against a flat temperature .to the low temperature zone. For atmospheric
surface. The instruments used in this method are of two types. sampling, the collection· efficiency of thermal precipitation is
. .

1. Dry Impinger almost complete over a great range· of particles sizes from

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2. Wet Impinger less than 0.01µ to about 10µ. The important disadvantages

Dry impinges, generally referred to as impactors, collect of .this method are low sampling rate of about 0.02 to

particles by impaction on a try surface. Wet impingers collect 0.2 litres/min.

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particles by causing them to impinge s liquid-submerged . t) Centrifugal Methods
-surface, Greenburg-Smith Standard Impinger and Midget Most centrifugal sampling methods are working on the
Impinger are examples of Wet Impingers. principle of the cyclone. The dust laden .moving at high

d) Electro-Static Precipitation velocity is directed tangentially in to a cylindrical chamber, in

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which it forms a vortex.· The centrifugal force tends to drive

In·an ESP, the gas passes between two·electrodes charges
the suspendedrparticles to the wall of the cyclonic body, from
to an electrical potential difference of IO to 40 kV. The .
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which they drop into dust collection chamber. An axial outlet

electric discharge between the electrodes will emit electrons
is provided for the clean gas. The advantage of this method is
and ions from the negative electrode. -These will be drawn
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the collection of . dry and chemically. pure sample

'
is possible.
towards the positive electrode. plate, thereby separating the . .
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The important ~sadvantage of. this method is the particle size stream· the deflection of the light particles· follows the
- '
' --
. collection and it is applicable only for the particle size greater deflected gas stream and don't enter in the probe.

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than 5µ.

g) Solution Impingers
';,

Gas Stream iii v,.1

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Solution Impingers consist of a drawn-out tube through
V2= V1 Isa kinetic
which, air containing particles flows into a solution, where

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the particles are trapped. This method enables the collection
Gas stream-=ji- •.
~
of both particulate matters and vapours together, using a
~ . V1
suitable Super lsokinetic
~ -solution to trap them. For this purpose, an acidic

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.

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oxidising solution is best empfoyed. The main disadvantage
Gas Stream
of this method is low flow rate (201itres/rnin).
1.11.8. ISOKINETIC CONDITIONS Super lsokinetic

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The success of the sampling depends on the conditions of Fig. 1. r: Isa-Kinetic condition
sample collection, The collected sample should be the When the .velocity in the probe is higher than the velocity
representative sample; as same that of the waste water sample · of lighter particle entering in the probe, this results the
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collection. This can be achieved by Isokinetic condition. _ sample weight is on the lower side.
Isokinetic Condition is defined as the sample condition,
1.lll.9. Determination of Gas Parameters
when the stack vilocity Vs is equal to the velocity at the top
I. Determination of Velocity
of the probe nozzle (Vn) at the sample point and this is exist
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For stack sampling, it is. very essential to determine the

at the particle size is greater than 3 µ.
velocity. Determination of velocity is used for analyzing the
When the velocity of gas in sampling nozzle is less than gas flow rate and for fixing the Isokinetic conditions.
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the gas velocity in the duct, portions of the gas stream

The instrument used for- determination of velocity rs
approaching at a higher velocity are deflected. Due to the gas
Pitot-tube, given in figure 1 ;8.
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·: -: ., . -~: .. ·. ',· . Introduction

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.". -:'.

cp = Pilot tube Co-efficient

Leak-pre = 0.9

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connections
M = molecular weight

PS = Stack Pressure

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sensor
T = Temperature of Stack

II. Determination of Gas Composition

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Orsat Apparatus is used to determine the gas
Manometer
composition in the field. The gases emitted in the industries

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are collected by this instrument. The analysis is carried out in
Fig. 1.8. Determination of Velocity. - Pitot tube the following order
Two opposite openings are provided at both upstream arid 1. Composition of Carbon-di-Oxide (C02)
downstream. This Pitot-tuhe is placed at the traverse points, 2. Composition of Ozone (03)

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The velocity head is calculated from the detection in the
manometer. 3. Composition of Carbon Monoxide (CO)
4. Remaining composition is Nitrogen.
Using the following standard equation, the velocity is to
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be corrected to standard equation. The following relationship is used to calculate molecular
weight of a gas.
and [Molecular Weight= L Mx Bx I
Where,
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the velocity, v = KP cp [~ 11
Molecular weight of C02, 03, CO and N2
Where, Percentage of gases
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KP = 'Constant for the particular cross section Iii. Determination of Moisture Content
of stack - The determination of moisture content of a stack sample
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34.96 can be done by any one of the following methods.

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lntf oduction : · · · ". ·: ·

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.;. Dry~ulb temperature technique .
3. Mark out the traverse points on the probe: The marks
.;. Wet bulb temperature technique are properly fixed by tying with asbestosthread.
.;.

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Condenser technique 4. Check all the points for leakages.
.;. Silica gel technique 5. Determine the flow rate to . be sampled under

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First and second methods are used, when the moisture Isokinetic condition.
content is especially less than 18% and cannot be used for 6. Insert the probe at the traverse points 1, very close to
acid streams.

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the stacks. Start the pump and adjust the flow, 80 that
the rotameter reads the pre-determinedvalue.
! IV. Determination of Temperature

The temp~rature should be measured atthe traverse points, 7. Switch off the pump at the end of the sampling time.

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J across the cross-section of the stack. 8. Read the vacuum at the Dry Gas Meter (DGM) and

Pyrometer is the. instrument used to measure the temperature

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-~
readings when the temperature probe is inserted 9. Move the probe to subsequent traverse points by

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into the stack. While selecting · the probe,
complete care should be taken.
In stack sampling, the stack temperature and pressure
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should be measured, because these two parameters are very
essential in the design of stack height arid gas flow rate and
for fixing the isokinetic conditions.
repeating the steps 5 to 8.
10. After completion of collection of sample, remove the
probe and allow it to cool.
11. Remove the thimble carefully. Some of the dust
would be adhered to the nozzle. These should be
removed by tapping and transfer to the thimble.

V. Particulate Matter Sampling 12. Calculate the weight of the thimble. The difference in
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weight gives the dust collected.

The following procedure may be followed for the
collection of particulate matter sampling. 13. The volume of the sample collected either given by
Dry Gas Meter (DGM) or by the sampling rate given
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1. Determine the gas composition and correct it to the

moisture content. by rotameter multiplied by the samplingtime.
2. Calculate the t emperature ' and . veI ocity
· at every 14. Hence from 12 and 13, the rate can be calculated. This
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traverse point.
will give at DGM conditions.
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1,82 . ...AirPollutio~ and (;ontroT£ngineering
.·· . . . ·· --·." .
;_

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. - : . ... .· .. ·-· - : --· :·· .·..
, .· . ···:: .. . .. ~~- ., . : ·: ~-,: ·. . ··
· · 1. G~~~ousSampling'
This. is to be corrected for temperature and pressure so
· For gaseous sampling, different pro_cedurerequires as in
as to obtain for standard conditions.

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the participate sampling. Following methods are used for the
1.11.10. SAMPLE RECOVERY TESTS
gaseous sampling. _

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After cooling, the outside of the probe assembly is cleaned 1. Absorption
with cotton waste. Disconnect the nozzle. Remove the 2. Adsorption
'thimble and keep it in clean glass beaker. The particulate 3. · Freeze out (or) condensation

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matter adhered to the inside walls of the nozzle, should be Whenever the flow rate and process operation are
transferred carefully to the thimble. Calculate the weight of uniform, and whenever analytical equipment of extreme
the thimble CW 2). The difference in weight (W 2 - W 1), will

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sensitivity is available, it is possible_ to take -a grab sample
give the participate matter collected. from the stack by one of the following methods.
a. Use of evacuate container
Calculation
Total volume of gas sampled } = b. Purging (displacement of air)

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at meter condition vm
c. Inflation of flexible bag
Total volume of gas sampled }. = pm Tm d. Use of Syringe.
; ! at standard condition Ps x vm x
.
T s
II. Proportional Sampling
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Sample volume = Vs·
\Vhenever the source conditions, especially flow rate
Temperature at DGH Tm (in °k)
changes with time, the sampling must be done proportionally,
Pressure at DGH = Pm (mm of mercury)
so that the sample is representative. This required, the
Standard Pressure = P, (760 mmof Hg) velocity measurement as explained and corrected to standard
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Standard Temperature = Ts (298 °k) conditions.

Participate matter collected = TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
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Total particulate matter} = /. Define air pollution. (Nov/Dec 2018) ·i

emissions per day F x Qstd x 1440 gms/day
F x Qstd x1440 . Air Pollution is defined as the pollution in the
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= . · 106 _ Tonnes/day atmospheric air, due to the presence of solid, liquid, or

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~·.
1..84 .· .. ··. . . ·.·. ·<- . .
·_;..---'·._ .. ·· .. ·..... ··:.·· .. ···

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<f,,. What are the sources of air pollution? (Nov/Dec2016)
gaseous material and causes the problems to humans,
(Nov/Dec 2016, R-2008) (!'lov/Dec 2017)
living systems, plants etc. .
1. Natural Sources
Differentiate Pollution and Pollutant.

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2. Man-Made Sources
(Nov/Dec 2015) (April/May 2017)
'IC-. Mention the classification of air pollutants.

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Air Pollution is defined as the pollution in the (May/June 2016)
atmospheric air, due to the presence of solid, liquid, or
1. Classification based on the origin.
gaseous material and causes the problems to humans,
(i) Primary Air Pollutants

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living systems, plants etc. ·
(ii) Secondary Air Pollutants
A Pollutant is defined as a material (or substance) which
2. Classification based on the chemical composition.
creates the air pollution and in the form of liquid,

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gaseous or solid. - (i) Organic Compounds

·-< Wltat are the layers of the atmosphere? (Nov/Dec 2018)

3.
(ii) In-Organic Compounds
Classification based on the state of matter.
1. Troposphere (0 to 12 km)
(i) Particulate Pollutants
2. Stratosphere (12 to 50 km)

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(ii) Gaseous pollutants.
3. Mesosphere (50 t<? 80 km)
4. Thermosphere (80 to 500·km) '~,,...-- Define primary air pollutants. Give examples.
(Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2017)
5. Exosphere (above 500 km)
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Pollutants, directly emitted from the identifiable sources
4. Why temperature decreases with increases in height?
are called primary air pollutants.
Solar radiation is the main heat source and it is absorbed
Ex: S02, CO, C02, NO, N02 etc.
at the ground level and hence, the temperature decreases
with increase in height of the troposphere. 9:.~ What are secondary air pollutants? Give examples.
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.s~ What is planetary boundary layer? (May/June 2012) (f\lov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2013)
(May/June 2013) (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 201I). (May/June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2017)
Primary pollutants react with one another or with water
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The planetary . boundary layer is the part of the

vapour in the presence of sunlight forms, a new form of
troposphere that is closest to ·Earth's surface and is
pollutant, called secondary pollutants. '
directly affected by · it, mainly through turbulent
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Ex: Sulphuric Acid (H2S04), Ozone (03) ·etc.

diffusion.
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. . . . , ·.
' ·, ~ .1:s1 ·
. io.·· ,Bi-ief the effe~t of CarbonMonoxide on /~~11lan
being.

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' 12. Name any two effects on plants· and also pollutant
(May/June 2til2f responsible. (Nov/Dec 2014)
[OR]
1. Excess Fluorine (0.3µg/m3) - Photo-toxicological
How does Carbon Monoxide affect human health?

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effect.
(Nov/Dec 2012)
2. Chemical pollutants - Yield reduction in Crops.
[OR]

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_.lh7w does inhalation of carbonmonoxide affect human 13: List two effects of airpollutants on -materials.
health? (Nov/Dec 2017) (May/June 2016)
a. Corrosion

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Carbon monoxide has a greater blood-affinity property
and which has been affected by blood hemoglobin b. Chemicals attack (direct and indirect)
200 times more than 02• c. Abrasion

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This CO replaces the 02 present in the hemoglobin and d. Deposition and removal
forms Carboxy-hemoglobin. (CO.Hb). bl. List out the various air pollution caused by nuclear
If the quantity of Carboxy-hemoglobjn is less, it energy program. (Nov/Dec 2017)
produces the little headache, reduction in reaction time Nuclear wastes from Radio-activeemissions may create

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etc. on human beings. . cancer in humans and sometimes mutations and deaths
If the quantity of CO.Hb concentration is high, it creates also, during Nuclear \VeaponTesting and Nuclear power
difficulty in breathing,· heart problems etc. Also, if . plants operations.
CO.Hb quantity is about 50% of Hb, it makes death of
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,J.5.-DefineAcid Rain.
human being.
Acid rain is defined as the rain having pH value equal to
11. What are the major effects of air pollutants on ltuman or less than 5.6, having harmful effects on humans,
health? (April/May 2015) animals, plants, aquatics and infrastructures.
1. Effects on Visibility
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~ Define global warming. (Nov/Dec 2018)

2. Breathing Troubles Global warming is the mcrease of Earths average
3. Increases Blood Pressure surface temperature, due to the effect of green-house
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4. Heart and Lung Diseasesetc gases (such as C02) emissions from burning of fossil
fuels or from deforestation. Global warming is the type
of greenhouse effect.
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 www.rejinpaul.com

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11. 'Wrlt~tlie eJlects,ofOzone Depletion. (A-fay/June2014) What are gr~en-house gases?
The ultra- Violet radiations are highly harmful to all l. Carbon-di-oxide (C02)
kinds of life on Earth. If the UV rays are not filtered by 2. Methane (CH4)

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the ozone layer, it creates several impacts on humans, 3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
animals and plants on the planet Earth. The highest 4. , Chloro-Fluro Carbons (CFCs)

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problem due to the UV radiation is to cause mutation in 5. Ozone (02) ••
DNA, forming skin cancers, including deadly 6. Water Vapours
Melanoma. 22. What are Air Quality Standards?

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~Define 'Ozone uot«. (Nov/ Dec 2012) (May/June 2013)
Ozone Hole is defined as the ozone depletion and m Air quality standairds are defined as the standard limits, -.•

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which the thickness of the ozone layer at the ozone layer
is less than 150 DU, represent the shortage of ozone and
represents the UV radiation may enter to atmosphere and
reach the earth through these regions.
placed on the levels of air pollution in the ambient air,
during a given period of time.
?·,--Explain briefly the various air quality standards.
· . , (Nov/Dec 2016)

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19. List out air pollutants responsible for ozone layer 1. Ambient Air Quality Standards
depletion. (Nov/Dec 2014) 2. Other Air Quality Standards
a. Use of Chloro-Fluro Carbons (CFCs) ,f Point of Impingement Standards
,f Soiling Index
b. Nuclear Tests
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,f Odour Standards
c. Supersonic Transport, Rockets and space shuttles ,f Visibility ~)tandards
d. Nitrogenous fertilizers ,f Standards for Particulate Matter Depositedetc.

20. What is green-house effect? (April/May 2015) 24. List the air quality standards for residence zone. ,
--r; (Nov/Dec 2015)
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The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process ·that

increases the temperature of the Earth's surface, which is Refer Table 1.5 Page 1.4 7
caused by conversion of solar radiation into heat. --25~ What are the Emission Standards?
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21. What are the principal gases of concern in green-house (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2017)
effect? (April/May 2015) Emission Standards are the limits, establish the
[OR] permitted levels of emission from the specific groups of
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_;·~effiitt~ts and .require - th~t all tiie1llbers of the~ '.groups - - JO. Define Isokinetic Sampl~s. (May/June 2012)
emit, not more than these permitted emission levels. (Or) Dif,rce Isokinetic conditions. (Nov/Dec 2014) -
~ Define Ambient Air Quality. (May/June 2014) is

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Isokinetic Condition defined as the sample condition,
Ambient air quality standards are defined as the legal when the stack velocity Vs is equal to the velocity at the
limits, placed on the concent~~tion of air pollutants in a

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top of the probe nozzle (Vn) at the sample point and this
community, where the people and-things are exposed. is exist at the particle size is greater than 3 µ.
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27. What is a representative sample? (Nov/Dec2011) REVIEW QUESTIONS

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While sampling process, the sample should be able a 1. Explain the elements of the atmosphere. (8)
.representative sample and it may be defined as the _ (Nov/Dec 2018)
sample, which represents the behavior and concentration

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Refer Chapter 1.2.3. Page 1.10 -
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of all other pollutants and the results obtained from the 2. - Give a detailed account on sources and classification of ~'.t'1-,·
t''\_. _ ,
representative sample should indicate the reality with all air pollutants. (8) (Nov/Dec 2011) (8) (May/June 2012)
-~.~···
other pollutants. ;

Refer Chapter 1.4. and 1.5 Page 1.15 and LIS

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28. What are grab samples? When are they used? 3. Define air pollution and explain classification of;~
pollution with suitable examples. (16)(May/June20 ..,
(Nov/Dec2014)
(16)(Nov/Dec2015) (16) (April/May 2017)
Grab .Samples are air pollutants samples which are
Refer Chapter 1.1and1.5 Page Ll and 1.18
collected over a very short period of time in sampling
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bags etc. This is used for air quality monitoring or any 4. Explain briefly about the various classification of air
time pollutants need to be collected and identified. - pollutants. (16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Refer Chapter 1.5 Page 1.18
l-9:State the basic Principle of sampling. (April/May 2017)
5. What are tlie various Secondary Air Pollutants?
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Statistical sampling is a process that allows inferences

Discuss in detail (Nov/Dec 2017)
about properties of a large collection of things
Refer Chapter (II) 1.5.1. Page 1.18
(commonly described as the population), to be made
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from observations made on a relatively small number of 6. Briefly discuss about the various types of gases causing -
individuals belonging to the population (the sample). air pollution. (16) (Nov/Dec 2017)
Refer Chapter 1.6 Page 1.20
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]..!/. Discuss in 'detaii about the effect of air pollution on

7. List out the various health effects of polluted air on
-plants and farm animals. (16) (Nov/Dec 2017) ·
human beings and also corresponding air pollutant/

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pollutants. (8) (May/June 2013) (8) (Nov/Dec 2015) Refer Chapter 1.8.. 2 and 1.8.3. Page 1.34
(May/June 2016) (8) (April/May 2017) (16) (Nov/Dec 15. Explain the various effects of air pollution on

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2018) materials. (8) (Nov/Dec 2018)

Refer, Chapter-lB.I. Page 1.30 - Refer Chapter 1.8.4. Page 1.35

8. Explain the effects of CO, S02 and heavy metals on ]6. How does air pollution bring economic impact on a

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human being. (10) (Nov/Dec 20149 country? (8) (Nov/Dec2011) (8) (May/June 2012)
Refer Chapter 1.8.1. Page 1.30 (8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (8) (Novi Dec 2012, R-2008)

9. List out various air pollutants, their sources and its. Refer Chapter 1.8.6. Page 1.37

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effect on both plant and human being. (May/June
2012) (May/June 2014)(16)(April/May 2018)
Refer Chapter 1.5, 1.4, 1.8.l. and 1.8.2. Page 1.18, 1.15,
1.30 and 1.34.
J 7. Explain the effect of air pollution in global scale. (8)
(Nov/Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter 1.8.8. Page 1.39
J ~:_ What is global warming? How do GHG contribute to

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10. State the various classifications of particulates and this? . (8) (May/June 2012) (9) (May/June 2013)
explain their effects on Plants, Animals and Materials. (JO) (Nov/Dec 2014)
(JO) (April/May 2015) Refer Chapter (III) L8.8. Page 1.39
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Refer Chapter 1.8.2., 1.8.3 and 1.8.4 Page 1.34 and 1.35
19 1• Wh.at are the green house gases? Explain.
1J. Explain the effects of air pollution on plants. (8) (Novi Dec 2012)
(7) (May/June 2013)
Refer Chapter (III) 1.8.8. Page 1.39
Refer Chapter 1.8.2. Page 1.34
20. Explain the causes .of 'ozone layer depletion' with
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12. Discuss in detail about the health effects of various air

necessary equations. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
pollutants on human beings and animals.
Refer Chapter (II) 1.8,8. Page 1.41
(Nov/Dec 2017)
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21.. Describe the effects of ozone layer depletion. (8)

Refer Chapter 1.8.1. and 1.8.3. Page 1.30 and 1.34
(Nov/Dec 2018)
13. Describe in detail the effects of air pollution on human
Refer Chapter (II) 1.8.8. Page 1.41
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beings vegetation and animals. (16)(Nov/Dec 2016)

Refer Chapter 1.8.1., 1.82~ and 1.8.3 . Page 1.30 and 1.34
 Introduction
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.: ,: .. : . ". ,jfi[.f.~llutiorz arH;{CoptrQlli}1tgzp~er'irre:.\'<.

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.· · 22.. Wrlt~ short 11:otes on ozone layer ·depletion and .; 'Ji~)~b.~liss : i~. dd~fl ~bb~t 1Va~nJ/A.'lnbient Air Quality
Standardsfor our Indian-Cities. (Nov/Dec 2017)
-cow.pounds responsible. (6) (April/May 2015)
Refer Chapter (II) .1.8.8. Page IA 1 Refer Table 1.5 Page 1..47

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23. Write the causes, of ozone layer depletion. (10) 32. Write a short note on Emission standards.
(May/June 2016) (8) (May/June 2014)

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Refer Chapter (II) 1.8~8. Page 1.41 Refer Chapter 1.10. Page 1.50
24. What are ambient air qualitystandards? What are its 33. Discuss on the sampling and analysis of particulate air
pollutants. (April/May 2015)

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objectives? (4) (May/June 2012) (8) (May/June 2014)
. ~t: Refer Chapter 1.9.4. and 1.9.1. Page 1.49 and I.44 Refer Chapter 1.11 Page l_.,_62
ii:
ill 25. Discuss in detail aboutthe air quality standards of EPA 34. Enumerate the principles of sampling of air pollutants. J

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and Indian Standards. (16) (Nov/Dec 2017) (8) (May/June 201 - (6) (May/June 2016) .c
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-~!;.
Refer Chapter 1.9 Page 1.44 Refer Chapter 1.11.3. Page 1.65 ;~
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Iii 26. Explain briefly the various air quality standards. (16) !i
.
ill 35. Explain the stack. sampling technique in detail (8)
1ii (Nov/Dec 2016) !i
(Nov/Dec 2011) !·;

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a·:.r:
Refer Chapter 1.9 Page 1.44 Refer Chapter 1.11.4. Page 1.66
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!'; 27. Make a note on air quality standard for ambient air
!~,

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and for industrial exposure.
•;.
Refer Chapter 1.9 Page 1.44
28. Explain air quality standards.
Refer Chapter 1.9 Page 1.44
29. State and explain the goals of Air quality standards.
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., What are the devices used for sampling gases and
36.
.:»
(6) (Nov/Dec2014) vapours. Describe any one in detail (May I June 2013)
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(May/June 201
(8) (April/May 2018) Refer Chapter 1.11.6. Page 1. 70
37. Briefly explain the methods of sampling for gaseous
pollutants. (6) (Nov/Dec 2014)

Refer Chapter 1.11.7. Page 1. 72

(8) (Nov/Dec 2011)
Refer Chapter 1.9.1. Page 1.45 38. Briefly discuss the following air sampling methods (i)
Sedimentation (ii) Impingement method. (16)
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·30. Wh at are air quality standards? How would this

(ApriVMay 2018)
contribute to air quality management? (8) (Nov/Dec
2012) Refer Chapter I.I 1.7. (a) and (c) Page l.73 and 1.74
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Refer Chapter 1.9.2. Page 1.45 CJCJQ

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lJNIT-11
M]~'I'EOROLOGY

Effects of meteorology on Air Pollution -

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Fundamentals, Atmospheric stability,
Inversion, Wind profiles and stack plume
patterns- Atmospheric Diffusion Theories-
Dispersion models, Plume rise
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METEOROLOGY

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2.1. INTRODUCTION

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Meteorology is the branch of science concerned with the
processes _and phenomena of the atmosphere, especially as a
means of forecasting the weather.

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The factors which change the concentration of air
pollutants in a particular area are called Meteorological
Factors of air pollution.
The concentration of air pollutants in a

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particular area from various sources depends
...
oi:: highly on the local weather conditions .
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2.1.1. Objectives of Meteorological Factor

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Study

The degree of air pollution may vary, even though the total
emissions into the atmosphere in a given area remain same
from day-to-day, due to changes in meteorological conditions.
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Meteorological data is very essential for air pollution studies.

Various objectives of studying the meteorological factors
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are as follows.
1. To identifythe source of pollutants
2. To predict pollution events such as high
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concentrationdays
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~~~..;._~..;.._~-~-,-~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~---- Meteorology

3. To. simulate and to predict the air quality (using 3) Establishing air monitoring surveys.
computer models)
4) Carrying out research in air pollution control

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4. To determine the stack height methods.
5. To evaluate the intensity of air pollution etc.
2.1.3. l\{eteorological Factors

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2.1.2.·Effects of Meteorology on Ait· Pollution The important meteorological parameters that influence air
Meteorological factors are highly influencing the quantity pollution can be classified as,

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of pollution in the earth's atmosphere from the following (a) Primary Parameters
ways .
1. Wind Speed arid Direction
./ Solar radiation and temperature affect the quantities
2.

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- Temperature
of pollutant emitted, by their influence on the
3. Atmospheric Stability
amount of space heating required.
4. Mixing Height
./ Sunshine is the reason for photochemical production
of oxidants forming smog. (b) · Secondary Parameters
,.---~~~~~~~~~-.

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./ The wind velocity, turbulence and stability affect the 1. Rainfall and
The meteorological
transport, dilution and dispersion of the pollutants. Precipitation
factors highly depend
./ The rainfall has a scavenging effect in washing out 2. Humidity on the latitude, season
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(rainout) particles in the atmosphere. 3. Solar Radiation and the topography of
./ The humidity is a frequent and important factor in 4. Visibility the area .
determining the effect that concentrations of
I. Wind Speed and!Direction
pollutants have on property, vegetation and health.
The speed and direction of wind changes the concentration
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In view of these effects, meteorologists are involved in the

of pollutants, especially near the ground levels. The high
following aspects of air pollution control.
speed of wind carries away the pollutants at or near the point
1) Forecasting air pollution potential, so that air
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of emission.
pollution control agencies may alert industry to
The emitted air pollutants easily get diluted with high
carry out temporary abatement action.
volume of.zatmospheric air, The speed of dilution process
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2) Selecting sites and designing emission systems for

highly depends on the speed and direction of the wind.
large industrial sources.
 2.4· .
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.2.5
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.

•. Alternatively, when the · wind . speed is low, pollutants u0 Wind Speed at z~

concentrate thearea at or near the-pointof discharge.
K Wind Speed Constant
Gustiness is an important 1

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characteristic of surfaces wind~ for larger lapse rates
9
The concentration of
that determines the · extent to 1
pollutants is inversely
3 for marked inversions

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which the pollutants are diluted ·•
proportional to the wind
and mixed with surrounding air.
speed. - ~ Normally taken as ( ~)
It is directly proportional to the

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wind speed. II. Atmospheric Stability and Inversions
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1
In plain (or rough) terrain, the wind speed and direction Atmospheric stability is defined as the measure of

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near the source decide the subsequent movement of the atmospheric tendency to encourage or discourage the vertical
pollutants. motion and the vertical motion is directly related to the
-......:.:)

In hilly terrain, hills may deflect the air flow either · different types of weather conditions and its severity.
horizontally, vertically or both and the quantity of deflection The degree of atmospheric stability is determined by the

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depends on the vertical stability of the atmosphere. temperature difference between the air parcel and the air
Wind speed can be measured by using an Anemometer, surrounding in it.
and let the Height of Anemometeris z0•
For every 1 OOOft increase in altitude, the
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By measuring the wind speed, (u0) at anemometer height temperature decreases by about 3.5° F (about
z o. the wind speed (u) can be calculated at any other height· 6.4° C/km). The rate at which the atmospheric
(z) by using the following formula temperature decreases with increase in altitude is
called Lapse Rate.
I u ~ u.[*r I
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When the Reverse (or Negative) lapse rate occurs, a

where, dense-cold stratum of air at ground level gets covered by
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Anemometer Height lighter-warm air at higher levels. This concept is called

z - . Height, where the wind speed ts to be inversions.
measured
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s, '"::.~~ "'._·_-_ .· .
. ..:
.-
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air anti-<~yclones.
The air circu1ating around the area descends
During inversion.rvertical air movement rs stopped and
slowly at the rate of about 1000 m per day. ·

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pollution will be concentrated below the inversion layer
\Ai~ti-Cyclones are .high pressure areas
(dense-cold air and ground level). Due to this temperature

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inversion, the atmosphere is. stable, and every little mixing of ~rrounded by low ..::.p_re_s_s_u_r_e_ar_e_a_s_._'-------~

air with air pollutants takes place. This is called atmospheric HI. Mixing Height
stability and at this condition, pollutants in the air do not ~ixinig height is defined as the height above the earth's

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dilute.· surface to which related pollutants will extend, p~arily
Occurring of inversions is very common in winter and through the action of atmospheric turbulence. It is ~~ually

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autumn (the season before winter and after summer) seasons. related to one or more of the other three factors.
At the time ""o{ inversions, visibility is highly reduced and
(a) Wind direction
pollutants are at maximum.
(b) Wind speed
Types of Inversions

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(c) Wind turbulence
(i) Radiation Inversions IV. Precipitation and Rainfall
Inversions occur at night, when the earth loses heat by Rainfall or Predpita1tion is the secondary meteorological
radiation and cools the air, in contact with it is called factors that exert a two-fold cleansing action on. the
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pollutants, discharged into the ·atmosphere. Rainfall
Radiation inversions.
accelerates the deposition of particulate matter on the ground
In radiation inversions, the cool air stratum is covered by
and hence, its concentration of gaseous ~·-------.
lighter-warm air and the vertical air movement is stopped,
until the sun wanns the lower air, in the next morning. pollutants which are soluble in water. . Humidity is
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Rainfall can be estimated by using the quantity

Radi,ation inversion is very common in winter than
various rain gauges. representing
summer, (due to the reduced daytimes). Due to the restriction
of horizontal air movement by surrounding high ground, V. Humidity the amountof
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radiation inversions may occur frequently in Valley areas. The moisture content of the water vapour
atmosphere influences the corrosive in the
(ii) Subsidence Inversion
action of air pollutants and represents the atmosphere.
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Inversion occurring at moderate altitudes and often potentiality for fog fonnation.
remains for several days, caused by sinking or subsiding of
 www.rejinpaul.com
I:, , ,Me@rofogj',

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. mechanism and it is called Prevailing or Ambient or -
VI. Radiation (Solar Radiationl_
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)
Solar radiation induces the chemical reactions between

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the atmospheric air components and pollutants in the air and '•,
- ~12500 '···..

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the reaction rate depends on the location. ,
- ..........
2000 -,

The application of all the above (/J ~

-,

m A.L.R •••
meteorological factors may be Solar radiation . ~ 1500 '
E '•,

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considered in the control of pollution is the main heat · ~ 1000 -
C)
---------~---------------------r~:: : I '-I

source and it is ~ :: ~
from an industrial plant, in the selection
absorbed at the
:I:
500
.. .
:
: -,
: <,
''

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of its location, in the design of
ground level and 25 30
0 5 10 15 20
equipment and its regular operation. hence, the Temp in °C
Also, these meteorological factors temperature.
~- 2• J . ,.Ia)
.rlg. '.I Sub Adiabatic Lapse Rate
are used in the layout of zones for

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industrial use, in identifying casual factors in existing
pollution problems and in establishing air quality criteria.
2500
''
' . ' -,
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2.2. LAPSE RATE ··.,~ A.L.R

The temperature of the ambient air (Surrounding air)

1en
Cl>
2000
'-..._ E.L.R
-,
... ,,...
-,<,
i
decreases with increase in the altitude (height). The rate at E
1500
··. -,

::c 1000 - -·----,-----'--:..--------. ' ..:"•,

which, the temperature changes with increasing height of the s:;
:
• ' ...
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atmosphere is called Temperature
~ : ~\~...
Lapse Rate. :c I '
500 : -.
: -, ,
I '

The lapse rate changes with respect to time and place.

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5 10 15 20 25 30
0
Even at the same place, the rate changes with time. However,
Temp in °C
the lapse rate cane be determined by raising a balloon
Fig. 2.2. (b) Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate
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(attached with a thermometer), by the digital self-recording

 Meteorology
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:l.1U . ..---.

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When a pocket of heated air is released from. an

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2500 automobile or a stack to the environment, it rises up, expands.
2000 E.L.R · becomes lighter and gets cooled. The height upto which the

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<I>
Q). air packet moves, depends on the density and temperature
~ 1500
-E---

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decrease rate.
:E
CJ)
1000
As· fhe · air packet moves up, its temperature decreases as
"(i)
I
its heat is expanded, clue to increase in the volume of air

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pocket.
0 5 10 15 20 25
2.2.1. Dry and Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Temp in °C •·

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'
Dry air, expanding and cooling adiabatically -c~ols at the
A.LR - Varying between 9.8° C/Km to 6° C/km
rate of 9.8°C per kilometer, is called Dry-adiabatic lapse
T
H - Varying between 9.8° C/Km to 6° C/km
rate. In wet air, the expanding and cooling is calculated to be
Fig. 2.3. (c) Environmental Lapse Rate 6°C per kilometer and, is called Wet-adiabatic lapse rate.

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The lapse rate of a parcel of dry air, when it lifts upwards When the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is rriore than

in a hydrostatically-stable environment and expands slowly. to the adiabatic lapse rate it is called Super-adiabatic lapse

the lower environment pressure without exchange of heat is rate, and the environment is an unstable, i.e., at an unstable
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called Adiabatic Lapse Rate. environmental conditions, the rising parcel of hotter-lighter
air will continue to rise up and the downing cooler-denser air
The figure 2.3 shows various lapse rates and their
parcel will continue to come down.
relationship.
When the Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) is greater than the
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- Under the prevailing environmental conditions, when a

Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR), the environment is said
pocket of air having less heat and density; released to the
to be stable, and this is called Sub-Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
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atmosphere, it tends to rise up to reach a point at which the

When the ALR is equal to the ELR, the environment is a
temperature and density equal to the temperature and density
neutral one and this is called Neutral Adiabatic Lapse. Rate.
of the surrounding air.
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 www.rejinpaul.com
2.12 Air Pollution and Control Engineering _
. -, .- --::-~----- .-- ....

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When the teniperatur~· .of:the· eni~mb.~nt
inh~dS¢~ ~th: . .:
.

In air pollution, the diffusion of air pollutantsinto the

altitude, then the lapse rate becomes inverted and this is environment is depending on the environmental
called negative lapse rate.
lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate.

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The factors influencing the plume behaviour are as
lsothennal

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{no change in follows..
1. temp. with ht.)
1. Stack Height
2.. Diurnal Variationjjn the atmospherestability)

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3~ Seasonal Variation (long-term variation)
·Negative
Stack Height

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lapse rate lapse rate
Emissions from the tall stacks, are generally allowed to
mix with the atmospheric air (at higher levels) in order to
..
:: ·.~
Temp. in °C increasethe rate of dilution. ,

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Fig. 2.4. Negative Lapse Rate Ground Level concentration of the emission highly
Negative Tapse rate occurs under conditions is generally dependson the,
·.,
called inversion. Temperature inversionsrepresent a highly 1. Height of the Stack
stable environment.
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2. Height of the plume rise above stack.
2.3. PLUME AND PLUME RISE The actual stack height (H) is easy to determine while
. Plume is defined as. the path and its extension in the ·effective stack height (He) is quite difficult.to estimate with
atmosphere of .the emitted gas from a source. The source is high degree of accuracy. The increased stack height is
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generally referred as stack. In general, plume is an air consideredto diffuse the pollutantsbetter.
column, in which one air is movingthroughanother. Immediately above the stack. the rise of pollutant is
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Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume proportional to the emission -velocity of gases and to the
temperature differences between the gases and the
from the stack into the atmosphere,due to the buoyancy and
momentum. - surroundingatmosphere.
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 2.14 . -.
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.. Air Pollution and Control f;nginc~~ing.
- z . . . ; ... : .~ . :, . . . . . .: - . ·. : •. . .·.. . : . . ' "• - ·__ -: ; ~ . : '.. ·:--.:-... .. ·'. f.lif.teqroiogy <, : -~

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For a given stack height," ·th~ ~once~tr~tion at groundlevel It has been reported that in the direction of wind, the
decreases with increase in wind 'velocity, However: there is a maximum concentration is attained a! a distance Xm, ranging
c~tical velocity, when the ground concentration attains its from 10 to 40 times the stack height.

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maximum value. The empirical formula for the stack height emitting
Maximum Concentration (Cm) of pollutants on ground maximum concentration of pollutants emission, developed by

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. -Ievel is given as, USSR, isgiven as,

M·K:Q~ ~ ~~m- ( i:t )t

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H2 -\L~i_J

Where, Where,

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H A Coefficient
Height of the stack (in m)
K depends upon atmospheric condition
Constant
M 200 for Indian conditions
Mass of the pollutant gases discharged per unit
ti~ . F .Coefficient

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V - 'Volume of the pollutant gases discharged per depends upon dust precipitation efficiency
unit time .: varies from 0.8 to 0;95
AT - Difference m temperature of stack gases and M - Coefficient
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surrounding air depends upon velocity of flue gases

The constant value K depends on the following. H Heightof stack or chimney (in m)

(a) Horizontal and vertical mixing of pollutants m n Number of emitting sources

the air V Volume of gases leaving the chimney

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in m3/s.
(b) Settling velocity of polluting substances
t - Temperature difference between gases 'and
(c) Discharge characteristics of the gases from stack.
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temperature at the top of the stack

M - Quantity of flue gases in g/s

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. ;;:. / ~ . . ·:,A.it, P.ollu:tiq,, qkd:C,oriiroi .f;iiffi~~r,fiig =: : _: ,• . ·<~·#<_' e_J,..;.;iio_:r_;v_.;.lo~gy..-;.'....c,.;.~ .............,--''---'~-__,..-.....,;....,..._ __ _;,.__.,.,--,-,.-..,.--'-;-~-· . "'-2_.: 1_7; ",: c:_. ,-_ :

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vs Stack gas velocity (m/sec)

D Inside exit dia of the stack (in m)

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u ~ Wind speed (in m/sec)
H p Atmospheric pressure (in millibars)

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h Chimney
i----- Stack gas temperatures (in ~K)
T0 Air temperature, (in °K)

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. 2.3.1. Design of Stack Height
The following two formulae are given by the Central
H == h + Ah
Board for Prevention and Control of Air Pollution based

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where,

h - actual heightof stack in m

on various assumptions, are used to calculate the minimum
.D..h - Plume height in m height of the chimney for Indian Conditions . ..
·:·.1
..
Fig. 2.5. Effective Stack Height (1) -':~

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The value 'H', used in.the above equation is the .effective where,
height of the Stack (or Chimney) and the actual height of the h Chimney height ·
Qp - PM emissions in tonnes/hour
Stack is not to be used. This effective height consists of
c2) Ih 14 <Qs)027 I
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=
actual height (h) with the height to which the plume rises
above the Stack before levelling out. where,
·h 'Chimney height
I H=h+tih I
Qs - S02 emission in kg/hour
Holland's equation is also used to calculate the plume
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height (tih) The maximum of two heights calculated by the above

equations snould be considered for design.
w

From the above two equattons-heights.are subjected to the

following minimum values.
Where;
1. Chimneys adopted for industries in general - 30 m
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M Rise of the plume above the stack (in 91) 2. For Thermal power plants - 220 to 27 5 m
 www.rejinpaul.com

m
2.3.2. Objectives of Study of Plume Behaviours upward movement of plume will continue, till the plume
· Plume behaviour observations are used, density equals the air density.

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1. To determine the locations of air sampling 3. Coning Plume
Coning Plume is the plume behaviour in the shape of the
2. To identify the invisible pollutants

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cone above the plume .line; which occurs at a slight stable
3. To change the plume pattern according with the environment. When the wind velocity is more than 32 km/h,
seasonal. variations
coning plume occurs in a near neutral atmospheric (adiabatic

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2.3.3. Types of Plume (Plume Pattern)
Various types of plume behaviour are described below.
I condition). In this, the plume reaches the ground at greater
distances than the looping plume.

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l. Looping Plume ~ 4. Fanning Plume
2. Neutral Plume Fanning plume is the horizontal plume pattern for a long-
distance, occurs when there will not be a vertical mixing.
3. Coning Plume
Fanning plume occurs, under extreme inversion conditions
4. Fanning Plume

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due to the negative environmental lapse rate from the ground
5. Lofting Plume to certain: heights.
6. Fumigating Plume It may extend even above the top of the stack, the
7. emission will spread only in the horizontal direction, due to
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Trapping Plume
the high atmospheric stability.
1. Looping Plume
Looping plume is defined· as, the behaviour of plume
which has wavy character and it occurs at a highly unstable
w

atmosphere, due to the rapid mixing.

2. Neutral Plume
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Neutral Plume is the upward vertical rise of the plume

from the stack, which occurs, when the environmental lapse
rate is approximately equal to the adiabatic lapse rate. The
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~ .\, #"~ t;:_:·~~ f

N
z . iv
0

~ K
(a)
Looping Strong Lapse
Plume Condition ' ~ . r,.fJ,t~.lffe)
'.:t'1 ; . . ', . . :~q '\~:"fjf
~-z·
. - I. . \ ..

N
u -x
?--
z
Neutral

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(b) Normal Lapse
.,~ Plume Condition
~·
c;
~
;::
/ u -x s,
::: z :;;·
.
~
. ..,,
b:i
(c) Coning Weak Lapse C)
:::::

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-,
...~ Plume Condition ',. ~
~
-: ·',,,
s·;:s
s·;:: u §
i:! z -x Cl..

-~

u
(d) Fanning ~
Inversion -,
-, Q.

.r·.~~I ..
Plume Condition ' t?'J
',,
pa '
I I I I u -, . (
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-~
------r--i----.-. :~
.:

. :. C)
. '""I
·, z ...
.:!·'. ~C'
C)

Inversion
Lofting ..... ./
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(e) below .,..

... ---f
. ··1·:1' '
~
Plume Lapse Aloft '' .
··:''i
~· "
tr -x
N
N I

z
w

~ Lapse

. ~~ [''=<·-------
E - ---~
"'I
s·
a
~
(f)
Fumigating
I Plume
below
Inversion . ... . . '',,, . .. "~-: ~\~~~~gH{(
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Aloft
~
~ u -x
.- ::-~
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~
-: z
s·
;::
. i:! Trapping Between
(g) I Plume .:::i··:· ·
Inversions •••:•••1t•••••·· ·,.1·;,
-x ·'I'
~ ...
: I I
u
I I I I '~
·.,·,· 1N

-·~. - ~(/' t ·.:~ i' ~~-; fi. /

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~ : . -· - .: .- - - : ... ·.,
·-AfrPotiiitfrm;afidControtEn@'ni!~zwf - __ -- '·fti~i~-"orold'&,~< --;-- -- __ - .._•

' ----2.23.
5. Lofting Plume

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2.a.4. Wind Rose-
Lofting plume is the plume pattern, occurs when there is a - ' Wind rose at a ]ocation is defined as the pictorial
strong super adiabatic lapse rate above the surface representation of distribution of wind 'direction at the given

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inversion. In this pattern, diffusion is rapid in the upward
location over the observation period. Wind rose is used to
direction and the diffusion does not penetrate the inversion

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show the prevailing wind direction. It is used to view how the
layer in the d~vmwai-d. In this case, emission will not reach
the surface.
wind speed and - direction are - typically distributed .at a
particular location.

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6. Fumigating Plume
It is essentially used in the construction of airport:-
Fumigating plume pattern occurs, at a short distance
runways, as aircraft perform their bestlanding and take-<:ffs
above the stack height and a strong lapse rate prevails below

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pointing into the wind.
the stack. Because of the inversion layer, the emissions
cannot move above the top of the stack. In general, a wind rose diagram consists of eight or sixteen
emerging - lines from a circle, and - each emerging line
Fumigating is the worst case of plume pattern because
indicates the wind direction. The length of each line specifies

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they are brought down near the ground, due to the turbulance
in that region. the frequency of the wind from that direction. The frequency
7. Trapping Plume of calm condition is entered at the centre of the diagram.
A wind diagram can be drawn based on various factors.
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When the inversion layer exists above the emission source
and below the source, the plume lies between the two Some of them are drawn by considering only the wind
inversions. In this case, the dispersion cannot go above a direction and some of them are by considering other
certain height. important meteorological factors, based on the purpose of the
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From the above, it is clear that the lofting plume is the best wind rose diagram.

plume pattern due to the minimised air pollution. The Wind roses may be drawn from the data obtained over the
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trapping and fumigating plumes are the critical plumes from given time, the time interval may be several months or a year
the point of ground level pollutant concentrations. or a season. In wind roses, the meteorological factors are to
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 www.rejinpaul.com
< ~;' _-;; ,, AJr. f.i?lllfl.~9n afi4 Cr>ntr(J/E;°ng{ji¢,/:r.:fng:>: ,', , Met~PfOlogy .: : - 22?-:
~-:-'--'-'-_,.-'"'"""".'_,..~.,......~-'--~-,-:-.:--'-------'-'--'--~---'---'-...--;-----'--;-'-'--,.
<:::;:': ,_-::·>-_(

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- be converted into wind direction that refers to the direction Wind speed ofless than 1 km/h is mentioned as calm.in_
from which the wind is blowing. the wind rose diagram. Following are the special types of
wind roses.

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10%
1. Precipitationwind rose

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,4. • Smoke wind rose
3. S02 wind rose

5% 4. HC wind rose

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2.3.5. Pollution Roses:
3%
Pollution Roses are defined as the wind rose-diagramand

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10%
5% in which, various parameters of precipitation, smoke,
Scale: I cm - 4% sulphur-di-oxide, hydro carbons etc. are attached with the -·.
._,
-

wind direction, instead of wind speed.

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Index: ®aim >------1 ~- Wind Speed 2.3.6. Types of Wind rose
•' % '----=~~-"'""-""-""-"=~~ In Km/h
6-10 11-20 21-30
1. Type I wind Rose (showing direction and duration
,, Fig. 2.8. Wind Rose Diagram ofwind)-
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The frequency of winds blowing from the north is - 2. Type II Wind Rose (showing direction, duration
indicated by a line or bar extending to the north on the wind and intensity of wind)
rose diagram. 2.3.7. Plume Rise and Dispersion Theories

Wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale The dilution of atmospheric wastes from elevated stacks is _
w

to indicate the percentage frequencies of wind direction and considered to occur in two stages,
appropriate index shades, lines etc., to represent various wind I. Plume rise and
w

speeds. 2. Dispersion
In the first stage, the hot plume from the stacks goes up to
w

a certain distance (defined as 'plume rise') into the

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L..Lo Air P ollution, ~nd 9on,irol£~indiri
1~ Wind Tunnel Method
· · .. atmosphere, due to buoyancy and momentum. Subsequently'
. . Wind Tunnel Technique is another method used to

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in the second stage, the plume spreads both vertically and
estimate the effectiveness of the diffusion of the atmospheric
horizontally by the dispersion process.
waste. In this method, a model of the stack and the adjoining

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The phase of pollutant dispersion can be described by the
area of interest are constructed in a wind tunnel, and the
mathematics of diffusion, and has been the subject of,
diffusion experiment conducted on the stack jets in that
considerable: theoretical and experimental work by many

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tunn el , satisfying the usual .geometric and dynamic scaling
workers ·in this field. On the other hand, all the plume rise ·
parameters.
equations are mostly empirical in nature, and none

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The formulas which are available and used to estimate or
uniformly accepted. ·t ..

predicting the pollutants are generally obtained from uniform·

The available theoretical and empirical equations can ~··.
topographic and meteorological conditions. These problems
effectively utilized, to estimate the concentration of pollutants ·
can be eliminated by the Wind Tunnel Method. This method

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downwind from an emission source.
functions, based on the method of similitude between the
These theories and equations involve,
~ tu a 1 flow condition and corresponding model in the
. wind
1. Plume temperature
.
...
tunnel.
"
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2. Rate of emission.
In this case, a strong wind when turbulent mixing keeps
3. Stack parameters the lapse rate in almost adiabatic condition _andit may not ~e
(a) Height and diameter difficult to obtain the usual geometnc and dynamic
(b) Meteorological factors (wind speed, direction · Ilitude
Slllll l · ·s·ut the simulation
. of scales and intensities of
turbulence, and the variation of mean wind velocity with
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etc.)
( c) The atmosphericstability height, is extremely difficult.
(d) The parameters representing the topogral'~ Tlllrbulence is defined as the gas (or a fluid) flow,
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of the region. differentiated by its properties, changes with respect to time,

The above parameters have been employed successfully. which is formed due to the rapid variation of pressure,
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many stack design and pollution control problems. velocity etc.

 www.rejinpaul.com
·228 .. . ' ....Air: . Poliution-and
: ..• ·.
.;. . .
ControlEngineering
. ..·. . ~ ...
·., . ~ . . .' .
,. ' ,.-: 2.29 .
·. ~--·.

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. ·' .. :.

Conventional tunnels fail - in correct prediction when the The atmosphere may be considered to be adiabatic, except
atmospheric lapse rate. controls the plume behaviour, as the near the surface where air exchanges heat. For the adiabatic
temperature within the model is essentially isothermal. Many

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arrangement; the lapse rate yd, = 1 °C per 100 metres of
works are in progress to develop suitable simulation methods,
height..

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which shows that the Wind Tunnel Method is the suitable
· These conditions correspond to the neutral equilibrium in
method for solving the atmospheric diffusion problem.
which a quantity of air can be displaced without showing any
II.Effect of Dilution

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tendency to return to its original height or to move further
Before entering into the detailed description of plume rise away from it. The value of 0 < y < Yd refers to a stable
.. and . dispersion equations, it is important to consider the condition. By a stable arrangement, a quantity of air when
.

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process of dilution of the atmospheric wastes-from the high displaced from one height to another is forced back to its
"'
""• level stack effluents, and also the principle meteorological original. position. When the displaced air tends to move
factors influencing potential air pollution. farther away from its . original position, the condition is
The temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increase known as unstable, i.e., y >Yd·

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in height and the temperature gradient is closely interlinked The lapse rate can be negative so that the temperature
with the stability for air masses and in the study of pollution increases with height and this condition is exceedingly stable
e: in atmosphere, the temperature gradient (lapse rate) is of and the meteorologists call such a distribution an inversion,
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,, . :-'·-
.":
special significance. The temperature lapse rate y is defined .i.e., Yd< 0.
by, Humidity has an influence on the distribution of
-dT
y = temperature in the atmospheric air which is in general mixed
dZ
with water vapour. If the water is in a gaseous state in air, its
w

Where,
presence in small quantities makes little difference in the
T Temperature
behaviour of the air mass as regards its stability. If, on the
w

z Vertical distance
other hand, water vapour condenses, it affects the behaviour
The negative sign indicates drop in temperature and often of the air since there is a great amount of heat release due to
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this sign is neglected. condensation.

 www.rejinpaul.com
230.·· :::.·.: ~~eqr:~lQf!J1 ,
·. '-:.

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,:

_ The lapse rate, which may vary widely even in normal day ·elevation z1, and u can 'be the mean wind at any elevationz,
u can be expressedasfollows as given by Sutton:
~-=·
conditions, plays an important role in the case of dilution of
stack effluents in the atmosphere. The negative lapse· rate or
J

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U [~ n/(2-n)
temperature inversion (the inversion layer may. begin at ·~I Z1

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ground level and extend. up to a few hundred metres) may
Where, n is the turbulence parameter, 0 ~ µ.< 1.
occur on clear nights with light winds when the air next to the
The approximate value of n for a large lapseTate is 0_20
surface is cooled by the cold ground" surface. A low-level

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and for marked inversion is 0.50. Other meteorological
inversion always acts as a barrier to vertical dilution or the
factors which affect the turbulence or mixing of pollutantsare
pollutants even in an unstable surface layer and thus leads to
humidity, vertical gradient in humidity, etc.
an increase in the intensity of air pollution near the ground.

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It is apparent that the form of stack emissions depends on
Gustiness of wind plays an important role in the dilution
of atmospheric wastes. Gusts are the manifestation of the wind profile, . turbulence of the wind, temperature
atmospheric turbulence and a quantitative measure of distribution, etc.
gustiness gives the magnitude of turbulence. In other words,

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Hf.Plume Rise andits Estimation
gustiness, g', is the measure of the fluctuation of the mean
velocity of a turbulent wind in a particular direction. Plume rise is defined as the rising of the emissions (or
"..
~t plume) to a certain distance into the atmosphere due to the
'.J . ·- If u is the mean wind velocity in the x-direction, and v' is
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the component fluctuation of the mean wind in j--direction, velocity and temperature.
then, the gustiness in they-direction, g~ is given by, The level of pollution at a location highly depends on the
, l_~ height of the stack. The 'effective height' of a stack is the
g y = -- -\I (v')3
u sum of total height of the stack and the rise of the plume
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beyond the stack exit. The plume rise depends on many

Another important factor, wind-speed profile . in the
factors as follows.
vertical plane, is a good measure of the degree of turbulence
1. Exit velocity
w

and atmospheric stability. In an unstable atmosphere, the

variation in wind-speed profile with height is much less than 2. \Vind speed
3. Diameterof the stack
w

under stable condition. If ~ is the mean wind at a particular

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: ,2..32 .', - 4 i':; J'.ol/71(io~and Cqntroljf,ngin_e¢ring · ..
· Meteorb/dgy·, . . . . · · .' .. · :--:- .:·---·_:--.-: ·.

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4 .. · Temperature of the plume
5. Lapse rate, etc. Wind Speed (fh/sec)

The plume rise can be calculated by. using number of d Stack diameter (in m)

o
formulas and one of the formula is given below; Heat emission rate (K 0 cal/ sec)
Plume rise regression co-efficients

.c
depends on the atmospheric stability
Where, In the above formula, the first term evaluates the vertical

ul
a, p andK Constants momentum of the gases leaving the stack. The second term
Tm Mean Temperature during measurements evaluates the buoyancy force of the plume, which is a
-

pa
function of heat content of the plume. Hence, the magnitude
In Canadian Combustion Research Laboratory, the

., values of a, P and Kare estimated as !, 1, 66.4 respectively.

of the plume rise is inversely proportional to the wind speed,

.
$' directly proportional to the sum of mass ejection rate, and
,, Q is expressed in K cal/sec and u is in terms of m/sec, square root of heat content of the gases.

jin
.. where K is the function of height of the source emission. The BIS has suggested that the following Brigg's
In another method, the plume rise can be computed by the formula, be used to compute plume rise for practical use.
theory of buoyancy and momentum. (a) For hot effluents with heat release of the order of
.re
f Afz = Mi buoyancy + !)..h momentum I 1 Q6 cal/sec or more.
Q l/4.
Moses and Carson 'introduced the following formula for H
0.84 (12.4 + 0.09 h)
plume rise height.
u
w

Where,
u u Heat release in calories per second
w

Where, Height of the stackin meters

Plume rise in m u - wind speed (in m/sec)

w

Vs Stack exit velocity (m/sec)

 www.rejinpaul.com
' ,- '2.34 - - .·. >A}~folludon imd Control El1gineering .: ·. 'Me.teo~ol<-,gy

m
~~.4.1. \Vind Dir~ction Recorder
ii), For low heat releases and which can be mounted as
momentum sources above.

o
.c
Where,
W0 Efflux velocity of the same units as~

ul
D Stack exit diameter
·It may be noted that, even though the available plume rise
formulae, predicts well in a particular place for some

pa
particular conditions, nothing can be completely accepted due
to the empirical behaviour- The lack of a complete theory
concerning the rise of plumes in the atmosphere is probably a
barrier to the environmentalists m the prediction of ;'

jin
' Fig. 2.9. Wind Direction Recorder
downwind pollution levels.
Wind direction recorder of the NEERI for measuring ~ind
2.4. METHODS OF MEASURING METEOROLOGICAL direction employs the conventional wind vane to sense the
VARIABLES wind direction. It is automatic and operated mechanically
.re
The instrument which is used for meteorological -factors without any power supply. The instrument continuously
should have higher degree of accuracy and sensitivity. Also, records the wind direction on a chart attached with the
it should be simple and' durable. The National instrument.
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
L Surface Wind Oiiredion
w

has developed some devices for measuring the

There are. four main types of wind vanes for measuring
meteorological factors. The devices are,
direction
w

1. Wind Direction Recorder 1. Flat plate vane

· 2. Wind Speed Recorder 2. Splayed vane
3. Temperature Measurement 3. Aerofoil vane
w

4. Solar Radiation Measurement 4. Running average anemograph


Air Pollution and Control Engineering
• ··1'o·Fl~tPkiteV:~tie·,_:_• •-
In the flat plate v~e type, the sensing element which
governs the azimuth angle- of a vertical shift specifying the
wind direction is a vertical plate which js mounted at one end
of a horizontal rod. On the otherend of the horizontal rod a
' obtained using triangulation techniques at successive height
counter weight is located. The rod is fastened to the vertical
shaft. Wind pressure acting on theflat plate keeps the counter
ul
weight heading into the wind.
2. Splayed vane
In this instrument, two flat. plates which arc joined at a
pa
small angle at one end of a horizontal rod act as the wind
direction sensor. -
3. Aerofoil vane
In this instrument the vane has an aerofoil cross section
jin
with the span often being three or four times the chord.
4. Running average anemograph
It is always better to measure the average wind speed and
.re
direction, if possible. While averaging the wind direction, a
problem occurs from the process of differentiating 0° - 360°
as the wind direction fluctuates around north.
An anemograph which automatically produces the running
w
averages of both wind speed and direction has been
developed.
II. Wind Direction Aloft
w
The wind direction at the height of a plume from one or
more stacks is important in some investigations. All the
w
available methods are discussed, below.
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A{eteorol~g;y- , ····-' -:. - __ .:.-_- ·: ..
m
·-<~),PiI~t brN100D.s.·(Pi6als)
In this method, a small ballooa inflated with hydrogen or
helium is left aloft and the direction of the , wind aloft is .
o
determined by tracking the balloon by means of one or· more
theodolites on the ground. The average wind direction is
.c
intervals. The pilot balloon technique of determining wind
·aloft isof limited value because the balloon may be lost with
low cloud, fog or smoke.
(b) Tetroons
A tetroon is a constant volume Mylar balloon in the shape
of a tetrahedron which is kept in a zero lift condition and
carried by the wind in an almost horizontal direction. Zero lift
balloons are produced by filling pilot balloons with a mixture
of two gases, one is more dense and the other less dense than
air. As the mixture of gases leaks from the balloon, the loss of
the heavier gas causes a decrease in its weight. Thus an
approximate mixture of gases will keep the balloon in a zero
lift or balanced condition for lengthy periods of time. Such a
balloon, when accurately tracked, acts as a sensor for wind
direction. The advantage of this type of balloon lies in the
fact that it can indicate wind trajectories near cities, over
shorelines and in valleys where complicated patterns of
airflow are commonly observed. If substantial distances are
· to be tracked, a radar installation with a transponder
suspended from the tetroon will be required, which is an
expensive method.
(c) Kite balloons
A kite balloon is an elongated captive balloon with fins at
one end.
 www.rejinpaul.com
.:::_::.::;.,···

m
It acts..:..~s an-ordinary captive spherical balloon ir~/light anemometer. The-rate of rotation. of the shaft to which the
winds and <is .a kite in stronger winds, thus maintaining . cups are attached indicates the wind speed and this is
altitude under both conditions. The azimuth angle of the

o
transmitted to a recorder or an indicating panel by either
horizontal projection of the tethering cable is measured at the
mechanical,opticalor electrical means.
ground to determine the wind direction at the height of the

.c
balloon. The inflating gas lost by slow leakage is replaced by In the instrumenta four cup rotor is employed to sense the ,
refilling it at intervals. wind. The motion of the cup is transferred after reducing its
(d) Radio and radar speed by a gear system, to the pen which makes a continuous

ul
In the radio method, a small radio transmitter is carried rise and fall impression on chart paper. This rate of rise or fall
aloft by a freely rising balloon and is tracked. With the radar is proportionalto the wind speed.

pa
system,. pulses of electrical energy emitted by the radar are
reflectedback to it by a target carried by the free balloon. The
distance to the target as well as azimuth and elevation angles
is measured by the system. This gives more accurate results
than the radio direction finder. However, operation and

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maintenance costs of radio and radar theodolites are
prohibitivelyhigh.
(e) Smoke trails
.re
Information on wind directions aloft may be obtained by
finding at intervals the position in space of smoke trails
released above the ground by a rising rocket or an aeroplane.
However, observations in fog, smoke, or at night, are not
w

possible. Also, this method requires more operating personnel

than the pilot balloon method.

2.4.2. Wind Speed Recorder

w

Anemometer is the instrument used for measuring wind

speed. Tf they are recording instruments they are known as Fig. 2.10. WindSpeed Recorder
w

anemographs. The most common type is the cup ·

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•2.40,

m
Working of Mercury thermometers is based on thermal
The instrument gives a 24-hour record in one setting.
expansjon while bimetallic thermometers are . based on the
Wind speed at a particular time and the average wind speed
differential expansion of two metals.

o
can be found out from this record. -
The electrical resistance thermometer is based on the ·
2.4.3. Huntldity Measurement

.c
(Whirling Psychrometer)
variation in electrical resistance · of a metallic wire with
change in temperature and a thermo- couple is based on the
One of the simplest and II?-ost reliable instruments used to
electrical current which flows when two electrical conductors
measure the humidity is the whirling psychrometer. Two

ul
made of two different metals are joined together. All four
thermometers, one with a wet cloth surrounding the bulb, are
types are used.
whirled in the air. The temperatures of both dry bulb and wet
To obtain accurate readings, the thermometer must be

pa
bulb thermometers are noted.
shielded from radiant energy. Proper aspiration is also
From the temperature difference between the dry bulb and
. ~ecessary to· avoid the stagnation of the air inside the
wet bulb thermometers,the relative humidity of the air can be
radiation shield. A motor aspirated radiation shielded
found by referring to psychrometric table. - .

jin
· temperature sensor for temperature inversion studies
Other instruments that can be used for measuring humidity
are: developed by NEERI is described.

1. Infra-red hygrometer In this temperature probe, a glass probe· bead type

thermistor is used. The constructionaldetails of the probe are
.re
2. Hair hygrometer
shown in Fig. 2.11.
2.4.4. Temperature Measu rerne rrt
A common instrument for measurement of temperature is
thermometer. Following four types of thermometers are used.
Brass Tip

G~~f;~;;:::::::::::::p:::~ Ji
w

1. Mercury thermometers Steel body Shockabsorbing PVC Cap

Material
2. Electrical resistance thermometer
w

3. Bi-Metallic thermometer · Fig. 2.11. Probe Details

4. Ordinary digital thermometer
w
 www.rejinpaul.com
. Meteorology. .·.·:·:· ,•. __

m
I-
::) Two core shielded electrical contacts are taken from the
0 -
thermistor leads. The thermistor is first wrapped in a shock
absorbing material and is put into an exactly fitting stainless

o
steel tube.

.c
. A thin walled conical shaped metallic tip rs fixed at one
end of the stainless steel tube. The thermistor is pushed until
its sensitive point makes a positive thermal contact with the

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thin walled metallic tip. The open end of the stainless steel
tube is closed with a PVC cap and the joint is made

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watertight with some adhesive. -
Figure 2.12 gives the details of the radiation shield. It
consists of two concentric PVC pipes A and B separated from
each other by an air layer and supported at two positions by

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two polyvinyl chloride (PVC) rings R1, and R2. PVC is
preferred as it is a good heat insulator and at the same time is
also a light material with sufficientstrength.
.re
<(-O::Z
The temperature probe (TP) is positioned on the axis of
the inner pipe with the help of a PVC sheet (S) and clamps C1
and C2• The tip of the probe is kept 5-8 cm inside from the
edges of the outer pipe and about 2.5 cm from the edges of
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the inner pipe.

The outer surface of the outer pipe and the ends of the
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inner and outer surfaces of both the pipes are covered with
Fig. 2.12. Motor Aspirated Radiation Shielded
Temperature Sensor aluminium foil having good eIEissivity.
w
 www.rejinpaul.com
-,Air P.ollz1tiofz
and. Coruroi. Engineering> .·_.··'2AS: -: ·
.· . .':.

m
. ., ·. . ,.... . •: . . ..
_

. :::·,····
··.: .. .-·
.:

A fan assembly-is fixed at the other end of the pipes. A .;. Stack height
small fan (F) driven by a motor (M) _working on 9-12 volts .;. Exit velocity of the gas

o
(DC) and mounted in a funnel shaped support, aspirates the .;. Exit temperature of the gas
air over the probe. .;. Stack diameter

.c
.;. Meteorological Conditions
2.4.5. Solar Radiation Measurement
.;. Wind velocity
Knowledge of sunlight intensity is important especially in
.;. Wind direction

ul
places where photochemical smog formation takes place.
Instruments used to measure the radiant energy from the sun .;. Ambient temperature
are, .;. Atmospheric stability

pa
1. Pyrheliometer
2.5.2. Dispersion Equations
2. Solarimeter The dispersion of pollutants is due to the turbulent flow of
3. Chemical actinometer etc. the wind. It is depending on the atmospheric stability,
zustiness etc. Generally dispersion is a three dimensional
2.5. DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS b •

jin
When the air pocket, containing air pollutants, released to
the atmosphere from a source, it gets dispersed into the
atmosphere to various directions, depending upon the
.re
prevailing winds, temperature and pressure conditions in the
...... environment. Under the normal environmental conditions,
when a packet of air (which is hotter and lighter than the
surrounding air) is released to the atmosphere, then it tends to
rise up and reaches a level, at which its temperature and
w
approach, and the solution for that approach is
·mathematically difficult. Hence three dimensional equations
are required to get the solution. These equations (or models)
estimate the concentration of pollutants in the plume at any
distance x, y and z in the horizontal down-wind direction,
cross-wind direction and vertical wind direction respectively.
The turbulent diffusion models for atmospheric pollutants
are based on Fick's law of molecular diffusion. Assuming
x., ~ and x, are Eddy-Diffusivity Co-efficients in three

density becomes equal to the surrounding air. directions and applying the continuity in the atmosphere, we
2.5.1. Factors affecting dispersion of pollutants get,
w

Various factors affecting dispersion of pollutants in the ac J + cya [ ~ . ac

axa [ K, . ax ay J
atmosphere are, ac
rt { +-a. az [ K_~ .-aacz J +Qx , >' ---
w

.;. Source Characteristics

.;. Emission rate of pollutant
 .~·.;
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.. ::·:·:, .. : . ··1···. ··;:

}'vf eteorology

m
Where,
Table 2.1. Pas(/Hill:_s Stability Categories
~.y._z Source or Sink expressed in appropriate terms
Day Nizht
Surface
. In the above equation, the value I<~, KY and K, will vary

o
Ioci>mingSolar Radiation Thin ;

Wind Speed <

overcast or
with respect to location and time and hence, the equation will (m/sec) (3/8)
Strong Moderate Weak (4/8) Low

.c
be comprehensive. atz=lOm cloud·
cloud
On the basis of the Ficks law, Gaussian developed a <2 A A-B B E F
statistical equation called Gaussian Dispersion Equation, 2-3 A-B B c E F

ul
4-5 B. B-C c D E -
and is given as,
Concentr~tion l . Q [ 2
5-6 c C:D D D n
1= 2n0yazu -t(~~) J >6 C° - D D D D

pa
of pollution ·-_exp
C
-
The horizontal and the vertical =--di$Eersion coefficients m
horizontal Gaussian plume calculations can be approximated as,

{ [ -2l(z-H)
exp ~ 2]
+exp l(z+H)
l- -2~ 2]}
ay(x) = ax0.894 and az(x} = cx« +f

jin
'Where,
vertical
x - Downwind distance, in kilometer (km)
Where, C -· Concentration of Pollutant (in gm/m-')
a, c, d and/ -Constants, given in the table below,
Q Emission rate of the pollutant (gm/sec)
.re
-,.., 1· cry= axil' and b. is always ~ 0.894 I
Mean wind velocity (in m/sec)
Table 2.2. · Constants for calcuJatill!J, Dispersion Coefficients
x - Downwind horizontal distance (in km)
y - Crosswind distance (inm) Stability x<l km x> 1 km
a
c c
w

cry - Plume's Standard Deviation m cross-wind Category d f d f

A 213 440.8 1.941 9.277 459.7 2.094 -9.6
direction (in m)
B 156 106.6 1.149 3!} 108.2 1.098 2:0
(J - Plume's Standard Deviation in' vertical
w

z
c 104 61.0 0.911 0 61.0 0.911 0
direction (in m)
D 68.0· 33.2 0,725 -1.7 44.5 0.516 -13.0
H - Effective stack Height
E 50.5 22 .. 8 0.678 -1.3 55.4 0.305 -34.0
w

F 34.0 14.35 0.740 -0.35 62.6 0.180 -48.6

 · · "; Meteqf:ofogy'.,
www.rejinpaul.com
~
... · ...- ~--- .
. ---

m
Numerical Valuesfor Horizontal Diffusion (cry)
In the downwind horizo_:italdirection along the centerline
of the plume, (When concentration is required only along
3 x 103 - I )
2

.I
"v
x - direction) then y ~ 0. ,J- I;

o
-----=e - 2 (~- ,- - ,~22) I
103 ~
- """"
r---c,,o-Q

t
./
/ /

I_ v

.c
/ "
nucrz.cry . 5
I v ~ ...
When the smokes are emitted at ground level, the effective
E ., / '--"v ./
t->

stack height (Hjis zero.

.S
-E"
-2
II v v v
v ~~
~~
i.-
Q) j ,;' i- [.....-
102
,

ul
'zs
The maximum ground level concentration occurs, where
1E
0
0
Q)
,,,.
-- -
c 5
II'
/
v "' V/
/
""
cr, = 0.707 H, provided (::)is constant with downwind
0
·c;;
- / V- v
/
v v v v ""'
v v Vi,. .

pa
(i) 1,1.- ~

distancex.
0.
(/)
'5
co
2

101
0 / v ,;' . v A • Extremely unstable
(_)

104 t
~
N
5 /
/

/
"
/
v
,
,, - B - Moderately unstable
A - Slightly unstableA
D - Neutral

t
" V/ E - Slightly stable
5 / b F - Moderately stable
v

jin
/ / v y 2
2 / Vv v v
YVj vv t>v v"
v ~/
v

, , " 5 1a3 2 5 104 2 5 105

/ , , /
Downwind! distance (x) from source in m ----
/ v I//
.re
/ / I/ ~ /
c
V/ v Vi;~ Fig. 2.14.
0 2
-~
Q)
a. v~ ~
v )/'y I/
Numerical Values for Vertical Diffusion (cry)
B 102 ~ I/
, , ,
ro
c0 /
, / / Values of crx and oy are the function of downward
N 5 / / /
"§ v_,.. v /
A - Extremely unstable -
w

I
/ B·- Moderately unstable_r-
distances (x) and atmospheric stability. Values of cry and crz
V/_,.. v ~v A • Slightly unstableA
b /,,
2
v~ r- vv /
D -Neutral
E - Slightly stable
F - Moderately stable
-~

-
for various values of x and different types of atmospheric
stabilities are also given in figure 2.13 and 2.14.
w

,,, , ,
J I Example 2.1 I On a summer afternoon with a wind
2 5 103 2

Downwinddistance (x) from source, in m

5 104

---
2 5
speed of 3. 20 m Is the concentrationof particulate matter was
w

found to be 1520 µg!m3 at a point 2 km down wind and 0.5

Fig. 2.13.
 www.rejinpaul.com . · .. ·
-. 2.50.· '. :::.-':, ', ,: '·.. 2 ..51
•· • ).fe,teoiyto.iY, :' · . '•, '' ~:..:.-
._;;__,~__.:.__.:.--...:--;o--,--'-:~_;_;_~~~-,,-------,-

m
km perpendicular to. the plume centerline from· a coal fired Substituting,
power plant. Determine-the particulate emission rate of the 123~
!)..h ·5 [ 1.5 + (2.68 x IQ-3 x 1000 x ~ .5
power plant, given the following:

o
Stack Parameters Atmospheric Condition
Height : 75.0 m Pressure : 100 Kpa x [5955;;01 ]) J'

.c
Diameter : 1.50 m Temperature : 28° C
Sh = 5.625 (l.5+1.986)
Exit Velocity : 12 mis
Temperature. : 322° C Afz = 19.61 m

ul
Make any assumption, iffound necessary. Effective Height, [- H = h + !}..h
(Nov/ Dec 2011) (May/ June 2012) (Nov/ Dec 2012) H = 75m+l9.6m = 94.691 m

pa
Solution:.... ·":" Gaussian Dispersion Equation
Holland's equation for plume height (flh), Concentration }
ofpollution =--Q_= exp
[ 1 (
-2 ~
) 2 J
Vs·D [ 1.5 + 2.68. . . (Ts-Ta)]
x 1 o-3 PD C 2na/3zU
I tlh u Ts
centre line . horizontal

jin
Where,
bh Rise of the plume above the stack (in m) {exp [ -~e~zH) 2 ]: exp [-it ==H) 2- J}
Vs Stack gas velocity or Exit Velocity (m/sec) vertical
.re
= 12 m/s VVhere,
-·- D Inside exit dia of the stack (in m) = 1.50 m c Concentration of Pollutant (in gm/m3)
u - Wind speed (in m/sec) = 3.20 m Is = 1520 ug/nr'
p Atmospheric pressure (in millibars) = 100 Kpa Q Emission rate of the pollutant (gm/sec)
w

= 1000 millbars[l kPa = 10 millibar] µ - Mean wind velocity (in m/sec) = 3.20 mis
Ts - Stack gas temperature, (in °K) y - Crosswind distances (in m) = 500m
w

= 322° c = 322+273 = 595 °K cry - Plume's Standard Deviation in cross-wind

. Ta - Air temperature; (in °K) = 28° C direction (in m)
w

= 28+273 = 301 °K
 2.52 A_ir Pollution and Control Engineering _
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Meteorology 2.53

·.•-:. ::.', .'·.<(> -:; ·t~tim¢·:s· stai{(Iara'0~v1k46ii.'.:1n~~ri1ca{a1i~6iidh ·

~1z1it'JF '1;J;~:i~

m
(inm) · . 1s20 ~ ~:~2~0)
g90)(3.2J[e 1

(94.6)2 }
H - Effective stack.Height = 94.61 m + e - 2(234)2

o
From the table 2.1, Pasquill's Stability Categories, For Q .
Wind speed, u = 3.20 m Is and Summer Afternoon (Strong- 1520 = 1.36 x 106 (0.26) (0.921+0.921) .

.c
. Incoming Solar Radiation), stability category (A-B) selected.
Category, Bis assumed for this calculation. Q ·= 4,965 x 109 µg/s
The value of cry and a z can be calculated as follows. Q = 4965 g/s

ul
j ay (x) = a x0.894 J and
2.6. DISPERSION MODELS
J az (x) = c xd +f I Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or

pa
From table 2.2, for Stability Category B and x = 2 km appro~chesmade to the dispersion of pollutants to study how
(x > lkm), the value of air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The
dispersion models vary depending on the mathematical
a = 156, c = 108.2, d = 1.098andf = 2.0
calculations used to develop the model.

jin
Substituting,
. The dispersion models· vary depending on the
aY = 156 (2.0)0.89
mathematics used to develop the dispersion
= 289.898 or 290 m model.
.re
Ci== 108.2(2.0)1.098+2.0 The dispersion models require the following details~
= 233.61 or 234 m a) Meteorological Factors
Concentration.} - 2
• Wind speed and direction,
of pollution = Q
exp [ -t(~) J
w

C . 2ncryaz-;; • The amount of atmospheric turbulence

centre line horizontal • Ambient air temperature

-k (z :zH) J e ;zH) J } • The height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that
w

{ exp [ 2 +exp [ - ~ 2
may be present
vertical • Cloud cover
w

• Solar radiation.
 www.rejinpaul.com
·.•. M_~teorology .·
~
b) Sources of E.i:rri~sion

m
This model is very limited in its ability to accurately
• The concentration or quantity of toxins in emission predict dispersion of air pollutants over an air shed be~ause
(or accidental release) the assumption of homogeneous poUutant distribution is

o
• Temperature of the material much too simple .

c) Emissions Parameters b] Gaussian model

/.

.c
• Source location and height - The· Gaussian model is the oldest and· most commonly

• Type of Source (i.e., fire, pool or vent stack) I used model type. It assumes that the air pollutant dispersion
has a Gaussian distribution, (meaning that the pollutant

ul
• Exit velocity
distribution has a normal probability distribution). Gaussian
• Exit temperature and
models are generally used for predicting the dispersion of
• Mass Flow Rate or release rate . continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from

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d) Terrain elevations at the source location ground-level or elevated sources. Gaussian models-may also
be 'used for predicting the dispersion of non-continuous air
• The receptor location (nearby homes, SCh 00 1 S,
pollution plumes (called puff models). The primary algorithm
.. businesses and hospitals)
used in Gaussian modeling is the Generalized Dispersion

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The location, height and width of any obstructions
Equation for a Continuous Point-Source Plume
(such as buildings or other structures) in the path of
the emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness. •C) Lagrangian model
Lagrangian dispersion model mathematically follows ·
.re
2.6.l. Types ofAir Pollution Dispersion Models
pollution plume parcels (also called particles) as the parcels
There are five types of air pollution dispersion models.
move in the atmosphere and they model the motion of the
a) Box model parcels as a random walk process. The Lagrangian model
The box model is the simplest of the model types. It calculates the air pollution dispersion by computing the·
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assumes the air shed (i.e., a given volume of atmospheric air statistics of the trajectories of a large number of the pollution
in a geographical region) is in the shape of a box. It also plume parcels, A Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of
assumes that the air pollutants inside the box are reference as the parcels move from their initial location. It is
w

homogeneously distributed and uses that assumption to said that an observer of a Lagrangian model follows along
estimate the average pollutant concentrations anywhere with the plume.
within the air shed.
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 2.56
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e,

Air Pollution and Control.Engineering

m
~) Euterlaii model
4~ Estimation of predict future concentrations under ----
Eulerian dispersions model is similar to a Lagrangian -
specific scenarios (i.e. changes in emission sources)>
model in that it also tracks the movement of a large number
I Example 2.2 I Determine the effective height of:;_. stack

o
of pollution plume parcels as they move -from their initial
location. The most important difference between the ·two from the following data. -: /

.c
models is that the Eulerian model uses a fixed three- Wind Velocity, u 3 m/sec
dimensional Cartesian grid as a frame of reference rather than Air temperature 21 =c
a moving frame of reference. It is said that an observer of an 200 m with~
{ O. 98m inside diameter

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Eulerian model watches the plume go by. Physical Stack =

-· e) Dense Gas Model Atmospheric pressure = 1000 millibars

Stack gas velocity 11.12 ml sec
.
...

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t:-··
Dense gas models are models that simulate the dispersion
of dense gas pollution plumes (i.e., pollution plumes that are Stack gas temperature 160 ° C
heavier than air). Based on the stability classification in the ©Solution:
field · of atmospheric diffusion, the three following well From the given data,
known models are used.

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Wind Velocity, u = 3 m/sec
1. Pasquill Model
Stack height, h 200 m
2. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
D 0.98 m
Model
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Atmospheric temperature 21° c
3. McElroy Model
Ta = 21+273 = 294° K
2.6.2. Applications of Dispersion Models Stack Gas Temperature, Ts = 160° c
Following are the applications of dispersion models. 160 +273 = 433° K
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I. Air Quality Assessment

Atmospheric Pressure, P = 1000 millibars
2. Estimation of downwind ambient concentration of air Stack gas velocity, Vs = 11.12 m/sec
pollutants
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Rise of the plume above the Stack, f..h

3. Calculation of toxins emitted from sources such as
industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental = V s u· D. [ 1.5 + 2.68 x 1 Q-3 PD (Ts-Ta
· _ Ts ) J
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chemical releases.
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". .. ·•.. .v- 258°

m
11.12 x 0.98 [ .r: ••
3 x 3.6 tonnes/year
= 3 . L5 + 2,68 x 10-3 x 1000-+< 0.98
- 10.8 tonnes/year
433-294) J

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x ( 433 Assume the industry is working 20 hours in a day for 300
days in a year.
3.633 [1.5 + 0.843]

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10.8
• • b..h 8.513 m Q'p = 300 x 20
Effective Height of the Stack,
1.8 x l0-3 tonnes/hour

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IH=h~
h 74 (Q.P )0.27
= 200 + 8.513
= 74 (1.8 x I0-3)0.21

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H - 208.513 m
I
Example 2.j~ An industry uses 3.6 ml of oil fuel per
= 13.43 m

year. It has also been calculated that for every 1 ml of fuel · The height of 13.43 m chimney rs required for the
oil burnt in the industry per year, the quantities of various effective disposal of Particulate Matter.

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pollutants, emitted are given below. l
(ii) By using equation h == 14 (Qs)3
PM = 3 t/year
Where,
S02 = 60 t/year
NOx 8 t!year Q, = S02 in (kg/hour)
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Hydro Carbon HC 0.5 t!year S02 emissions 60 tonnes/year/ml of oil
Carbon Monoxide CO 0.5 tlyear 60 x-1000
300 x 20 x 3·6
Calculate the required height of Chimneyfor safe dispersion.
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of the pollutants. 36 kg/hour

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©Solution: :. h - 14 x (36)3
46.22
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m
(i) By using the equation, h = 74 (Qp)o.21
Where, The height of 46.22 m required for the effective disposal
of the S02 and this height is more than the minimum
emissions of particulate matters in
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QP = { tonners/hour . requirement of 30 m height. Hence the height of 46.5 m is

 ...
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-2.60

m
provided for the effective disposal of pollutants including the- = 1800 µglhour
NOx, CO and HCs.
Since 'JO% of lead present in the fuel is emitted as particulate
I Example I
2.4 During rush hour on a busy road

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aerosol, the lead aerosol released in air
crossing, nearly 1500 vehicles ply per hour at an average 1800 µg/h x 0.8
speed of 30 km/hr. Of these, about 80% cars use leaded

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- 1440 µg/hour
petrol. The average fuel consumption is one litre for an
average of 8 km of travel. Consideringthat 80% of the lead Hence, 1440 µg/h of lead is released in air as particulate
aerosol.

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present in the fuel is emitted in the form of particulate
aerosol,find the emission rate of lead aerosol i71 the ambient TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
air. (Given: concentration of lead in the fuel 0. 4 µg!L;
p List out the meteorological factors in the context of air

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assume bright day with Light wind). -
pollution. (May/June 2012)
©Solution:
./ Primary Parameters
Number of vehicles passingper hour on the road = 1500
.;. Wind Speed and Direction
Since 80% cars use leaded petrol,

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the number of lead emitting vehicles} .;. Temperature
.
passmg per hour on the road, = 1500 x 80%
.;. Atmospheric Stability
= 1200 .;. Mixing Height
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Average fuel consumption per hour by each vehicle ./ Secondary Parameters
1 Litre_ km .;. Rainfall and Precipitation
= 8km x 30
.;. Humidity ·
3.75 litres (L)
.;. Solar Radiation
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Total fuel consumption by 1200 vehicles per hour

.;. Visibility
= 1200 x 3.75
2.6' What is mixing height? (Nov/Dec2011)
= 4500 Litre/hour
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----- lead in fuel =

Since the concentration of 0.4 µg/L Mixing height is defined as the height above the earth's
surface to which related pollutants will extend, primarily
The total lead contained in 4500L/h of used fuel
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through the action of atmospheric turbulence".

= 0.4 µg/Lx 4500 L/hr
1
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What is a "Plume'?
(fl. / What is lapse rate? · -,
(Novi Ike 2012)
\ (Nov/Dec 2016, R-2008) (Nov/Dec 2016, R-2013)
Plume is defined as the path and its extension in the . (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2018)

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atmosphere of the emitted gas from a source. The source The rate at which, the temperature changes with
is generally referred as stack. increasing height of the atmosphere is called Lapse Rate

{1J.

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Define Plume rise. or Temperature Lapse Rate.

(Nov/Dec 20Jlj (May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec2015) ~I State adiabaticlapse rate. (Nov/Dec2018)

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Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume TI:ie lapse rate of a parcel of dry air, when it lifts upwards
in a hydrostatically-stable environment and expands
from the stack into the atmosphere, due to the buoyancy
and momentum. slowly to the lower environment pressure without

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'exchange of heat is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
Define atmospheric stability.
10. · Write the plume rise computing formula suggested by
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)
JS: fl829?
Atmespherlc stability is defined as the measure of Maximum Concentration (Cm) of pollutants on ground

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atmospheric tendency to encourage or discourage the level is given as,
vertical motion and the vertical motion is directly related
to the different types
severity.
of weather conditions and its
0iiV- 1AT
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Where,
6. What do you mean by inversion? ·(Nov/Dec2014)
H Height of the stack
When the Reverse (or Negative) lapse rate occurs, a
dense-cold stratum of air at ground level gets covered by K Constant
M Mass of the pollutant gases discharged per unit
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lighter-warm air at higher levels. This concept is called

inversions. time

It) Write the types of inversion. V - Volume of the pollutant gases discharged per
(May/June 2016)
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unit time
(i) Radiation Inversions
AT - Difference in temperature of stack gases and
(ii) Subsidence Inversion
surrounding air
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2.64 . Air Pollution and Control Engineering
.- ::;:~--- . •" .:

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·. ·.(()- . What a~e tt;ind ro.~~s?Siaie
us~s~ .
(May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (April/May 2015) /JJ. What are dispersion models? -
(Nov/Dec 2015) (May/June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2016) (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(Nov/Dec 2016, R 2013) (Nov/Dec 2017)

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Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or
(April/May 2018) approaches made to the dispersion· of pollutants to study
Wind rose at a location is defined as the pictorial

representation of distribut_ion of wind direction at the
given location over the observation period. Wind rose is
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how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere.
15. Express Gaussian dispersionmodel. (Novi Dec 2012)
The Gaussian model is the oldest ·and most commonly

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used to show the prevailing wind direction.
It is used to view how the wind speed and direction are
typically distributed at a particular location.
used model type. It assumes that the air pollutant
dispersion has a Gaussian distribution. It is for predicting
the dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution

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.....
.....
What is turbulence and how it is formed?
(May/June 2013) (April/May 2017)
Turbulence is defined as the gas (or a fluid) flow,
plumes _originating from ground-level or elevated
sources.
What are the applicationsof Dispersion Models?
-
..... .
differentiated by its properties, changes with respect to (Nov/Dec 2017) • ..

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.,.
.....
~
time, which is formed due to the rapid variation of Following are the applications of dispersion models .
pressure, velocity etc. 1. Air Quality Assessment
13. What is the prime mechanism to disperse air pollution? 2. Estimation of downwind ambient concentration of · . . -'°'·
air pollutants
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(May/June 2012)
When the air pocket, containing air pollutants, released 3. Calculation of toxins emitted from sources such as
to the atmosphere from a source, it gets dispersed into industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental
chemical releases.
the atmosphere to various directions, depending upon the
4. Estimation of predict future concentrations under
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prevailing winds, temperature and pressure conditions in

the environment. Under the normal environmental specific scenarios (i.e. changes in emission sources).
conditions, when a packet of air (which is hotter and REVIEW QUESTIONS
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lighter than the surrounding air) is released to the

1. Briefly discuss about the various meteorological
atmosphere, then it tends to rise up and reaches a level, at ·
parameters that influencing air pollution. (16)
which its temperature and density becomes equal to the
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(Nov/Dec 2017)
surrounding air.
(Or)
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•· /. Air-Pollution and Co~;rolErigitzeeiihg .·. ·

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List out the various meteorological parameters 5. Discuss the various plume patterns for the different
influencing air pollution. Explain them. (16) prevailing lapse rates. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(April/May 2017) (Or)

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{Or)
I What is a Plume? Explain the different plume
behaviour with respect to the prevailing lapse rates. (8)
Explain the role of meteorological factors in pollution

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(May/June 2012) (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
studies. (Nov/Dec 2011)
(Or)
(Or)
Explain the plume behaviour from a stack for different

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What are the meteorological factors influencing the air atmospheric stability conditions. (Nov/Dec 2011)
pollution? Explain briefly. (8) (Qr)
(Nov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2013) Describe the behavior of plume for various atmosphere _
- -

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·- <conditions with neat sketches. (8) (Nov/Dec 2015)
(Or)
(Or)
Discuss in detail about the effect of metrological
Describe in detail about plume behaviour.
parameters on transport and diffusion of air pollution.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2016) (8) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16)
(May/June 2014)

jin
(Nov/Dec 2017, R- 2013)
Refer Chapter 2.1.1.; Page 2. l (Or)
2. Explain the atmospheric stability process through With neat sketch explain the types of plume. (6)
temperature lapse rate. (8) (Nov/Dec 2018) (May/June 2016)
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Refer Chapter (II) 2.1.2; Page 2.2
Refer Chapter 2.3.3; Page 2.18
3. How does windplay a role in Air Pollution? Explain. 6. "Explain the meteorological factors that affect the
'-
(8) (May/June 2012) (8) (Nov/Dec 2017) dispersion of air pollution and draw wind rose diagram.
Refer Chapter (II) 2.1.2; Page 2.2
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(Nov/Dec 2015)
4. ·. With neat sketch, explain effect of lapse rate on plume Refer Chapter 2.1.1.and 2.3.4; Page 2.1 and 2.23
behaviour. (16) (May/June2012) (April/May2015) 7. What is plume rise? Make a note on facts influencing
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(April/May 2018) and its estimation. (7) (May/June 2013)

Refer Chapter 2.3; Page 2.12 (7) (April/May 2017)
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Refer Chapter III. 2.3. 7 Page 2.31

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2.68
..
Jc:, . :M~!<.~"'llQgy . r:
,.,,:~:. ·• : :.:0:-;,. ·. . / ·2.69 .

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-::··

8. : Expiaiiz' ·. the factors affecting. dispersion of air ··1• . · 12. What do you understand by Dispersion Models?
pollutliltts:. '..:· .• . Explain about Gaussian Dispersion Model in detail·
.' (JO) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16) (ApriVMay2018)

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'·
(Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2016) Refer Chapter 2.6 and 2.62; Page 2.53 and 2.54
Refer Chapter 2.5 .1; Page 2.44 ]3. Derive the expression for ground level concentration of

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9. On a summer afternoon with a wind speed of 3.20 mis pollutant by assuming Gaussian Plume Dispersion for
the concentration of particulate matter was found to· be stack emission. (May/June 2012)

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1520 µg/m3 ·at a point 2 km down wind and 0.5 km (Or)
perpendicular to the plume centerline from a coal fired
- power plant. Determine the particulate emission rate of
Explain the Gaussian Dispersion Modeland discuss the
factors involved · in the prediction of ground level

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the power plant, given the following:
- -
Stack Parameters Atmospheric Condition
concentration of pollutants. . (Nov/Dec2012)
.
Refer Chapter 2.6.2; Page 2.54
Height : 75.0 m Pressure : 100 Kpa '•

-
......., Diameter : 1.50 m Temperature: 28° C aaa

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Exit Velocity : } 2 mis
Temperature: 322° C
Make any assumption, if found necessary.
(Nov/Dec 2011) (May/June 2012) (Novi Dec 2012)
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Refer Example 2.1; Page 2.49.
10. Define Dispersion model and explain their types with its
application. (9) (May/June 2013) (May/June 2014) (8)
(Nov/Dec 2015) (16) (Nov/Dec 2016) (16)
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(Nov/Dec 2016, R-2013) (9) (April/May 2017)

Refer Chapter 2.6; Page 2.53
11. Explain Gaussian dispersion models with assumptions,
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merits and demerits. (1 OJ

(Nov/Dec 2014) (16) (May/June 2016)
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Refer Chapter 2.6.1; Page 2.54

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....
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-,
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. .... ·-

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UNIT-III

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CONTROL OF PARTICULATE
CONTAMINj\NTS

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Factors affecting Selection of Control Equipment - .
Gas Particle Interaction - Working principle,
.•
Design and performance equations . of Gravity
Separators, Centrifugal separators Fabric filters,

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Particulate Scrubbers, Electrostatic Precipitators -
Operational Considerations
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·~
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-..·.·
:: .. ·· ,, .. '.·

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CONTROL OF PARTICULATE
CONTAMINANTS

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3.1. INTRODUCTION

3.1.1. Concepts of Air Pollution Control

.

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- - .....,
Air pollution is one of the major problems for the
......
-~.; environment as well as industries and hence it should be
.....
minimised. The various effects of air pollution on human

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beings, animals, plants, etc., are described in detail in
previous chapters. It is practicallyimpossible to remove the
air pollutants in the air completely,but have to be reduced.
Reduction or control of air pollution is carried out in the
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following three stages.
1. Reducing the volumeof polluted streams
2. Changing the process of causing the pollution
3. Treatment to the emittedgas
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Air pollution control is not a single measure, but all the

above said procedures are implementedeffectively.
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The techniques for controllingair pollution can be either

without an air pollution control device or with air pollution
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control equipment. Application of control technology

depends on the following factors.
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m
Nature of source
3. Carrier g_as characteristics .;
Effluents from the source 4. Process factors
,/
Air pollution regulations 5. Efficiency required

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,/
Waste generated from the technology. 6. Operational factors

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,/ 7. Constructional measures
Disposal of the waste.
8. Other factors
The general methods or ·techniques without an air
Each factor is explained as follows;
pollution control device include process change, change in

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fuel, improved dispersion, good operating practices, and plant 1.. Type of the Industry
shutdown or relocation. Control equipment removes the Equipment can be selected, based on the type of industry

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pollutant, convert to less harmful contaminant or recover a and the type of the pollutant (gaseous or particulate matters).
valuable material for further use.
The important pollutants which are emitted from cement
3.1.2. Objective of Air Pollution Control industries are fugitive dust and sulphur oxides. Also the
The important objectives of the air pollution control are as important pollutants from automobiles are Carbon-

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follows. Monoxides and Hydro Carbons; In order to control the
I. Controlling of effects of air pollution on public pollutant, it is essential to know the type of pollutant and type
of the industry emitted that particularpollutant.
2. Protection of animals, plants, etc.
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3. Protection of properties against pollutants attack 2. Concentration and Characteristics of Pollutant
Concentration and characteristics of pollutant are also the
4. Providing the acceptable environment, etc.
important factors decide the equipment selection. Particulate
3.1.3. Factors Affecting the Selection of Control characteristics include particle size spectrum, effective
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Equipment
particle shape, particle density, physical and chemica
The following factors are to be considered when selecting properties (stickiness, fluidity, corrosiveness, electrica
particular equipment for controlling the air pollutant.
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conductivity)etc.
I. Type of the industry
31. Carrier Gas Characteristics
2. Concentration and characteristics of pollutant
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It includes temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, etc.

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3.4 . Air Pollution and Contro{EngiJ1ee,rf.ng . <;O.nt/:01: ti'£.ar:ticui;;i~-¢ontatnf ~ants;.·_·•

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. .. . . . . ~. . :.-. '·· .. . . . . ..
·.'. .. .. .
·:"._

. 4. Proces~Facto~s . 3.1.4. Self -Cleansing Properties of the

Environment
Process factors include the flow variability, volumetric gas

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rate, particulate concentration rate, allowable pressure drop, Self-cleansing properties of the atmosphere, (like the
etc. running water bodies) clean and remove the air pollutants in

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the atmosphere, under· various natural processes. If the
5. EfficiencyRequired (or Control Efficiency) quantity of air pollutants created by human beings and
. - Control efficiency is defined as the measure of emission ·industries are within the natural self-cleansing capacity of the

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reduction efficiency and it is a percentage value representing atmosphere, there will not be any considerable effects due to
the amount of emissions that are controlled by a control
-- device, process change or reformulation. The selection of -
the air pollution. When the discharge or emission from
industries in human activities exceeds the limit, atmosphere ·'

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'•
particular air pollution control e9uipment is based on the gets polluted and all are affected by the polluted air.
control efficiency.
Control efficiency is calculated by,
In order to control the effects of various air pollutants,
numbers of control measures are carried out either at sources
. .,

Uncontrolled Emission Rate-} or at later timings. It is better to control the emissions of

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Control } { Controlled Emission Rate x 100
efficiency = Uncontrolled Emission Rate pollutants from industries and automobile by mechanical
methods or by providing high-rise chimneys, to improve
6. Operational Factors • pollutants.
the dispersion and dilution of the
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Operational factors include the maintenance, continuity of Following are various natural self-cleansing properties of
operation, safety and health protection, ultimate use of the atmosphere, used for automatic· continuous cleaning of
collected materials, etc. the atmosphere.
7. Constructional Measures 1. Dispersion
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Constructional factors include structural limitations (such 2. Gravity settling with flocculation
as floor space and head room) and material limitations (such 3. Gravity settling without flocculation
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as pressure, temperature and corrosion service requirements) 4. Absorption

8. Other Factors 5. Adsorption
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Dust disposal, energy considerations, etc. 6. Rainout etc.

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These procedures occur continuously and automatically The gaseous pollutants are removed ia-dissolved state with
and thus reduce and remove the-pollutants entering the air. moisture, either with or without chemical changes.

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Dispersion Rain out

Dispersion m au pollution Rainout is defined as the process of dropping out the

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control is defined as the chemical Dispersion is a pollutants and involving the
Rainout process
or physical process of diluting mechanism. precipitation - process above the increases the
cloud level, where sub-micron

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distributing the air pollutants rainfall and fog
over the wide area of the atmosphere by means of wind etc. particles present in the atmosphere formation in
in the clouds serve as condensation urban zones.
Dispersion of air pollutants by wind defects reduces the.· -

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corrccntration of the pollutants at one place. nuclei, around which drops of water
may form and fall out as raindrops.
Gravitational Settling
Adsorption
Gravitational settling is a Gravitation settling
Adsorption is the physical process of collecting the

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natural process, in which . the removes the
gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a surface,
~. larger particles of air pollutants flocculated particles
~· where they are concentrated and retained.
~· m the air, settle· down on formed by gravity.
-.,,. ...
• I

buildings, trees and other tall

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objects. atural surfaces such as soils
.ocks
Absorption
3. Buildings Inertial impaction is
Absorption is also a natural process, in which gaseous the deposition of larger
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4. Blades of grass
and particulate matters of air pollutants are collected either by aerosol particles
.5. Other surfaces
mist or rain and settle down with mist or rain. Absorption is on the walls of an
Adsorption is carried out by
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carried out below the cloud level in the atmosphere. airway conduit.
either gtavitational . settling or
The process of absorbing the pollutants and falling with inertial impaction in which the
raindrops is called washout or scavenging and this is
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particles may come in contact with adsorbent's surfaces.

removing the smaller particles of size less than l µm in size.
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- .: :: ..Control
... :::.... · ·.. '··· ... ·· ..
of. Particulate
-:.. ·.-.· . . .. : Contaminants
. . . . . . .
-

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- ~.2.1.- Types of Emissions
Inertial impaction rs more suitable for particles _ of size - .
In order to control the air pollutants and their effects, it is
10 µm to 15 µm.
_very essential to study the following four types of emissions,

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3.2. AIR POLLUTANTS CONTROL
which are emitted from the industries.

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Controlling of air pollutants is the challenging task, (i) Uncontrolled (fugitive) emission
because of the quantity and constituents of air pollutants from (ii) Corit~olled(steady-state) emission
various processes, plants and industries. (iii) Transient emission

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The air pollutants can be controlled by the following two (iv) Accidental (emergency) emission
methods.
Fugitive Emission or Uncontrolled Emission

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1. By changing the raw materials in industries
2. By installing suitable air pollution control equipments
1. Prevention at Source
For manufacturing and for other engineering processes, it .
Uncontrolled (Fugitive) emission is defined as the
emissions from the leaks of faulty - and damaged joints,
flanges, valves and openings during material and energy
transferring, recycling, packaging (and product removal) and

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is better and simple to change the raw materials, used for storage. This emission is also called as diffuse emission.
industrial usage, free from causing any pollution. Fugitive emission can be controlled by the following
-:. .•··.;,
The process of changing the suitable raw materials in
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methods.
industries, to avoid their pollution is called Prevention 1. By implementing the regular maintenance of
at source. This method reduces the cost for installing costly valves, fittings, etc.
2. By installing the gas detectors to identify and to -
equipment in industries.
estimate the quantity of leaks.
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2. Air Pollution Control Equipments 3. By using good quality accessories and fittings etc.
It is the costlier method to prevent the mixmg of air Controlled Emission
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pollutants in the air to the great extent and in which the Controlled emission is defined as the emission, during the
selection of particular type of equipment is based on the type
normal operation of the plant and the emission is allowed and_
of pollutant emitted from the industry and its concentration.
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guided through the chimneys of the plant.

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- _3.-10 ·.· . 9ontrol. of PC1rticylay:. Contamin.ants .

Transient Emissio~ ., • · . .
Trans_ient emission is denned as the heavy emission
occurs during start-up and shut down operations of the plants,
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be spread over a larger area of atmosphere through the
chimneys, installed at larger heights. This can be done by the .-
dilution of air pollutants over larger distances and reducing

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the pollutants near the emission source.
for a short period. This emission varies with time.
This method reduces the concentration of pollutants at

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Accidental (or) Emergency Emission so~e parti~µlar places.
Accidental (or) Emergency emissions are defined as the Techniques without Control Devices (at Source)
heavy emissions occur due to major fault in one or more of

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Following techniques are used to control the air pollution
the process equipment or due to accidents either in controlled without the usage of any emission control devices.
or uncontrolled form. The total emission period change with
./ Process Change
the capacity of O&M (operation and maintenance) staff to

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../ Change in Fuel
rectify the fault.
,,/ Good Operating Practices
Uncontrolled and accidental emissions are very dangerous
./ Plant Shutdown or Relocation
to the atmosphere. They affect plant employees and public
outside the plant.

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In steady and transient emissions, plant employees are safe
but it affects the public outside the plant premises.
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3.3. METHODS FOR CONTROLUNG POLLUTION
Following two methods are generally adopted
controlling the air pollution.
1. Controlling the air pollution at sources
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Process Change
This method involves a modification of an existing
process or the introduction of a new process and it is called
Pollution Prevention. Process modification is a popular
technique to control air pollution. Major efforts are underway
for in all industries to modify processes to reduce pollution.
Changes in industrial processes to reduce raw materials and
·fuels also lead to reduction in air emissions.

The promotions to use fluorescent lights and to conduct

2. Controlling the air pollution by installing
energy audits by electric utilities are examples of less
equipments
electricity demand. This results in less fuel use at the power
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3.3.1. ControHing Air Pollution at Sources plant and hence less air pollutants are emitted. The use of
. Controlling of air pollution from sources may be applied wind energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power and
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for controlled and uncontrolled emissions. The emissions can

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3.12_ Air Pollution and Control Engin(!ering _ _ . Control of Particulate Co_ntam_inants- . . :3·_13 .

"sdl~ :erie~gy. is increasing . arid·.
pollution.
is 11elpirig ·u:;. i~<luCirig. ii1~-:
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· :~oJi~~; ;~g~latl~~;·•.i~··._;_~~·ia.;tkis. sitl1atiori.:.Enco~r~~:~~~t--~~~: .·
.
use new technology through tax credits or. grants may help a
~mpany to relocate the plant within the city. In some 'cases

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The purpose is to prevent pollution rather than control it at
to shut down the plant is only the possible solution.
the point of release.

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Change in Fuel Use of Control Devices
This technique involves the use of less polluting fuel to The emissions from the plant are passed through a control
reduce air polluti~n~ Use of low sulphur fuel instead of high device before releasing to atmosphere. The pollutants are

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sulphur fuel by electric utilities is an example of this method, removed, destroyed or transformed in the control device
because low sulphur fuel is much more expensive than high before discharging into ambient air. The devices are
discussed in the following chapters.

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sulphur fuel. The other choice for an electric utility can be the
use of natural gas as a fuel. Fuel switching based on ,
meteorological conditions or air pollution forecasts have been
used to prevent air pollution problem in many areas.
General public thinks of these devices whenever they
think about air pollution control. However, there ate other
methods available to reduce air pollution as discussed above.
Other possibilities should also be considered before deciding

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Nuclear power plants are relatively pollution free when
compared to the coal fired power plants, However, they have to use a control device.
been subjects of controversy in their overall environmental 3.3.2. Controlling of Air Pollution by Installing
impact. Equipments
.re
Good Operating Practices In order to reduce the pollution load entering the

-- Release of air pollutants could be avoided by maintaining

good housekeeping in the plant and. performing proper
environment from stationary sources, the following methods
are adopted:
maintenance. I. Replacement of burning fuel by electricity or solar
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For example, a liquid chemical. spread over the floor energy.

evaporates rapidly and will cause an increase in emission rate 2. Using high quality cereals and efficient engines.
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for that chemical. 3. Replacement of old machineries with the new one.
Plant Shutdown or Relocation 4. By installing mechanical air pollution controlling
This method is not a good one because of economic
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devices.
'
factors. Most cities develop land-use planning and industrial
 www.rejinpaul.com
3.14 . . c;mµt~cd,df:P_drti9uz4(.f!Cof,/cllnfnan.ts--;.: ··.'. : }>l?' ·::.- .;. -:
~,_.,._'-"-"'-'--'---,-.-~~""---;,.,.,."~--.;:_""'-,_.;---'"'-'---'-'~0,..-,~-'--'--'-''-'--'-'--''-"-"-

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Air pollution controlling devices are generally divided into interception mechanisms account for 99% ·collection of
two types. particles greater than 1 µm aerodynamic diameter in fabric
filter systems.
(i) Devices used to reduce particulate matter

o
Diffusion
(ii) Devices used to reduce the gaseous pollutants
In diffusion, small particles are affected by collisions on a

.c
3.3.3.. Control
. of Particulate Pollutants in Industries
molecular level. Particles less than 0.1 micrometer have
The control of particulate matter is an important aspect of individual or random motion~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
..
industrial air pollution engineering.

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The particles may have
The particles do not
Particles are collected by a combination of several a different velocity than
necessarily follow the gas
mechanisms. The available mechanisms are gravitational the fluid and at some
streamlines; however they

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settling, centrifugal impaction, inertial impaction, direct point could come m
with move randomly through-out
interception, diffusion and the electrostatic attraction. contact the
fiber and be collected. the fluid and this is called
The physical phenomenon of gravitational . settling,
Agglomeration also Brownian Motion.
centrifugal impaction and electrostatic attraction are given in

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contributes . to particle
the previous chapters. The other three mechanisms: are
collection.
described below.
Following are the important equipments, used to control
Inertial Impaction
the particulate matter.
.re
The large particles in the gas stream have high inertia to
--· follow the gas streamlines around the impactor and are 1. Gravitational Settling Chambers
impacted on the impactor surface, while the small particles 2. Centrifugal Collectors (Dynamic precipitators,
and the gas tend to diverge and pass around the interceptor. cyclone collectors,etc.)
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Direct Interception 3. Wet Scrubbers (or) Wet Collectors (Spray towers,

In case of direct interception, the particles have less inertia Wet Cyclone Scrubbers, Venturi-Scrubbers etc.)
and rarely follow the gas streamlines around the fiber. If the 4. ESP (Electro-StaticPrecipitators)
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distance between the centre of the fiber and the outside of the 5. Fabric Filters
fiber is less than the particle radius, the particle will graze or
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hit the fiber and be intercepted. Inertial impaction and direct

 www.rejinpaul.com
3.16 Air Pol{utfpn.qnd <;on_trof.Engine~ring ; 3.J7.

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SETTLING CHAMBER
·-

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3.4.1. Introduction
Gravity Separators (Gravitational settling chambers) use

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the gravitational force to remove solid (particulate) matters
• Oust
from the air pollutants. The gas stream enters the chamber, settling
gas chamber
where the velocity of the gas reduced. Larger particles drop gas

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out the gas and are collected in Hoppers. Oust/ n
Oust/ n outlets -0-
Particle size of about 50 µm can be removed by outlets -0-
gravitational settling chamber.
(a) (b)

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. -
When the flow velocity of the fluid (air stream) is reduced
as it enters to a chamber, the gravitational force causes the
·-
Fig. 3.1.(a) (b) Gravity Settling Chamber
particles to settle on the bottom of the chamber.
Particulate EmissionControl Devices
3.4.2. Working

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,,._--Clean
Settling chamber consists of an enclosed chamber, in -gas
>'--- out
which the velocity of the dirty air is reduced considerably,
which permits the dust particle to settle down by gravitational
.re
force.
The smokes (or dirty air) emitted from the industries are
permitted to pass through the settling chamber. [Fig 3.1.(c)
Based on the principle of Stoke's law, the largest size
Fig. 3.1. (c) Gravity Settling Chamber
particles settle down at the bottom of the chamber. In these
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chamber, the horizontal gas velocity should be kept as low as 3.4.3. Design and performance equations of
possible, to allow the stream line airflow, for ensuring Gravity Separators
. optimum settling conditions. Collection of very small particles is practically difficult,
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The velocities are kept between 0.3 m/sec to 2..5 m/sec in by using a settling chamber. Hence the design considerat~ons
the chambers, which permits coarse particle of size 40 µm are generally based on laminar flow, requires either a very
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and above to be removed by this chamber. large size or an inordinately large number of trays with an
unusual shape of chamber.
 www.rejinpaul.com
. j,;}8<
.....

·) I }

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t °"~.
Dispersinggas .strearn · . designated size. The flow in the settling chamber will
J ,}/ Gasfree from dust ~
::i.<r ·carried by wind
probably be turbulent rather than laminar. The turbulent,
~------ -... <, ::::.._ Coursessized dust particles chambers offer a more practical design concept, although no

o
from a stone crushing unit!
'" rice mill settle by gravity matter how big it may be, theoretically the chamber will
·~\due to their high density
~\ never collect all particles of a specified size. The chamber

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Exhaust fan .:::.-. Settled particulates
that sucks gases should be reasonably designed-for the removal of 99 percent
containing particulates
· ../}!±~~:~::;~··. of the particles which are as large or larger, than some
specified diameter, for example 50 or lOOµm.

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The turbulent settling chamber is designed by two
assumptions ..
-Clean

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-gas L There- is a laminar layer adjacent to the bottom
-outlet
·----" surface of the passage into which turbulent eddies do
Gas can take an not penetrate, because any particle which· crosses
easy turn whereas
particles cannot into this layer will be captured shortly.

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2. In the remainder of the flow passage the eddying
motion due to turbulence will cause a uniform
~Oust collector distribution of particles of all sizes.
Consider a settling chamber having dimensions L x W x H,
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and containing 'rt' number of trays including the bottom
~-----------v:-r::-Vri__ ? surface of the chamber as shown in Fig. 3.2. In this section, it
is assumed that, the case of laminar flow in the passage ways
~ '7
between the trays; this condition is less common but does
H 56.h ~ ?
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Cleaned
some times occur.
~ ? air outlet
The criterion for laminar flow is that the Reynolds
number, which is based on hydraulic diameter, should be less
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L--------
than 2300. The hydraulic diameter for flow passage between
Fig. 3.2. Gravity Settling Chambers the trays is given by,
The laminar chamber has the advantage of giving
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2WLiH
theoretically perfect collection efficiency for particles of the W+~H
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>:: ·· ·. ~<3:2:fo.·~·_:;:.:-;->~:- ~..,......,~..__,,.--'-----,-'----'---:· ""'."":A-i_.;.r'_P.:....o7ll-'ut"-_io_n_.:.·.~.;_l1_d.:_ic_b_··n-'ti_'~-l~E.;_ng:::..
1:.:....n...::..e..::.:er..:..:i~~- ·_·. ·

m
r.. .'.:

The Reynolds number, . For l~minar flow conditions (Re < 2300) within the trays,
particles of size dp of a particular material will settle a
VD hp distance 'y' with a terminal velocity V1 in time given by,
Re=

o
µ
t = .L
The velocity inside the chamber 'V' is given by, Vt

.c
During this ·same time the particles are transported a
- Q
V - nWL\.H distance L, with the velocity of the gas stream 'V' i.e., t = LN

where, Q - flow rate of the gas stream Equating these two, t = f =~

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-
l
Substituting for V and D1z, in the above equation, The value of ''.y" can be found from the concept of the
R = 2Qp particle settling velocity. If the particles are assumed to be

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·- e nµ (W + L\.H) uniformly distributed over the incoining streams; the
efficiency of collection for particles having the diameter used
If the thickness of the trays is neglected the distance
in calculating V, is given. as the ratio of y to L\.H:
between the trays is related to the height of the settling
chamber as, L\.H == Hin 11 = .c..L
~H

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--\:·.

Then the above equation becomes, nWLV,

R -~ 2Qp Q
e µ (nW + H)
Efficiency,
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- It is to be noted
t~ese equations hold good
that
Terminal velocity is the
For 100% L, length of chamber L = n-3v 1

only when there is no dust velocity at which the vertical . When length is more or when y > L\.H, all particles of that
layer collected in the trays. component of the drag force size (or larger) will be collected in the settling chamber.

a
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If layer of dust of exactly counteracts the net The terminal settling velocity can be calculated by using
thickness Hd is present, gravity force (i:e. gravity force the Stoke's law,
then the above equation minus buoyancy force). d2 (Pp - Pg)
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becomes, g p 18µg \
2Qp Stoke's law rs ·a reasonable approximation -for
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calculating the settling velocity of particulates suspended in

air also.
 www.rejinpaul.com

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The largest size particle (d), that can be removed with 3. Low initial cost
100% efficiency in settling chamber haying the length 'L' 4. Dry and continuous disposal of solid particles
- and height 'H' is given by,

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. II. Disadvantages

d C·
~· 18 µ- mv · H 1. Larger size particles are only settled

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Y · A · Pn 2. Low collection efficiency
Where, 3. Requires larger space
Horizontal velocity of air entering to the

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vn - Because of the above · advantages and disadvantages,
chamber (m/sec) settling chambers are mostly used as pre-cleaners. They are
. µ - Viscosity of air (kg/m sec)
sometimes used in the process industries, particularly in the

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food anti -metallurgical industries as the first step in dust
-.• C Correction factor (generally taken as 2) control. Use of settling chambers as pre-cleaners can also
. pP - Density ofparticles removed. (kg/m-') reduce the maintenance cost of high efficiency control
equipment, which is more subject to abrasive deterioration.
" . · The above equations should be used only as guides to the

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" collection efficiency ·of the settling chamber, as several 3.5. CENTRIFUGAL COLLECTORS
factors cause deviations. These include hindered settling at ·•Ii

high particle concentrations, non-uniform gas velocity over
the settling height and width, particle re-entrainment and
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turbulence. As a general rule, chamber velocities below 3 mis
are satisfactory for avoiding re-entrainment of most of the
materials. If the flow is turbulent, the collection efficiency .of
a settling chamber is given by,
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3.5.1. Centrifugal Collectors
Centrifugal collectors are the mechanical devices used to
separate the particulate matter (of 0. 1 to 1000 urn) from
atmospheric air, using centrifugal force. Generally particles
of size 5 µrn to 25 µm are removed by this instrument.
Some of the centrifugal collectors (or precipitators) are,

(a) Dynamic Precipitator

I. Effi1c1ency,
. , ,.
T] =
l
- e
(-nLW Vt!Q)l
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(b) Cyclone Collector (or Cyclone Separator)
3.4.4. Advantages and Disadvantages (c) Impellers etc.
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I. Advantages I. Advantages of Centrifugal Collector

1. Simple design, easy-installation and maintenance 1. Low-cost' arrangements
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2. Less pressure losses 2. Simple design, easy installation and maintenance

 www.rejinpaul.com
Control. of Particulate C.antam_i~zants .... -, -,, 3.25.
. .
3.24 · ·~·. .· ·.,.-,.Air P:olltu;
.·. . :on atrc! Cc>n~rol
. ·. . Engif{e¢rikg
. . . . ... ·. . . .

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.,·- ... <. ; .. : ,, .. .. . ' . . .. ·. . . . . .- . . . ..
' ..

3. Requires less area

4. . Continuoiis disposal of dusts

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5. Less pressure losses
6. Can handle high-volume of gases at. high

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temperature (up to l 00°C)
7. Suitable for industries producing larger particulate
matters. ,.

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II. Disadvantages of Centrifugal Collector
..__
1. Requires· high head rooms I

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2. Less efficiency for smaller particles
3. Collection rates vary with dust loading and flow Fig. 3.3. Dynamic Precipitator
-.....
rates.
~ 3.6. CYCLONE COLLECTOR (OR CYCLONE
~r;; 3.5.2. Dynarnic Precipitator SEPARATOR)

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t:•<
IC~'
"""-'
Dynamic precipitator is a mechanical device which the Cyclone separator (or cyclone collector) is a mechanical
centrifugal force to the entering gas, by rotating vanes to
device used to remove the particulate matters from the air,
separate the particulate matters'.Particles of size 5µ to 25µm ' .
gas or liquid without the use of filters by vortex separation.
.re
can be eliminated by the Dynamic precipitator.
..._ Rotational effects and gravitationalforces are used for the
It efficiency is about 7 to 10 times higher than the cyclone
separation of particulate matters (dust) from the air.
separator. It is suitable for,
1. Ceramic industries 3.6.L Working
/
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2. Food industries Cyclone is a conical or cylindrical container, in which

3. Pharmaceutical industries high-speed rotating airflow is created. The air flows in a
4. . Woodworking industries helical or spiral pattern beginning at the top of the Cyclone
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T~e · important disadvantage of this device rs, it is not {wide end) and. ending at the bottom of the Cyclone (narrow .
suitable .for wet-fibrous material, because wet-fibrous end), before leaving the cyclone.
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material can accumulate on the moving vanes of the

precipitator, Below figure 3.3 shows the dynamic precipitator.
 www.rejinpaul.com
· ·:·. .::...Control.
.. ·
• · -,
0f.Pardcula..(~,Contamiftqn.ts
-· ·· .····' , ..
.. ,· ..•.
.:,· .

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Clean gas out
Clean gas out falling to the bottom of the cyclone. At the bottom of the
cyclone, the larger particles can be collected and removed.
Dirty In the conical system, the rotating flow moves towards the

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gas
in .....p;::....i..LH~ Spin narrow end of the cyclone, the rotational radius of the air
vanes
stream gets reduced and thus smaller particles are settled.

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Cut point of the cyclone is the size of the particle that wiU
be removed from the stream with 50% efficiency, and it is
defined by the geometry of the cyclone. with air-flow rate.

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Particulate matters, larger than the cut-point are removed
(a} Cyclones arranged in parallel_
(b) Collector Ele~?izt
with a greater efficiency and the smaller ·particles are
i.e., a multiple cyclone
removed with a lower efficiency.

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Fig. 3.4. CycloneSeparator
~:.6.2.
Design and Performance of Cyclone Separator
Cleaner
l. Separation Factor
In a cyclone, its efficiency is based on the centrifugal

jin
force created. The inertial separating force is the radial
. Dirty component of the centrifugal force and is a function of the
Air.______
tangential velocity.
The centrifugal force generated can be calculated as,
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Cyclone
Body
Centrifugal Force, F" ~ I M, · ¥I
\Vhere,
Conical
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Section
Mass of the particles
Inlet air velocity and
i
Dirt
r - Radius of the cyclone
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Fig. 3.5. Air flow diagramfor CycloneSeparator The magnitude of the centrifugal force is frequently
Due to the high speed air flow, larger particles (high described in terms of the number of times this force exceeds ·
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density particulate matters) strike out the outer wall and then the force of gravity.
 www.rejinpaul.com
Control of Particulate Contaminants •·
·. ···~·· ,, ·.. ~'>_~;:~·:.··. :. ': -··:

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· ·~The sepa:~ation factor s·is.
/
given by, 3.6:3. Factors affecting the .cyclone effi~i~ncy
The efficiency of the cyclone depends on the follmVing
factors.

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~
1. Inlet velocity of the dust laden gas.
2~ Cut Size 2. Diameter of the dust profile

.c
Cut size, d pc' is the size of those particles that are 3. Density of the dust profile
collected with 50% efficiency. The particles larger than dpo 4. Dust concentration in the carrier gas
will have a collection efficiency greater than 50% while the 5. Smoothness of the inner cyclone wall

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smaller particles will be collected with lesser efficiency. 6. Cyclone length or cone length
The cut size of particle (given by Lapple) is, 7. Ratio of body diameter to gas outletdiameter
•

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3.6A. Advantages of Cyclones
dpc == \} 9µg 2brc Ne Vi (Pp :.__ Pi)
The advantages of cyclones are,
Where,
../ Low initial cost, Simple m construction and
µg _ gas viscosity (kg/m-sec)
operation

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· b width of cyclone inlet, m
../ Less pressure loses
Ne number of effective turns within the cyclone
Ill

(5 to 10. in most cases) . ../ Low maintenance requirements

"'.
"' vi inlet gas velocity, mis ../ Continuous disposal of solid particulate matter, and
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Pp density ofthe particulate matter, kg/mt and ../ Use of any material in their construction that can
Pg gas density withstand the temperature and ~ressure
requirements. I
I
3. Pressure Drop
3.6.5. Disadvantages of Cyclones
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In addition to collection efficiency, a correct estimate of

The disadvantages of cyclones include,
the pressure drop across a cyclone is necessary, so that cost
effectiveness may be calculated. The acceptable operating ../ Low collection efficiency for particles below
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range is of magnitude 25 cm water or less. Pressure drop is 5 - I 0 µ in diameter,

· proportional to the density of gas and square of the inlet gas ../ · Low collection efficiency . at low particulate
velocity. concentration.
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3:30· .::·· .. '. '··;,
·.··
Severe abrasion problems can occur during the
striking of particles on the walls of the cyclone,
Separation of dust in the disintegration operations,
such as rock crushing, ore handling and sand
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conditioning in industries.
Recovering the catalyst _dusts m the petroleum
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industry.
./ Reductions of fly ash emissions.
3.6.6. Operating Problems
The operating problems are,
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./ Erosion - Heavy, hard, sharp edged particles, in a
high concentration, moving at a high velocity in
the cyclone, continuously scrape against the wall
.re
and can erode the metallic surface .
./ . Corrnsion - If the cyclone is operating below the
condensation point, and if· reactive gases are
present in the gas stream, then corrosion problems
can occur. Thus the product should be kept above
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the dew point or a stainless steel alloy should be
used .
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Build up - A dust cake builds up on the cyclone
walls, especially around the vortex finder, at the
ends of any internal vanes, and especially if the
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dust is hygroscopic. It can be a severe problem.
www.rejinpaul.com
m
:J.6.7. Applications
.
I. Large scale cyclones are used in saw-mills, to
remove saw-dust from extracted air.
o
2. Cyclones are used in oil refineries, to separate oils
and gases.
.c
3. In cement industry, cyclones are used for
separation of fine particulate matters.
4. Cyclones are used in portable vacuum cleaners.:
5. Cyclones are used in the ventilation for separating
grease from the exhaust air.
6. Smaller cyclones are used to separate air-borne
particles for analysis.
3.7. FABRIC FILTERS
Fabric filters are the mechanical devices, used for the
dust collection and the size of particulate matters collected by
fabric filters are upto I J.-Lm. When dust gases pass through the
fabric filters and the streamline of gas diverges, collection of
particular matters occurs.
In this· arrangement, it is assumed that the particles are not
diverging but follow the gas stream and they are intercepted
to the fabric, when the centre of the particle at a distance of
half of its diameter.
The use of fabric . filters is based on the principle of
filtration, which is the separation of solids from fluids (gases)
by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can
 www.rejinpaul.com
3.32 . ~ir f!ollutio1:1.andSm1trol Engineering
.;:t;pYa,rol 9ff q;tic1:flqtr/:<;011taoifil.(;lnts.· .;3_;.3.J .

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· pass. ·The .: ciechanisms · by. · ~hidh ·.the .; particles · come ', into.·.· Bag Filters
contact with the fibres ia the filter media are Straining In fabric filters, the type of filter is defined by the air""l:o
(sieving), Interception, Diffusion, Inertial separation and

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cloth (or fabric) ratio.
Electrostatic attraction. Based on the air to cloth ratio, fabric filters are grouped as
If the particle size of.I µm to 5 µm movmg in irregular

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follows.
way, the Brownian motion causes them to diffuse the fabric. 1. Low rate bag filters
Small particles are retained on the fabric initially through 2. High rate bag filters

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the interception and electro-static attraction. After that, when
- the dust mat is formed, the fabric starts collecting particles Air for flushed
back flow Filtered gas
more efficiently.

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Mechanism for shaking
rapping or vibrating bags

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Clean ___
Tubular
filter bags
~·
t·.

air out
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-
Dirty
··.I
air in Clean
::~ig: -'air out
+HJ
Dust laden
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~__/
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Dirty air in

(i) (ii) Fig. 3. 7. Low Rate Bag House Filter

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Fig. 3.6. Ftibric Filter Unit In the low rate bag filter (or bag house filter), the air to
cloth ratio is maintained between 7 to 25 mm/sec.
 www.rejinpaul.com
.:?:34:

m
In bag house filters, the dust air ente:_s through the bottom Generally, the air to cloth ratio for low rate bag-house filter is
of the hopper, where the high density particles settle (or fall) maintained between 7::5 to 12.5 mm/sec and for high rate
filter is 20 to 50 mm/sec:.

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down due to gravity.
There are two kinds of filter media for fabric filters are
Settled particles deposited on the inne_r side of the filter,

.c
available. The fabrics and felts are mechanically and
when the air is passed through them.
chemically bonded.

I. Advantages of Fabric Filters

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Air for flushed

-->· back flow

Filtered
gas
------1
1.
2.
Higher efficiency
Removes very small particles

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Q., 3. Creates a pre-warning, when the performancegets
c............ decreased.
U. Disadvantages of Fabric Filter
1. The filters cannot withstand heavy temperatures

jin
and hence, the high-temperature gases to be cooled
Dust laden
to 450° C and below, for effide"nt operation of
en
(i) fabric filters.
-:;::;
Separated dust :::s
0 2. The flue gases entering to the filter should be dry,
.re
-
(i)
:::s otherwise there may be a risk of condensation
Hopper 0
inside the filter and which can cause clogging.
Fig. 3.8. High Rate Bag House Filter 3. The cloth may get affected by chemicals.
For cleaning the bags, the compressed air is blown in
3.8. SCRUBBERS (SEPARATORS OR WET
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opposite direction. At one plant, rows of bags are used for

COLLECTORS)
storage and other rows of bags are used for cleaning process.
3.8.1. Inertial Separators
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The hanging bags in the filter are provided with

an automatic shaking device for cleaning the bags of the Inertial separators collect the particles by changing the
collected dust. direction of motion of the flowing gas, in such a way that the
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particle cross over the gas steam lines and the particles ar~
 www.rejinpaul.com
. >33J-:,;:- . -
. .
:. .-·
- : :. -~. - -- .- ..
-AirPollution ·and.(;ontrql Eng.it:f~er{ng

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; •··. '.·. J._ ••. •,.... • •• • ' •• ' .•••• ,. ' ••• • , ••

. eitller.c~nceritrate(finto a small part of the- gas flow or are (c) Venturi Scrubbers
separatedby impingement onto a surface. (d) Packed Towers

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The most widely used type of inertial separator is the (a) Cyclonic Separators or Cyclonic Scrubbers
cyclone, in which the gas undergoes some type of vortex Wet cyclones or cyclonic scrubbers are the wet collection

.c
motion so that the gas acceleration is centripetal;.Hence, the devices and in these devices, there is a tangential entry of the .
particles move centrifugally towards · the outside of the aerosol occurs.iThe particulate matters are separated from the
cyclone. Almost all practical cyclones induce the vortex aerosol, by the centrifugal force and impingement of water at

ul
motion 'passively', by appropriate design of the gas flow the entrance.
channel so that the device has no moving parts.
Cleaned Gas
3.8.2. Wet Scrubbers

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Wet Collection devices are defined as the mechanical Straightening ~-___,?---{;~:;::?:::::E:.::--j
vanes
devices, which removes the dust particles from the gas by
wetting the particles with a droplet diffusion or condensation
or by impinging the wetted or unwetted particles on a

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collectingsurface and cleaning them by a flush of fluid.
Core buster disk
Scrubbing is the air pollution control technique, used to
remove some particulate and/or gases from industrial air
stream.
.re
~
. · ·-·
Brownian movement is very important in the diffusion
mechanism. The Brownian motion also takes place in the
formation of agglomerates and thereby . simplifying the
separation. Dirty
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gas in
Wet scrubbing is defined as the air pollution control
technique, used to clean air, fuel gas, or other gases of Fig. 3.9. Wet Cyclonic Scrubbers
various pollutants and dust particles with the scrubbing liquid
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Wet cyclones are generally provided with a moisture-

(generally water).
elimination section, consisting of zig-zag plates. The design
The general wet collection devices are as follows. of cyclonic scrubbers is generally done, upto 200 Umin and
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(a) Cyclonic Scrubbers (Wet cyclones) with water requirements ranging from 2 litres to 50 litres per
(b) Spray Chambers 40 litres.of gas.
 -·, -·.
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"3:.38 ·,

m
Dust particles of size upto 5 µm and above are separated This causes the increase in size and weight of the dust
with 90% efficiency and 40 to 70 mm of H20 of pressure particles and helps in quick collection.
drop.

o
( c) Venturi-Scrubbers
(b) Spray Chambers
Venturi-scrubbers can clean about 400 litres of gas per

.c
Sprayer
minute. Generally the 'mist can be removed by the Venturi
scrubbers followed by cyclonic separators.
Clean

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It mainly consists of a Venturi-throat, through which the
gas
- gas pushes at a velocity of 3400 to 12,600 m/min.
- ....
Generally the scrubbing liquid (water) is used and it is

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added in the direction of flow of gas at a rate of 0.3 to 1.5
lilloll!I

-:=
>ii
.:a;.;
... gas inlet
litres of gas per minute.

Gas inlet
Cleaned gas

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Dirty gas in
..._
~
·, ....
Sludge J i ~'
~~·~;-:-: .. '

Water
Fig. 3.10. Spray Chambers Setting\
-,
in
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- Figure 3 .10 shows the spray chambers. It consists of a
gravity settling chamber with sprays of liquid.
Venturi
throat
chamber)

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In this arrangement, the fine water spray, wash the dirty \\\\ _/
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air and settle the dust as sludge irt sludge tank ..

· Like other settling chambers, some larger sized dust will
~~
settle on the surface of the water pool under gravitational Water and
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Condensate
force. out
The removal of dust particles from air is due to the
collision of dust particle with water droplet and the dust Fig. 3.11.. Venturi Scrubbers
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particles are captured by water droplets.

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· · · ·· ·· · · · · · .: ·.'· .. C. o._n_t.__r.oJ~.if.P. a.. r!.Ji;:ida~e. ·. C
.. · 'onta.mf11.apts, .
. :Air Pollution a}:zd C9ntrol ,f,ngini_eri11g ::- ·•·. -

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The scrubbtdg liquid (water) is introduced at the throat
portion with nozzles. The efficiencyof the venturi scrubbers

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varies with the input of power and it will be high up to 99%
Liquid
even for very small sized particles e,
inlet
Liquid distributor

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Venturi scrubbers can work for abrasive;. corrosive and
Packing restrainer
high-temperature gases, if it is made up of good quality and
---Shell
the suitable materials.

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---Packing materials
(d) Packed Towers
In packed tower, the dust laden gas is passed upward
Random packing

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through the bed, keeping it clean and preventing the.
re-entering of the deposited particles.
... The collecting surface area should be relatively large. The
· Access manway for
packing removal

•
-... materials used in the collecting surface should have low

---.
~

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density, resistant ·to corrosion and chemically inert. Liquid
b
Generally, ceramic saddles, stoneware shapes, coke, reaching re-distributor

rings, etc. are used as packing materials, in packed towers.

Access manway for
Coarse packing materials are used to remove the particles packing removal
.
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above size 10 µ and fine packing materials for removing ;
Packing
particles below 10 µ sizes. The velocity of gases through support
coarse packing bed is kept between 18-20 m/min. In the wet
collection, the main advantage is that the pressure drop
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remains constant.
Liquid outlet
The sludge collected through the wet collecting devices is
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disposed-off after required sedimentation, flocculation,

Fig. 3.12.(a) Packed Tower
thickening and chemical treatments. The treatment and
disposal of sludge is an additionalprocess, which is required
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in this system.
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JA2· ..... ~

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2. The flue gas must be dry; as otherwise, there is a
Gas out
risk of condensation inside the filter, which can
t cause clogging.
c.__Vuquid .

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Liquid in ~......
~::=;,
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lf lf ] ] distributor J~ The fabric is liable to chemicalattack,

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~ ~.1. :><:- Packing
3.9. ELECTRO-STATIC l?RECIPITATOR (ESP)
,::;- ,.:Z-b'i-'
«, .$',.~ resn+~ramer
•
-., i- s,
::..~"?~~~
-~..c-~ • Electro-Static Precipitation is one of the methods of

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~~~ .......
Shell controlling the particulate pollutants in industries, in which

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the dirty gas is allowed to pass through the narrow, vertical
~ gas passage, formed by parallel rows of grounded connecting

--. -
Random electrodes.

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~
....-. packing
. In an ESP, the gas passes between two electrodes charges ,,.~

to an electrical potential difference of 10 to 60 kV. The

-.r;::,,.. electric discharge between the electrodes will emit electrons

-
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ --- Liquid

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and ions :from the negative electrode. These will be drawn
out
..... towards the positive electrode plate, thereby separating the
~' Fig. 3.12. (b) Packed Tower particles from gas stream.
~
~ I. Advantages ofWet Scrubbers ESP is working based on the principle that, the ESP uses
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~ I. Highefficiency
the electrical forces to move the particulate matter, out of the
2. Fabric filters can remove -very small particles in
flowing gas stream and on to collector plates.
dry state.
3. When the performance reduces, it produces pre- In ESP,, electrically insulated high voltage of wire of about
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warning 40-50 kV, are spaced precisely on the centre lines of each gas
II. Disadvantages of Wet Scrubbers passage and thereby causing the dirty gas to pass through
1. The filters are stable only in the temperature range high-voltage wires and groi.m~ed plates.
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..
of 100°C to 400°C. Hence, high-temperature gases The particulate matters are separated out from the gas with
to be cooled.
the: help of electro-static forces in the powerful electric field.
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Air Pollution and Control Engineering . Control of Particulate <;ontaminants_ . 3.45 .
. : ". ~ . :·.: "; ;. . . : . ... ... . . ' .:.:: - - .. , -~·. - ·-, .-·.

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: _ ; ",

, ··· :::~arii&e.~i2et)tif~~t~f·tli~ii6:~1::.•~··t6.'.{o~···tru{b~ . ~i1~ih~i~~~;,· · · -p~riicles a~~ co1le~t6d ~n th.~ 'collecting eledrode and g~ on

. -. ESPs
.- .
. forming_a. thick · Iayer. This layer gradually bleeds their
negative charge to-the grounded electrode. This increasing

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ESPs are widely used in Thermal power plants, Pulp- and
Paper industries, Mining and . Metallurgical industries; Iron dust layer thickness gives resistance to conduction of the

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and Steel plants, Chemical industries etc. negatively charged ion, which is known as 'dust resistivity'.

It has been noted that for the normal operation of· mi •

3.9~1.Working of Electro-Static Precipitators
electrostatic precipitator, this dust resistivity should be in

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The working principles of electrostatic precipitators are as
between 107 and 101 I Q/cm.
follows:

- 4. Collectrode Rapping

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1. Ionization of gas
When the thickness of the dust layer increases more than
The highpotential operation of this method at 40,000 V w-· 6 mm, their electrical attraction become weak. The recently

.-
.... 50,000 V cause production of billions of electrons to attack deposited particles still hold the charge, because that

---
:-. continuously with the gas molecules, which· in turn becomes collectrode was insulated by the dust layer. Under the above

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positive and negative ions. The visibility of blue corona circumstances and because of the negatively charged particles

-...
~
represents the formation of g.ts ions. on the collectrode, flash over between the wire electrode and
the collectrode occurs which decreases the efficiency of the
~-

2. Dust Charging
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electrostatic precipitator. At this stage, a sharp rap causes the
The positively charged ions returned back to the negative dust layer to shear away
wire electrode and gain their electrons, whereas the from the collectrode. The design of an ESP for a
negatively charged ions collide with the dust particles in the This rapping results in particular application is based
on characteristics of the
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entering gas,· thereby making the dust particles negatively the dust to form
particulate matter that affect its
charged. agglomerates and is
ability to be collected and the
3. . Presentation cf Dust collected in the hoppers.
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gas volume flow rate.

The high potential field
The negatively charged dust particles are derived by
recharges fine particles which are re-entrained during
powerful electric forces towards the grounded positively
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rapping.
charged plate and these are held to them. In this way, the dust
 www.rejinpaul.com

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For obtaining maxi-mum efficiencies, most ·of the I.. High- Voltage Precipitators
electrostatic precipitators should be operated at gas velocities High vo.ltage precipitators are suitable for both solid and
of 1 to 2 rn/sec and at 100°C and l 50°C temperature. liquid particulate collection and are used in smelters, steel

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The drift velocity (or axial drift velocity) is the flow furnaces, petroleum refineries, cement kilns, power plants
velocity of a particle or electron attains in a material due to an etc. They are of two types.

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electric field, in an ESP. (a) Tubular type
Table 3.1. Drift Velocity · (b) Plate type.

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SI. (a) Tubular Precipitator
Equipments Particulates Removal
No
The tubular precipitator normally has pipe electrode. Its

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Fine dusts and fumes about
1. ESP diameter varies from 50mm to 300mm and the length varies
1 µm or less
from 2 m to 5 m.
Fine dusts and fumes 1 µm or
2. Filters Clean gas·
less
~~~out

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".
.) Wet Scrubbers Fine particles of about 1 µm
Spray
Larger particles of about
4. Cyclones
10 µm to 100 µm
Discharge
electrode
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Settling Coarse particles larger than I 00
5. (wire)
chambers µm to 150 µm

3.9.2. Classification of ESP

ESPs are classified based on the supply and working Weights
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voltage and are as follows.

1. High Voltage ESPs
Fig. 3.13. Tubular Precipitator
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(a) Tubular type

The gas velocity normally varies between 1.3 m/sec.
(b) Plate type
These precipitators have high collection efficiency, but the
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2. Low Voltage ESPs

 www.rejinpaul.com
. ~ 3.48 ... Air.f ollution anti Control Engineering
. . . .. .

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dust reill'ovai from pipes become hard. The gas .normally to provide corona discharge. The second stage consists of
flows from below upwards parallel metal "plates spaced 20 to- 25 mm apart. Alternate
plates are charged positively and negatively with 6 to 6.5 kV.
(b) Plate Precipitator

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To plates
3.9.3. De s ig n and Performance of Electro-Static
Precipitator
High

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Voltage To wires The efficiency of the electro-static precipitator may be
Clean Discharge estimated by using the following formula,
electrode (wire) (-VP Ac)

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Tl 1 -exp Q
... 0:i~G=bl=""'jf-- gas Where,
-out

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Dirty Ac - Area of collecting electrode, m2
2HL for parallel plate ESP
= nDL for cylindrical ESP
Collection
plate L - Length of the collecting electrode

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Weights
Q Gas Flow rate (Nmvsec)
Fig. 3.14. Plate Precipitator nD2
for Cylindrical ESP
.... In plate precipitators, the collection plate electrodes placed 4xVg
.
~
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in parallel and midway between them are placed equally- n, x Vg for parallel plate ESP
spaced discharge wire electrodes, for practical application
purpose.. The parallel plate spacing ranges from 200 mm to V 0
0
- Inlet gas velocity (about 1 to 3 m!sec)
400 mm and discharge electrodes are spaced at 1 00 mm to D Diameter of cylinder (0.1 to 0.5 m)
400 mm apart. The average velocity in the passage ranges
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S - Height of collecting electrode (2 to 6 m)

from 1.0 to 2.0 m/sec
VP Drift velocity or migration velocity (0.05 to 0.2 in/sec)
II. Low-Voltage Precipitators
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These ESPs are primarily used for the control of finely Migration velocity (VP) is the The efficiency of
divided particles, which drain radially along the collection important parameter in the design of . ESP varies from
electrode, operated in two stages. In the first stage, the ESP. 190
to 99%.
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discharge electrodes have current potential of 12 kV to 13 kV

 www.rejinpaul.com
··.•• .. t iA_w'Po!lulibn-and Cont~ol Ehgineerfng

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: It depends on vanous · operational quantities like electric 9." There is no limit to solid, "Iiquid or corrosive
field strength, viscosity of gas and dielectric, particle size and chemicall usage.

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resistivity properties of the dust. 10. Less maintenance and operating cost etc.

The drift velocity is normally given by, 3.9.5. Disadvantages of ESP

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vpm = ax dp Following are the disadvantages of ESP.
where, 'dp' - diameter of the particle 1. . . High initial cost The main issues

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a - constant 2. Collection efficiency affecting the control
reduces with time efficiency of an ESP
Thus V pm' is more if diameter of the particle is more.
3. Special trained are the design of the
.,

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Normally, it rE'._nges from 0.05 to 0.2 m/sec.
persons are required to device and proper
The constant 'a' depends on the voltage applied, work at high voltage maintenance.
properties of gas and the ability of the particle to accept an handling
electric charge. Normally, drift velocity is measured 4. Pre-requirement of

-
--
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experimentally for a given system. pre-cleaner, like cyclones are required
.. e- 5. Applied only to liquid and solid phase pollutants
3.9.4. Advantages of ESP
6. Sensitive to variable dust loadings and flow rate.
Following are the advantages of ESP
7. Not suitable for explosive gases.
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I. High collection efficiency (upto 99%).
8. It is not good, where the particles have high
.2. Less moving parts and easy operation, electrical resistivity.
3. Withstand high temperatures (upto 750° C) 9. Space requirement is more because of the large
4. High gas holding capacity (upto 10° m3/hour) size of the equipment.
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5. Collection of very small particles (as small as 0 .1 10. The poisonous gas, ozone is produced by the
negatively charged discharge electrodes during gas
micron)
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ionization.
6. Small pressure drops (0.25 to 1.25 cm of water)
3.9.6. Industrial Applications of ESPs
7. Wet or dry particles can be collected.
The important applications of electrostatic precipitators in
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8. Treatment time is negligible (0.1 to 10 seconds).

industries are given in the following table 3.2.
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3:52 a_w!:Co,11_tr:o{ ~g{n_ee~fng;:>
.- :. . :·. .

. · Tabl~:".J.2. bidn;tri~l appli~~tiJ~i:·

-
~f~SPs : TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

SI.No Industry
- - Application
p-
( L: State the-objectives of using air pollution con_trol?

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(April/May 2015) (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2011) ·
1. Cement -' Cleaning of flue gas from
Factories cement kilns The important objectives of the air pollution control are

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- Recovery of cement dust from as follows.
kilns 1. Controlling of effects of air pollution on public
2.

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Pulp and - Soda-fume recovery in kraft 2. Protection of animals, plants, etc.
paper pulp mills
3. Protection of properties against pollutants attack
3_ Steel plants - Cleaning blast furnace gas 4. Providing the acceptable environment etc.

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- Removing tars from coke oven
-- gases f2V Whatis absorption? (Nov/Dec 2011)

- Cleaning open· hearth -and Absorption is also a natural process, in which gaseous
electric furnace gases and particulate matters of air pollutants are collected

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4. Chemical - Collection of SO., phosphoric either by mist or rain and settle down with mist or rain.
industries acid mist G. What is adsorption? ·(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2016)
- Cleaning various types of gases Adsorption is the physical process of collecting the
i.e., hydrogen, C02, S02.
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gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a
- Removing dust from elemental surface, where they are concentrated and retained.
phosphorus in the vapour state
4. Differentiate Adsorption and Absorption.
5. Petroleum Recovery of catalyst dust
' (Nov/Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2018)
industry
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Adsorption is the physical process of collecting the

6. Carbon black Agglomeration and collection of gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a
industry carbon black
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surface, where they are concentrated and retained.

Absorption is also a natural process, in which gaseous
7. Thermal Collecting fly ash from coal fired
and particulate matters of air pollutants are collected
power plants boilers
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either by mist or rain and settle down with mist or rain.

 www.rejinpaul.com
',•.·.· 3:54·· · 3.S~, . ·

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. 5. Write the fundamental approaches of controlling air impaction, direct-interception, diffusion and the
pollution. (May/June 2014) - electrostatic attraction.

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The air pollutants can be controlled by the following two B. What is meant by pollution control by fugitive emission ·
methods. containment? (May/June 2013)

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1. By changing the raw materials in industries Uncontrolled (Fugitive) emission is defined as the
2. By installing suitable air pollution control emissions from the leaks of faulty and damaged joints,
equipments. flanges, valves and openings during material and energy

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transferring, recycling, packaging (and product removal)
6. What are pollution control equipments? (Nov/Dec
and storage. This emission is also called as diffuse
2012) Or List out the equipment to control particulate
emission.
ai.rpollutant. (May/June 2012) (May/June 2016)

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[OR] 9. Write the formula to . calculate the efficiency in
Write-any two pollution control equipments. gravitational settling chamber? (May/June 2016)
(Nov/Dec 2016) Efficiency, '·11' = 1 - e (-nL\VVt/Q)
Following are the important equipment used to control 10. Write the collection Mechanism of scrubbers.

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the particulate matter. (Nov/Dec 2017)
1. Gravitational Settling Chambers Inertial separators collect the particles by changing the
2. Centrifugal Collectors{Dynamic precipitators, direction of motion of the flowing gas, in such a way
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- cyclone collectors,etc.)
3. Wet Scrubbers (or) Wet Collectors (Spray towers,
that the particle cross over the gas steam lines and the
particles are either concentrated into a small part of the
Wet Cyclone Scrubbers,Venturi-Scrubbers etc.) gas flow or are separated by impingement onto a
surface.
4. ESP (Electro-StaticPrecipitators)
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11. Define stokes law. (Nov/Dec 2018)

5. Fabric Filters
Stokes's law, states the settling velocities of small
7. List the principles of control of particulate matter.
spherical particles in a fluid medium.
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(Nov/Dec 2015)
The terminal settling velocity can be calculated by using
Particles are collected by a combination of several
mechanisms. The available mechanisms .are the Stoke's law,
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gravitational settling, centrifugal impaction, inertial

 www.rejinpaul.com
Controlof Particulate.Contaminants ... ·---:- -- -
--
·--:- .

m
= d2 (Pp - p~)· . 16. ~hat are the advantages of scrubbers? (Nov/Dec 2014)
Vt g -P- 18µg - 1. High efficiency

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12. List the advantages of gravity settling chamber. 2. Fabric filters can remove very small particles in
(April/May 2018) dry state.

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1. Simple design, easy installation and maintenance 3. When the performance reduces, it produces pre-
2. Less pressure losses - - - warning
3. Low initial cost , 17. What is the principle of Electrostaticprecipitator?

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~ 4. Dry and continuous disposal of solid ~\rticles
(Nov/Dec2011) (Nov/Dec 2018)
13. What are particulates removal mechanisms in filters?
ESP is working based on the principle that, the ESP uses
(Nov/Dec 2014)

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the electrical forces to move. the particulate mattes, out of
The use of fabric filters is based on the principle of the flowing gas stream and on to collector plates.
filtration, which is the separation of solids from fluids
J 8. State the particulate size which can he removed in a
(gases) by interposing a medium through which only the
settling chamber and an ESP.. ·(May/June 2013)
fluid can pass.

jin
The mechanisms by which the particles come into ./ Particle size of about 50 µm can be removed by
contact with the fibers in the filter media are Straining gravitational settling
(sieving), Interception, Diffusion, Inertial separation ./ Particle size of greater than 0.1 µ to 1 Oµ can be
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and Electrostatic attraction. eliminated by ESPs.
14. What is scrubbing? (Novi Dec 2012) 19. Define "drift velocity". (Nov/Dec 2014)
Scrubbing is the air pollution control technique, used to The drift velocity (or axial drift velocity) is the flow
remove some particulate and/or gases from industrial air velocity of a particle or electron attains in a material due.
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stream. to an electric field, in an ESP.

15. What is wet scrubbing? (May/June 2012) 20. What are the advantages of ESP? (Nov/Dec 2017)
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Wet scrubbing is defined as the air pollution control 1. High collection efficiency (upto 99%).
technique, used to clean air, fuel gas, or other gases of
2. Less moving parts and easy operation,
various pollutants and. dust particles with the scrubbing
3. Withstand high temperatures (upto 750° C)
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liquid (generally Water).

·3.58··
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Contra/of Particulate Contqminants, ~ - - . -- .~.3.59
:- '~· ..
'-:~ --- -- :' ~··
:: '• •'

. REVIEW QUESTIONS · · 7. .· Explain tit~ principle -"of operation .and working ·-of a

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settling chamber. Flow its efficiency can be-improved?
I. List the factors influencing the choice of air pollution
(May/June 2013) (JVov/Dec~017)
control equipment. (8) (May/June 2013) (8)
Refer Chapter 3.4 Page 3.16

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(Nov/Dec2017) (6) (May/June 2016)
.ft Draw the cyclone showing the design proportionsand
[OR]
explain its working principle, advantages and

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Explain lite process of selection of air pollution control- ~
limitations.(JO) (Nov/Dec 2014)
equipment. (8) (Nov/Dec 2015) (8) (Nov/Dec2016)
Refer Chapter 3.6 Page 3.25
Refer Chapter 3 .1.3 Page 3 .2 ·

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9. How does air pollution by particulate matters be
2. What are the various air pollution control strategies? controlled by employing surface filters? Bring out the
(Nov/Dec2012) (April/May 2017) merits and demerits. ~ _ (Nov/Dec2011)

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Refer Chapter 3.2 Page 3.8 _Refer Chapter 3.7 Page 3.31
3. Briefly discuss about the air pollution controlling l 0. What are filter bags? Explain their working and
methods at source. (May/June 2014) operatingproblems. (8) (May/June 2012)
Refer Chapter (1) 3.2 and 3.3.1Page3.8 and 3.10 (8) (May/June2013)

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4. Explain any three air pollution control measures. [OR}
(Nov/Dec2018) How does a bag house filter work? What are the
Refer Chapter 3.2 and 3.3 Page 3.8 and 3.10 positives and negatives of filtration process? (Nov/Dec
5. Discuss the different mechanism on control of gaseous 2012) (10) (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017)
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pollutants. Explain any two in detail (16) . l
Refer Chapter (3.7) Page 3.31
(April/May 2018) j 11. What are inertial separators? State the types and
[OR]
Discuss the collection mechanism and controlling
methods of gaseous pollutants from Industries. (16)
I
I
explain any one. (May/June 2013)
Refer Chapter 3.8.1. Page 3.35
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(Nov/Dec2016) 12. Briefly describethe collection mechanism take place in -

Refer Chapter 3.3 Page 3.10
I a scrubber. (6) (Nov/Dec 2014) (8) (Nov/Dec2018)
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6. Make a note on air pollution control by process change Refer Chapter 3.8 Page 3.35
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and raw material change. (6) (Nov/Dec 2014) 13. What are wet collectors? Discuss the advantagesand
Refer Chapter 3.2 (1) Page 3.8 drawbacks of wet collectors and mention the salient
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3.60 Air Pollution and Control Engineering
·.. -.-. . ·-- ;;·r·_:::; .

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. ·feature;•· of spray t~Wers,·· wet cy~l~n(/'·and: venturi
scrubber. (April/May 2015)
Refer Chapter 3.8 Page 3.35

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14. What are the scrubbing devices in pollution control?
Explain with a neat sketch. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)

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Refer Chapter 3.8 Page 3.35
15: What is a cyclone separator? Explain its working

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principle. (8) (Novi Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter (a) 3.8.2. Page 3.36
16. What is the principle of ESP? Explain its working UNIT-IV

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'principle and the factors influencing its performances?
CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS
(8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (SY (May/June 2012) (16) (May/June
2012, R-2004) (JO) (Nov/Dec 2014) (16) (Nov/Dec 2015) Factors affecting Selection of Control Equipment -
(10) (May/June 2016) (8) (Nov/Dec 2016) (9) (April/May Working principle absorption, Adsorption,

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2017) (16) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16) (April/May 2018) condensation, Incineration, Bio filters - Process
[OR] control and Monitoring '. ('

What is the working principle of ESP? Explain the

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components in it and its working and design factors.
(8) (Novi Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter 3.9 Page 3.43
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 www.rejinpaul.com
3.60 Air Pollution and Control Engineering
·.. -.-. . ·-- ;;·r·_:::; .

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. ·feature;•· of spray t~Wers,·· wet cy~l~n(/'·and: venturi
scrubber. (April/May 2015)
Refer Chapter 3.8 Page 3.35

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14. What are the scrubbing devices in pollution control?
Explain with a neat sketch. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)

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Refer Chapter 3.8 Page 3.35
15: What is a cyclone separator? Explain its working

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principle. (8) (Novi Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter (a) 3.8.2. Page 3.36
16. What is the principle of ESP? Explain its working UNIT-IV

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'principle and the factors influencing its performances?
CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS
(8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (SY (May/June 2012) (16) (May/June
2012, R-2004) (JO) (Nov/Dec 2014) (16) (Nov/Dec 2015) Factors affecting Selection of Control Equipment -
(10) (May/June 2016) (8) (Nov/Dec 2016) (9) (April/May Working principle absorption, Adsorption,

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2017) (16) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16) (April/May 2018) condensation, Incineration, Bio filters - Process
[OR] control and Monitoring '. ('

What is the working principle of ESP? Explain the

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components in it and its working and design factors.
(8) (Novi Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter 3.9 Page 3.43
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4

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COJNTROL OF GASEOUS
CONTAMINANTS

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4.1. CONTROL OF GASEOUSPOLLUTANTS

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<Ll.1.Introduction
The important gases which create pollution in air are,

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sulfur oxides (SO), nitrogen oxides (NO), carbon oxides
(CO, C02), organic and inorganic acidic gases and
hydrocarbons (HC). For the control of above mentioned
gases, the mechanisms are unit operations, which include

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adsorption, absorption, condensation,combustion and mass
transfer.

Air Quality Index is a number used by Government

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agencies to communicate to the public, how the air is
I polluted at present.

Principles of Control of gaseous Pollutants

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Gaseous pollutant streams are like chemical process

streams. The major exception is that the gaseous pollutant
concentrations are usually lower than the chemical process
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stream concentrations. These lower concentrations make it

. possible to·consider gaseous pollutantsas ideal gases.
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4.2

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·. '. A~~ci; the 6ariier gas (air), may be treate~ ~~'.an
ideal gas in The principle of gas absorption is a gas-liquid contacting
the operating range for most of the air pollution control process for gas separation that utilizes the preferential
equipments. solubility or chemical reactivity of the pollutant gas in the

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Gaseous pollutants can be controlled by a wide variety of
devices and choosing the most cost-effective, most efficient 1.::::::.

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units requires careful attention to the particular case for I
which the control devices are intended. The different gaseous
as
I Absorption technology has· been· used ·in the control of
gases such as SOx; NOx, H2S, HCl, Cl2, NH3and HC.

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control devices are explained follows.
1
Removal· of HCs by absorption is employed in many
The air pollution ·caused by gaseous pollutants like
hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide,
I. industries, like, asphalt batch plants, varnish and resin
cookers, coffee roasters and petroleum units. Absorption is

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etc., can be controlled by using following methods.
also used for· recovery of valuable by-products like acetic
1. Absorption
acid, formic acid, chloroform, amines ~4 ketones etc.
2. Adsorption
3. Combustion or Incineration 4.2.1. Efficiency of Absorption Units

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4. Condensation Efficiency of absorption depends upon the,
4.2. ABSORPTION ../ Surface contact between the gas and the liquid
(greater the surface, the greater will be the
Absorption is a chemical
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process in which the molecules, absorption).
Absorption is the
atoms and ions of the substance condition in which ../ Time for which, the gas is allowed to remain in
getting absorbed enters into the something gets contact with the liquid.
bulk phase (gas, liquid or solid) of mixed or absorbed · ../ Concentration of the absorbing media
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the material in which it is taken completely in ../ Speed of reaction between the absorbent and the gas.
up. another substance.
Absorption rs the chemical 4.2.2. Absorption Units
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process in which, atoms or molecules, transfer from one Gas absorption is commonly conducted in equipment
(generally a gas) phase into another (generally a liquid) which is designed to provide intimate contact between the
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phase. In Absorption molecules are taken up by the volume, two phases.

not by the surface. -
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The contact between gas and liquid can be accomplished Working
by dispersing the liquid in the gas or vice versa. Absorption units work on the principle of transfer of the

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Absorption units include the following devices. pollutants from the gas phase to the liquid phase. The
pollutants' from the dirty gas, gets absorbed by the liquid,
(i) Spray Towers }
through which the gas is allowed to pass, in the absorption .

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(ii) Plate Towers Tower Units
units. · Such absorption ·takes· place by diffusion and
(iii) Packed To~ers
dissolution.
(iv) Venturi Scrubbers

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When water is used as the solute, some of the inorganic
I. Spray Towers gases like NH3, Cl2 and S02 are only removed. Proper design
In the spray towers, the flow arrangements are normally is to be followed for the effective and safety utilization of any

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countercurrent and cross-flow. The liquid is introduced by abs,)rbent units before implementation. Utmost care should
spray nozzles or other atomizing devices which form be taken to control the water pollution, due to the transfer of
... · droplets. These droplets provide the mass transfer surface. air to water.
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Spray towers are used for absorption of highly soluble · The important disadvantage of the tower units is clogging
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c gases and solid particles when these are present in the gas. by particulate matter, frequently.
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II. Packed Towers
•I Clean gas outlet
. Packed towers are · very efficient absorption devices
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involving a continuous contact of two phases. These use a
variety of packing materials ranging from specially designed
Water inlet
ceramic packing to. crushed rock. The liquid is distributed
over the packing, which provides high interfacial surface
Dirty gas area, and flows down the packing surface in the form of thin
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~!~in films or subdivided streams. Normally, the liquid and gas

flow countercurrent to each other, the gas flowing upward
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Dirty water out and 1~h~-liquid flowing downward. The use ofpacked towers
- .-'" ,, "': " ~<' ,.,, '
is limited to clean gases, as any precipitate or, slurry will
Fig. 4.1. Spray Tower - ·. > .r::
cause plugging of packing.
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III. Plate Towers (Tray Towers)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---,
In plate towers,
According to the World Health
stepwise contact

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Liquid '"lmr.mn7Tll.TTTT.7777l~-Entrainment separator Organization (WHO) global air
inlet
(Demister} between the liquid pollution database released m
Liquid· distributor
and gas occurs. Geneva, India has 14 out of the 15

Packing restrainer .
• Shell
Packing materials
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Liquid introduced at mostpolluted cities in the worldin
the top cascades terms of PM 2.5 · concentrations.

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from one stage to The worst being Kanpur with a PM
Random packing another and 2.5 concentration of 173
Access manway for -
packing removal
eventually IS micrograms per m>, followed by I

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withdrawn from the Faridabad, Varanasi and Gaya.
bottom of the tower.
The gas flows in a countercurrentdirection to the dropping
Access manway for liquid. At each tray, gas passes through small holes drilled in
packing removal

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the tray or under slotted caps immersed in the liquid, forming
bubbles. Absorption takes place during the bubble formation
and their ascent through the liquid.
IV. Venturi Scrubbers
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-. Venturi-scrubbers can clean about 400 litres of gas per
Fig. '4.2.-Packed Tower
minute. Generally, the mist can be removed by the Venturi
In packed tower, the dust laden gas is passed upward scrubbers followed by cyclonicseparators.
through the bed, keeping. it clean and preventing the · It mainly consists of a Venturi-throat, through which the
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re-entering of the deposited particles.

gas pushes at a velocity of3400 to 12,600.m/min.
The collecting surface area should be relatively large. The Generally the scrubbing liquid (water) is used and it is
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materials used in the collecting surface should have low added in the direction of flow of gas at a rate of 0.3 to 1.5
density, resistant to corrosion and chemically inert. I "Iitres of gas per minute. The scrubbing liquid (water) is
Generally, ceramic saddles, stoneware shapes, coke, reaching I· introduced at the throat portion, with nozzles. The efficiency
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rings, etc. are used aspacking materials, in packed towers. of the venturi scrubbers varies with the input of power and it
will. be high up to 99% even for very small sized particles.
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-
Gas inlet Tlie - difference between
Dirty gas in The adsorbing solid
absorption and adsorption ils that in
J l absorption the molecules are taken is called the

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up by a liquid (absorbent, solvent), adsorbent or
while for adsorption the molecules sorbent and the

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Venturi --+~''>-1 are fixed onto solid surfaces. adsorbed material is
throat the adsorbate or ·
In adsorption units, the dirty
sorbate.

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gases are allowed to pass through
the beds of adsorbent materials, in
which the gaseous pollutants are completely adsorbed and

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removed.
Condensate
out Materials having very high surface area per unit
[ weight are used as adsorbents.
Fig. 4.3. Venturi Scrubbers -

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Venturi scrubbers can work for abrasive, corrosive and 4.3.1. Factors Affecting Adsorption Process
high-temperature gases, if it is made up of good quality and The adsorption process depends on the following
the suitable materials. factors.
Scrubbers are generally less effective m eliminating the ./ Total surface area of the adsorbent.
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gaseous pollutants than the tower units. ../ Temperature
4.3. ADSORPTION ./ Presence of other molecules in the environment which
Adsorption is defined as the process . of accumulating may compete for a place on the adsorbent.
./ Concentration of the material in the space around
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substances that are in solution on a suitable interface.

Adsorption is a mass transfer operation, in that a constituent the adsorbent.
in the liquid phase is transferredinto solid phase. ./ Micro-structure of the adsorbing surface (i.e., sizes
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The adsorbate is the substance that is being removed and shapes of pores)
. from the liquid or gaseous phase at the interface. · The .,/ Chemical nature of the adsorbent surface including
adsorbent is the solid, liquid or gas phase onto which electrical polarity and chemicalactivity
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adsorbate accumulates.
 www.rejinpaul.com
4.10

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. ··.- .· · .. :~-..:r-;·'.:,
:./ . 'Ch..ir~cteri~tic. 6[ the ~~l~cul~~ t~ b~ a~s~rbed. · adsorbing · '~olecules · of organic substances ·With · less
°" Weight selectivity than is-exhibited by other more polar sorbents.
°" Activated carbon is effective in adsorbing organic molecules

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Electrical Polarity
°" Chemical Activity
sven from a humid gas stream: The activity is a measure of
the maximum amount of a vapour that can be adsorbed by· a
°"

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Size and shape etc.
given weight of carbon under specified conditions of
4~3.2.
Adsorbent temperature, concentration of the vapour and concentration of
. Various adsorbents used in adsorption units are, other vapours (usually water),

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(i) Activated Carbon
.. (ii) Molecular Sieves

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(iii) Activated Alumina
)
(iv) Silica Gel etc.
) Before Activation After Activation
. surface area surface area
I. Activated Carbon (or Activated Charcoal)
< 0.001 m2/g > 1000 m2/g ·
Activated carbon

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The adsorbents, Fig. 4.4. Activated Carbon
consists of particles of
moderately to highly pure molecular:sieves, More toxic Hydro Carbons (HCs), Hydrogen Sulphide
activated alumina and (H2S) and Sulphur-di-oxide can be effectively removed by
· carbon with a large surface
silica gel are having the the adsorption techniques by using activated carbon beds.
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area per unit weight or
volume of solid (of about property of capturing the II. Molecular Sieves
1500 m2/gram of water, before absorbing
Molecular sieves have recently been developed for the
adsorbent). It is made by the gas pollutants. Hence, control of SOz, NOX, and Hg emissions. These can be natural
the carbonization of coal, the water has to be
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crystalline zeolites or synthetic metal hydrates of calcium,

wood, fruit pits, petroleum removed from gas, before
sodium, magnesium, potassium or any combination of these.
residues and coconut or it is treated in such units.
III. Activated Alumina and Other Adsorbents
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other nut shells.

Activated alumina (i.e. aluminum oxide) is an important
It consisting largely of neutral atoms of a single species,
adsorbent and is popularly · used · for the adsorption of
presents a surface with a relatively homogeneous distribution
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moisture from gases. It can also withstand high temperatures.

of electrical charge. Hence, activated carbon is effective in
 - - .. AirPollution
.Control of Gaseous Contaminant:s www.rejinpaul.com4.13
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Control
· .. · ··''".
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·:~,--·· .. , .. ·
•, .. · . .. ,. ,,. '.. - ·.·· - - - ..
A.n ai-e order' ofir;agnitud~
f;. that of the most highly activated

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inlport~~ ~d~orb~nts·.other . than carbon simple or
complex oxides. carbons. Silica gels are produced commercially by the
reaction of sodium silicate and sulphuric acid.
Following table explains various adsorbents and its uses.

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V. Modified Adsorbents
Table 4.1. Adsorbents and Uses
. For certain gases, it has been observed that the adsorptive
Adsorbents Uses

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affinity has been increased by the use o_f_ impr~&na~ed
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Activated Eliminating Odours, Purifying Gases, l activated carbon. The addition of other chemicals to an
carbon Recovering Solvents - I adsorbent can promote a chemical reaction that can tie up the·

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Molecular Controlling and recovering Hg, S02 and adsorbent with the additive. This includes chemical
sieves NO emissions adsorption, can greatly increase the rate of adsorption as well
Alumina Drying Air, Gases and Liquids as increase the capacity of the system.
-

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Bauxite 1 Treating Petroleum Fractions,
4.. 3.3. Adsorption Equipment
Drying Gases and Liquids ' Adsorbers are the devices that physically contain the
Bone char Decolorizing sugar solutions adsorbent solid through which the effluent gas passes. Some
Decolorizing Decolorizing fats, oils and waxes, of these adsorption:reactorsare,

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Carbons Decolorizing domestic water
./ Fixed Bed Adsorption Unit
Fuller's earth Refining animal oils, tube oils, vegetable .;. Single Bed Adsorbers
oils, fats and waxes
.;. Multiple Bed Adsorbers ·
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Magnesia Treating gasoline and solvents, removing
metallic impurities from caustic solution ./ Moving Bed Adsorption Unit
Silica gel Drying and purifying gases .;. Fluidized Adsorber
Strontium Removing iron from caustic solutions I. FixedBed Adsorption Unit
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In fixed bed units,

.
activated carbon is used as adsorbent,I
IV. Siliceous Adsorbents (Silica Gel) which is arranged as beds or trays in thin layers of 1.5 cm1
Siliceous adsorbents comprise of· silica gels, fullers and thickness. The containers are of vertical or horizontaf
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other siliceous earths etc. These materials are available cylindrical shell type. The resistance to the flow of air in this
naturally in a wide range of adsorbent capacities per unit unit is less and hence power consumption is less.
weight or volume of solid and their capacities are of the same
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;1
 4.14 Air Pollution and Control Engineering
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Control of Gaseous Contaminants
.. r ::·1 .. --~- ;--' .. ,
:.-:,-,
'. -Th~se~nits -are··~~ifubt~:·.r~; · II. Moving Bed Ads~r]lti~nl.Jnit··: · · ·

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th~ pu~fic~ti~n of very ·1~w
concentration of pollutants, The adsorption is rapid and the
Moving Bed Adsorbers
contaminants cannot build up on the surface· rapidly enough
In this unit, a rotating drum acts as the adsorption bed,

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to reduce the collection efficiency of the thin bed adsorber
contains activated carbon. The effluent gas contaminant is
layer. In deep-bed adsorbers, the layers are deeper than 1.5
moved into the rotating drum. The vapour-laden air enters the

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cm. They occupy the least amount of space and are simpler to
fabricate than thin bed adsorbers.. .Deep-bed adsorbers will be· - ports above the carbon bed, passes through the cylindrical
used, where the savings on power costs are over ridden by activated carbon bed, enters the space inside of this druni and

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other determining factors. then finally leaves through the ports at the ends of the drum.
Steam along with
-- concentrated ·
Fluidized Adsorber
pollutant during It contains a shallow floating adsorbent-bed and when gas
--

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cleaning
Steam in __ passes upward through the·bed, it' expands and fluidizes the
for cleaning. ·
adsorbent. The expanding and fluidizing of the adsorbent
Fig. 4.5. Single bed adsorber provide intimate contact between the contaminated gas and
the adsorbent and prevents channeling problems often

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Steam along with
solvent vapours
associated with fixed beds.
Most of the adsorption units are highly efficient until a
break point occurs when the adsorbent becomes saturated
Concentrated
n
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pollutant f;r- with adsorbate. At this point, the concentration of pollutants
recovery/reu~
in the exit gas stream begins to rise rapidly and the adsorber
· <Contaminated
·-,gas inlet Cleaned gas must be regenerated or renewed.
to stack
Depending upon the collected gas-desorption, adsorbers
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can be classified as regenerative or non-regenerative. The

non- regenerative process is more costly because the
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adsorbent must be disused after exhaustion and replaced with

(During cleaning)
new material.
Fig. 4.6. Multiple Fixed-bed Adsorber
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 . 4.16
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Cpntrq! of Gaseous .Contaminants .
.· .·· .. ·
· ./ · · Re~o~ery . ~f lll~thyl d~I6rofotm. from:.~, Inovie-film

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processing plant,'
Fluidized bed level ./ Recovery of ethyl alcohol vapours from a whiskey
. with particles
ware house and

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circulating in
random fashion ../ Removal of contaminants from air prior to use in an

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Top of settled
operating room or an electronicscontrol room.
activated carbon ../ Controlling of organic vapours in
under no flow
conditions ..;. Dry cleaning,

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Grate for ..;. Degreasing,
supporting
carbon bed ..;. Paint Spraying,
..;. Tank Dipping,

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..;. Solvent Extractingand
..;. Metal Foil Coating.
../ Emissions from plastics, chemical, pharmaceutical,

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rubber, linoleum, transparent wrap manufacturing
Fig. 4. 7. Fluidized-bed Adsorher processes and fabric impregnationprocesses may also
III. Molecular Sieves be controlled by adsorption.
When the nominal diameter is 0.003 µ the molecules
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adsorbed typically might be H20 and NH3• By increasing the Pollutant

size to 0.004 µ, larger molecules such as C02, S02; H20,

C2H4, C2H6 arid C2H50H are also adsorbed. A further
increase to 0.005 'um allows the additional adsorption of sorbent
natural paraffin to the exclusion of branched and cyclic beds
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hydrocarbons.
-
4.3.4. Applications of AdsorptiOn Equipment
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gas
The application of adsorption equipment includes the,
./ Recovery of iso-propyl alcohol from a citrus-fruit
processing plant Fig. 4.$. Adsorption Tower Unit
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 4.18 .
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Ari.·

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adsorption . tower unit • is · given · in figur~: ''~.-8~
schematically, is a special form of molecular sieve, whi;h can
observe Nitrogen Oxides, especially N02.

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This method is not suitable for the removal of gaseous
· pollutants for industrial gases, because all of the adsorbents

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are not suitable for high temperatures and all are subjected to
destruction at the following temperature range.
1. Activated Carbon 150° C

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c, ppm
2. Silica gel 400° C
3. Activated Alumina Fig. 4.9. Adsorption isotherm
500° c
Molecular Sieves c The above equation can be modified for experimental data

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4. - 600°
analysis as,
4.3.5. Design of Adsorption Proc~ss
c 1 b
.:::_g = - +- c
.The design of the adsorption process depends mainly on W a a g
the breakthrough curves, which can be obtained by pilot-plant As per the above equation, a plot of (C/W) versus Cg

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studies. should yield a straight line with a slope of (b/a) and an
The amount of pollutant adsorbed and the equilibrium intercept equal to (l/a).
pressure at constant temperature can be related to Langmuir Key 1 - High loading (highly favourable)
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adsorption isotherm. (Fig. 4.9) 2 - Favourable

.
Amount of
.
gas per- unit mass of adsorbent ' 3 - Linear
aC 4 - Low loading (Unfavourable)
W = I + b C in kg/kg
. g . 5 - Irreversible
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Where, When expressed as the volume of adsorbate adsorbed per

a, b - constants determined by experiment unit. mass of adsorbent . V as follows.
Cg equilibrium concentration of gaseous V = K_rGlln
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pollutant, g/m-' or expressed in terms of concentration as,

1
Pe = KF en (9.32)
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· and called as Freundich isotherm, where KF and n are For each gas component, tliat is· a saturation-partial
. -
constants and pressure value (called vapour pressure), depends on the total'

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n > 1 (KF·a RT n be Af!IRT) pressure and the temperature. This principle is used in the
The width of the adsorption zone is a function of the shape I condensation technique of separation between components in

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the gas mixture.

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of the adsorption isotherm. The velocity of the adsorption
isotherm zone can be calculated from the properties of the
adsorption system by the following equation,
. When a gas mixture IS cooled to a sufficiently low
.
temperature, the partial pressure of polluting component will

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-
(Qg) (I + bCg)
vf = I remain at some point, exceed its vapour pressure. Tue
component will start to condense, until its pressure will be
Where, equal to it~~ vapour pressure at the operating temperature.

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Ps, Pg - density of the solid adsorbent packed and Condensation is the process of converting a gaseous
gas, kg/m3 pollutant into liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by
Ac - cross-sectional area of bed, m- lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure.

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4.4. CONDENSATION Condensers are generally used as pre-treatment devices.
Each component in a gas mixture, takes up a part of total They can be used ahead of adsorbers, absorbers and the
volume . of the gas, corresponding to its concentration. incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be treated by
more expensive control equipment.
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Similarly, the partial pressure of the component corresponds
to its share of total pressure. There are two types of condensers used for pollution
Purified process gas control.
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Ni ~ r
Liquid 1. Contact Condenser
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.. :
Nitrog~e
.=s:>1 2. Surface Condenser

8 8~l1~ 1. Contact Condenser

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' : : : 6 In the contact condenser, the gaseous pollutant comes into

~ ~ ~ LJ
<, Condensate ~ Process gas
contact with cold liquid.
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Fig. 4.10. Example for Condensation

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Control of Gaseous Contaminants 4.23
:4.22-

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Incondenslbtes Dust
To ejector
Water outlet Stearn Vacuum system

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Cooling water In

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Vapour In
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ti t
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1'
ti Flan.ged Tubesheet Tubesheet
I cover
plate -

Water inlet Condensate

c::!=:==:!::r----- Tall Pipe Water Out

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Fig. 4.12. Surface Condenser
Fig. 4.11. Contact Condenser In the surface condenser, the gaseous pollutant comes into
contact with the cooled surface, in which the cooled liquid is
circulated (such as outside the tube).
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Based on the design and applications, the efficiency of the
condensers varies from 50% to more than 95%.
Water
~~!'!ml\&~ Inlet 4.5. COMBUSTION OR INCINERATION UNITS
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Combustion is defined as the air pollution control

measure,. in which the toxic gases pollutants are removed
from ·dirty air by means of oxidation. This method is
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applicable, when the gaseous pollutants in the. dirty gas are

oxidizable to an inert gas.
Incineratio~ned as the process of combustion at
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Fig. 4.11. (b) Contact Condenser

high temperature under controlled conditions to convert the
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wastes. containing- harmful inert . i:riat~dals and
gases.
By- using . incinerators or. combustion equipments, the

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pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO) and Hydro Carbons
Refractory
(HCs), can be easily burnt, oxidised and removed. lined steel
Burner
shell

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Combustion is the sequence of exothermal-chemical ports

reactions between the fuels and an oxidant. Combustion

Refractory
functions on the principle that, the combusted compounds ring baffle

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from a high-energy state. to· low energy state by releasing -Inlet for
.>4--
some energy. co n tam in ate
d
air-stream
Combustion or Incineration techniques oxidise the

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sub;tances rapidly through the combination of oxygen with a
combustible material in the presence of heat. When
combustion is complete, the gas stream is converted into C02 Fig. 4.13 .. Direct Flame Incineration
and water vapour. Incineration can be done by anyone of the 2. Thermal Incineration

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following methods. In thermal incinerators, the combustiblewaste gases pass
1. Direct Combustion (or) Flaring (or) Direct Flame over or around a burner flame, into a residence chamber,
Incineration where oxidation of the waste gases is completed.
2. Thermal Incineration
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Thermal incinerators can eliminate gaseous pollutants at
3. Catalytic Flame Incineration efficiencies of greater than 99%, when operatedcorrectly.
l. Direct Flame Incineration Emission sources

Direct flame incineration is· a control technique for

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combustible air pollutants. This is achieved in the presence of Fuel

Combustio~ ~-~;togas Secondary Engine
flame and sufficient oxygen by raising the temperature of the chamber~·heater Recovery

gases above the ignition temperature and then maintaining the

r
Air
L_
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same temperature, till the complete combustions (oxidation

reactions) are complete. Fig. 4.14. Thermal Incineration ·
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 www.rejinpaul.com

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Catalytic combustion is suitable, when· the combustible
Catalytic incineration technique is used to control NOx,
S02, HCs and CO. The important disadvantages of the
materials in the waste polluted gas are difficult to burn flame

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incineration. This is generally occurring when the energy of catalytic incineration are,
the polluted gas is lesser than 3.7 MJ/m3. 1. Catalysts are very costly materials

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In this method, a mixture of dilute organic gases and 2. Creating poisoning by Sulphur and Lead
oxygen is=exposed to a catalytic surface at a temperature, Major-industries using catalytic incineration are,
which is high enough for the oxidation to occur, for a length 1. Varnish Cooking

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sufficient for the oxidation-to go to completion. It is better to
2. Asphalt Oxidation
ensure that the final product of combustion should be easily
3. Printing Press, etc.
disposable and less toxic than the original gas pollutants
- -

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being removed. Catalysts are used to accelerate the rate of 4.6. PROCESSCONTROL-· CONTROL OF
oxidation, without undergoing themselves a chemical change POLLUTANTS
and thus reducing the incineration time or making the
4.6.1. Control of Nitrogen oxides
incinerationfeasible even with low energy polluted gas.

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Catalysts are usually solids and generally Platinum or Nitrogen forms eight different oxides and out of which.,
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Palladium compounds are used as catalysts. Conventionally, the two most common oxides, .Nitric Oxide (NO) and
~ Nitrogen-di-oxide (N02) are the important air pollutants to
such a catalytic compound is placed in a bed similar to
absorptionbeds. be controlled.
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Hot polluted
In addition, it is to be concerned with Nitrous Oxide
Catalyst (N20). It may be a significant contributor to global warming
gases
Fuel 425-600 °C and to the possible destruction of the ozone layer.
<, The similarity between the Nitrogen oxides and Sulphur
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Air--
oxides are,
Dirt( 1. Both the oxides react with water and oxygen in the
gas
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Fan to mix gases atmosphere to form nitric and sulphuric acids,

to distribute
them evenly respectively. These . two acids are the principal
contributors to acid rain.
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Fig. 4.15. Catalytic Incineration

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.' --···
4.29

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2. Both undergo atmospheric transformations leading or Methods of Controlling Nitrogen oxides
contributing to the formation of PM10 and PM2.s in 1. Technologies such as Flameless Oxidation and

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urban areas. Staged Combustion (or Reh urning) significantly
3. Both are released into the atmosphere in large reduce thermal NOxin industrial processes.

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quantities. 2NO + 2CO + P-R catalyst ---+ N2 + 2C02
· · 4." Both are released to the atmosphere by large 6NO + 4NH3 ---+ 5N2 + 6H20
combustion sources, particularly coal combustion 4NO + 4NH3 +02 ---+ 4N2 + 6H20

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sources. 2N02 + 4NH3 +02 ---+ 3N2 + 6H20
There are also major differences between Nitrogen oxides 2. Bowin (LO - · NOJ Technology is a hybrid of
and Sulphur oxides are,

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1. Motor vehicles are the major emitter of nitrogen
oxides, but a very minor source- of sulphur oxides.
2. Sulphur oxides are formed from the sulphur
contaminants in fuels or the unwanted sulphur in
staged-premixed-radiant combustion technology with
a major surface combustion preceded by a minor
radiant combustion. In the Bowin burner, air and fuel
gas are premixed at a ratio greater than or equal to the
stoichiometric combustion requirement.

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sulphide ores. Although some of nitrogen oxides 3. Water Injection technology, whereby water is
emitted to the atmosphere are due to nitrogen introduced into . the combustion chamber, is also
contaminants in fuels, most are not. becoming an important means of NOx reduction
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3. The formation of nitrogen oxides in flames can be through increased efficiency in the overall combustion
greatly reduced by manipulating the time, process. Alternatively, the water (e.g. 10 to 50%) is
temperature, and oxygen content of the flames. No emulsified into the fuel oil before the injection
·--
and
such reductions are possible with sulphur oxides. combustion.
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4. It is relatively easy to remove S02 from combustion This emulsification can either be made in-line (un-
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· gases by dissolving S02 in water and react it with stabilized) just before the injection or as a drop in fuel
alkali. Collecting nitrogen oxides is not nearly as easy
l with chemical additives for long term emulsion
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this way because NO, the principal nitrogen

I
stability (stabilized).
oxide present in combustion gas streams has a very 4. Inline emulsified fuel or water mixtures show NOx
low solubility in water. reductions between 4 and 83%.
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. ·. 4.31'

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4.-30 ...
. : . :< ., .. -~.: · ·:.
. 5. Other technologies, ~uch as Selective Catalytte The methods ·of reducing NO~ emissions are classified
Reduction (SCR) and Selective Non-Catalytic into -three groups. The methods for each group are,

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Reduction (SNCR) reduce post combustion NOX,by ../ Before Burning
react the exhaust with urea or ammonia to produce • Fuel De-Nitrogenation

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nitrogen and water. SCR is now being used in ships, ../ During Burning
diesel trucks and in some diesel cars. • Staged combustion ..
6. The use of Exhaust Gas Recirculation and Catalytic • - Catalytic combustion

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Converters in motor vehicle engines has significantly ../ · In exhaust Gas
reduced vehicular emissions. • Flue gas treatment
7. By treating the combustion gas chemically after the • Catalytic emission control

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flame, the NOx may be converted to N2_
8. For smaller industrial sources, like Nitric Acid plants;
other control techniques are used, (e.g., scrubbing
with solutions of NaOH and KMn04). Strong
Fuel De-Nitrogenation
Nitrogen is removed from liquid fuels by mixing the fuels
with hydrogen gas, heating the mixture and using a catalyst to
cause nitrogen in the fuel and gaseous hydrogen to unite. This

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oxidization by KMn04 quickly converts NO to N02, produces ammonia and cleaner fuel. This technology can
allowing it to be captured by the alkaline NaOH. reduce the nitrogen contained in both naturally occurring and
Control of Oxides of Nitrogen synthetic fuels.
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NOx control can be achieved by, Combustion Modification
../ Fuel De-Nitrogenation Combustion control uses one of the following strategies .
Combustion Modification ../ Reduce peak temperatures of the flame zone
• Increase the rate of flame cooling
../ Modification of Operating Conditions
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• Decrease the adiabatic flame temperature by

../ Tail-End Control Equipment dilution
• Selective Catalytic Reduction ../ Reduce residence time in the flame zone (change the
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• Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction shape of the flame zone)

• Electron Beam Radiation ../ Reduce Oxygen concentration in the flame one
• Staged Combustion • Decreasing the excess air
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• Controlled mixing of fuel and air

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.. : '-_.·:;
__

· :Ath Pollu?ihh a,;_Jcfon_iroi'Engineering: '

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. i
Using a fuel rich primary flame zone Approximately 90% of the NOx and SOx can be
-
Modification of Operating Conditions removed from the flue gases through this process.

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The operating conditions can be modified . to . achieve 2. Water injection is used for the NOx removal as
significant reductions in the rate of thermal NOx production. follows.

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The various methods are, 3. One of the methods . of .reducing
.. NOx emissions from
../ Low-excess firing oil-fired combustion systems is to mix water with the
../ Off-stoichiometric combustion. (staged combustion) oil before it is sprayed into the burner.

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Flue gas recirculation 'Water decreases the combustion temperature and can
Reduced air preheat reduce NOx emissions from burning light weight oils
../ Reduced firing rates by as much as 15%.

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../ Water Injection The advantage of using theseemulsions is that they reduce
The flue gas treatment can be used to control the oxides of the emission of particulate matter. When water is mixed in
nitrogen in the following manner: the oil, each oil droplet sprayed into the firebox has several
l _ NOx emissions can also be removed· by removing tiny water droplets inside. The heat existing in the firebox

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them from the exhaust gases that are released from · makes these water droplets flash into steam and explode the
burners. oil droplet. Increasing the surface area of the oil enables it
to burn faster and more completely. A reduction in particulate
In one process, ammonia is added to the flue gas prior
emissions can be achieved regardless of whether light or
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to the gas passing over a catalyst. The catalyst enables
~heavyoils are being burned.
the ammonia to react chemically with the NOx
converting it to molecular nitrogen and water. This Tail :End Control Equipment
system removes as high .as 90% removal of nitrogen Tail-end control equipment is required when combustion
oxides from the flue gases
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modification and modification of operating conditions

In a second process, both NOx and SOx are removed, provides: insufficient reductions in NOx not enough to meet
The combustion gases are moved across a bed of regulations. Some of the control processes are,
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copper oxide, which reacts, with the sulphur oxide to ../ Selective Catalytic Reduction
' form copper sulfate. The copper sulfate acts as a ../ Selective non catalytic Reduction
.:··"¥-:::;; ..
../ Electron Beam Radiatie
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catalyst for reducing NOx to ammonia.. -~~-"'./"

../ Staged Combustion

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·. Control ofGaseous Contaminants .'
· Air Pollution 'andCo~trolEngin~~ring -: · ·
; The 1ypi6~IS02. emissions are about o.'1%'so2or.I000-

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In this process, the nitrogen oxides in the flue gases are ppm. Low concentration of so; in gas stream makes it
reduced·to nitrogen. During this process, only the NOx unprofitablefor recovery as H2S04•
species are reduced. NH3 is used as a reducing gas. The The most widely used method is scrubbing. The

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catalystis a combination of titanium and vanadiumoxides. installationand operation of these air pollution control device
1 is expensive and require large capital expenditure. The

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The reactions are given below.
4 NO+ 4 NH3 + 02 ~
2N02 + 4 NH3+ 02 ~
4N~+ 6H20
3N2 + 6H20
I scrubbing or Flue Gas Desulphurization {FGD) processes
can be classified as Throwaway or Regenerative processes

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or wet or dry processes.
Nitric Acid in atmosphere is formed due to.the reaction of
High concentration N02 with Water. It can be removed by, The major FGD processes are,
1. Controlling Motor Vehicle and industrial combustion ./
-
Limestonescrubbing
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emissions ./ Lime scrubbing
2. Conversion of Energy Methods etc. ./ Dual Alkali processes
./ Lime-spraydrying
4.6.2. Control of Oxides of Sulphur (Sox)
I ./ Wellman-Lordprocess

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The control of S02 is
The major sources of The S02 is removed by inducing exhaust gases to react
. completely based on chemical
methods.. The sulphur present
S02 are automobiles I with a chemicalabsorbent as they pass through a tower.

in organic compounds can be

and coal burning
I Limestone Wet Scrubber
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electric power plants in l
converted to various forms by This is a widely used device for removing S02• The
oxidationor reduction (removal
India. l incurring exhaust gas after the removal of solid fly ash
of oxygen or the addition of
hydrogen). I
!1
particles is passed to a tower. Limestone (CaC03) slurry is
sprayed on the incoming exhaust gas. The S02 dissolves in
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Sulphur gets oxidized to Sulphur Dioxide (S02) and the slurry and reacts with limestone producing C02 and solid
Sulphur Trioxide (S03). In the atmosphere, S03 reacts with CaS03•
water to form sulphuric acid, which reacts with ammonia or SO~+ CaC03 + H20 ----)- CaS03 + H20 + C02
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other cat.. ions to form particles of ammonium sulphate or During the development phase of this technology during
some other sulphates. Tu~se ·small particles are responsible. 1970s and early 1980s, the problems of corrosion, solid
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. for urban particulate and

....._______
visibility problems
.
.
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4.36 __ _ Air Pollution and Control Engineering l·. Control ofGaseous Contaminants 4)7_' .: .:

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- - deposition, ~~aHng· and plugging, mist eliminator - plugging, -. system is 1.5 t~- 30. percent cheaper to install and operate as
poor reagent utilization and poor solid-liquid separation were compared to 11 conventional wet scrubbing system. The waste
encountered.- Most of these problems have_ either been products are easier to handle.

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eliminated or reduced to manageable size through proper
design and careful operation.
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The limestone scrubbers - are -- still expensive and
troublesome. The large . amount . of solid waste produced
remains a disposal problem.
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Lime-Scrubber
The process is similar to limestone wet throwaway process I
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describe~ above. Lime (CaO) is used instead of limestone.
Lime hydrates to Ca(OH)2 in the hold tank and is sprayed on
the exhaust gases. Ca(OH)2 is more chemically reactive than
- limestone. During the process CaS03 'is produced.
S02 + CaO+ H20 ~ CaS03 + H20

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Dual Alkali Scrubber
This is a wet regenerative system. Two reagents are used
to remove S02• The scrubbing is done by sodium sulphite or
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sodium hydroxide. -
Lime-spray Drying_
The exhaust gases react with a fine slurry mist of lime.
The heat of the exhaust gases is used to dry the reacted slurry
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into Calcium sulphite particles.

S02 -+ CaO ~ CaS03
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The particles are captured in a particle collection device

along with other particles in the plant. The removal efficiency
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of S02 in a dry scrubbing system is typically 70%. The


4.38 Air Pollution and Control Engineering
.· . ~~rbori< and :riih~/.~<lsorbents:. "SJ~k· · hs:; -'~0118w · ·~irin11m1m. · ·
spheres coate<!_ with a catalyst can be employed in a fixed,
moving or fluidized bed system.
Fluidized bed systems, though more expensive to build
and operate, yield high contacting with low pressure loss and
regeneration can be accomplished within the system. The
fixed beds are less expensive and provide longer packing life,
but provide less contacting per unit · length and require a ·
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larger pressure loss, because they are regenerated
individually.
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Moving beds have properties. between fixed and fluidized
beds .•Tue useful life of activated carbon can be determined
using break through curves. Regeneration can be achieved by
contact with a hot, inert gas, contact with a low pressure gas
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stream and pressure reduction over the bed. Steam desorption
is the most commonly used process for regeneration.
Incineration
Incineration or combustion is another common voe
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control .technology. Complete combustion or oxidation of
pure hydrocarbons produces carbon dioxide and water.
Sulphur and nitrogen compounds produce acid gases and
limited air supply results in the formation of carbon
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monoxide.
Complex organic compounds may not oxidize completely
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in the residence time and ash may form. Most VOC oxidation
must be done at high temperature, unless catalysts are
involved.
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,. ~·~ :.. ·
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. _·----_._ ·::,: . -_,
z Flares, tli6ITn.a1 oxidizers and catalytic converters an use
oxidation chemistry to-treat VOC einissions. Flares mostly
ti-eat moderate to high temperature concentrations. All of the
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heat produced by the combustion process is lost when the
flares are used. Most thermal oxidizers treat emission streams
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with maximum VOC concentrations of 25% of the LEL
(lower explosive limit). Catalyst beds especially when used to
enhance the oxidation ofVffCs (usually noble metals like
platinum and palladium) must be "able to withstand high
temperatures and must be designed so that a minimum
pressure drop is created when the gas passes through the bed.
"For example by using catalytic converters, thermal oxidation
of the by-products of the incomplete engine combustion can
be. safely accomplished at temperatures much lower than
would be required without the aid of catalysis.
Condensation
Condensation and gas absorption are most commonly used
for highly concentrated voe streams that are advantageous
J to recover and the relatively large expense is warranted. It
I employs a drop in temperature and/ or increase in pressure to
cause the V OCs in the emission stream to condense. The
I cleaned air stream is separated from the condensate
containing target pollutants. In many cases, very large
temperature drops are required to achieve effective
condensation, requiring significant energy investment to
accomplish cooling.
Cond~nsation is used to recoyer gasoline and fuel vapors
at· gasoline loading terminals and in gasoline dispensing.
facilities. It is also used in the adsorbent regeneration process
 www.rejinpaul.com .. ;

.4,40 . AJrJ?o!fuiio.n
. - - .
ail4.¢ontr_oi·Jf;iigine.ering
. . . . . .
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·to separate solvents from the stream, used to regenerate the 1. Bio-Scrubbers .
activated.carbon. 2. Composing filters
Gas Absorption 3. Biio-Filters

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Gas absorption involves the Bio-scrubber or Biological scrubbers are the biological

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absorption of a gas into a liquid. reactors, used to remove Volatile Organic Compo;inds
Air Pollution Index
Water can be used for recovery of (VOCs) and odorous molecules (like H2S and organic·
. is the index of guality
water-soluble compounds such as sulphides)present in industrial gaseous emissions.
of air based on air

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acetone and low molecular weight Opslag
pollutants and it is
alcohols, which can later be Clean gas washwater
calculated from
separated. from water usmg
vanous air pollution

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distillation. Additives are often Scrubber
data.
used to increase the effective Raw gas

,.. mass transfer rate of the pollutant from the gas phase into the
Scrubbing water
liquid ·phase, affecting the surface tension, reducing
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I interfacial resistance and increasing the apparent solubility.
i Fan Pump
I Gas absorption can be expensive; however it is generally
•i used only to recover VOCs that have a secondary market Pump
value. Gas absorption techniques are used for the recovery of
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a variety of chemicals in the coke manufacturing industry.
Activated sludge
Polluted
They are often called scrubbers. scrubbing
reactor Sedimentator .
water
4.7. BIO-SCRUBBERS
~ Air
'----+~ Sluice
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4.7.1. Introduction
Return of sludge
Biological process utilizes the ability of micro-organisms
to oxide organic material. This method is used for cleaning
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the polluted air streams with biologically degradable organic Recirculationpump

compounds. Biological oxidation is carried out in three Fig. 4.16. Bio-Scrubber

different cleaning techniques.
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4.42 .· AirPollution
. . .
and
. . .
Con;rq/§ngirzee,r!ng
.
· . , Control of Gaseous Contaminant»,

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···::- .. ,,··· ...

4.7.2. B~~Scrubbers -·Working The -gas scrubber must be designed to ensure that the
It consists of~ gas scrubber and a biological reactor. '
residence time of gases in the scrubber amounts to
-
Components to be removed are absorbed from the gas stream

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approximately I second. This may be slightly more or
by the wash water, in the gas scrubber.
slightly less, depending on the solubility of the components,
The biological reactor contains an aeration device to
l

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supply bacteria with enough oxygen to break down the I.. _ Pollutants Removal Efficiency
components. In the biological reactor, the pollutants that have- . - voe 80 to 90 %
1 Odour 70 to 80 %
been absorbed by the wash water are biologically degraded.
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The purified scrubbing liquid is circulated to the scrubber, Ammonia 80 to 95 %
where it is able to re-absorb the pollutants. 1
4.7.4.Restrictions to use Bio-Scrubbers
The biologically degradable hydrocarbons are converted

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into H20 and C02 in the bio-scrubber. The non-degradable Following factors should be considered m the
hydrocarbons remain in the wash water. Components such as Bio-Scrubbers operations, to get higher efficiency.
H2S and NH3 are converted into sulphate and nitrate
./ Pollutants must be water soluble.
respectively.
./ Pollutants must be biologically degradable.

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Regular draining needs to take place in order to keep down
the salt content and the level of non-degradable ./ There must be a relatively consistent emission supply.
hydrocarbons. This can take place on . the basis of ./ Conductivity may be maximum 5000 ms/cm for stable
conductivity or through fixed discharge. The scrubber must biological degradation.
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have a special open packing and special spray nozzles to
The sludze concentration can be maximum 15 g/l of
prevent blockage by bio-sludge. . t:>

dry substance.
Besides a carbon source (hydrocarbons), the biological
system also· needs nutrients in order to survive. For this ./ .Temperature between 15 and 40 °C (Optimum 30 to
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purpose, a mix of nutrients is added to bio-scrubbers. This 35 °C)

mix of nutrients contains nitrogen, phosphorus and trace ./ Atmospheric Pressure should be maintained.
elements.
./ voe should be within 100 and 1000 mg/m3
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4. 7 .3. Design and Efficiency

./ Odour should be more than 20000 ou/m3 ·
The level of discharge is determined by the flue gas
./ Ammonia should be within 50 and 200 mg/m3
composition. The hydraulic residence time for wash water of
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20 to 40 days (maximum), produces good results.

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• '>4trPbizuti;;~6hd Cont/-o/ Engineerihg:··. ·

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4. 7.5. Waste Products from Bio-Scrubbers 4.7.8. Applications
A bio-scrubber creates two types of waste flow. Bio-Scrubbers are used in,
I. A discharge laden with salts and COD that cannot be ./ Cigarette industry for odour detection. Odour ·

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degraded biologically. concentration . is reduced by approximately
, 2. Sludge discharged from the bioreactor. (This must be
. 5000 ou/m3 to, 200 to 300 ou/m3•

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. manner).· · ·
removed in an environment-conscious ,/ Solvent problems when alcohols, ketons, acetates are
used.
4. 7.6. Advantages ,/ Removal of odour components, NH3 and H2S from

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Following are the advantages of using Bio-Scrubbers. gas originating from water purification plants.
L Biodegradation of components; no VOC's as residual ,/ Removal of odour arising from the production of
products enzymes - -

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2. High concentrations of easy to degrade components ,/ Removal . of odour arising from the production of
can be processed. aromas
3. High concentrations of acidifying sulphur, nitrogen
./ Removal of odour and sulphur components from flue
and chlorine components can be removed by checking gases in the rubber industry

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pH.
./ Removal of odour and sulphur components from flue
4. Due to the large quantity of water, peak emissions are gases in the production of methionine
better dealt with than by bio- filters and bio-trickling
,/ Removal of odour in the production of polymers
filters.
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./ Removal of odour, hydrocarbons and· nitrogen
4.7.7. Disadvantages components during the processing of paint residues
Following are the disadvantages of using Bio-Scrubbers. ,/ Treatment of flue gases coming from waste sites for
1. Stable ·flue gas streams preferred (in terms of dangerous substances
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composition and load); the yield will fall if there are ,/ Ammonia removal at cattle farms
fluctuations. ,/ Slaughterhouses for odour removal
2. Primarily suited to soluble components
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3. Components must be biologically degradable 4.8.1. Introduction

4: Production of sludge, which must be disposed off. Bio-filtrationis an air pollution control technique which
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5. Discharge water requires further treatment. involves bio degradation of contaminants under the action of
 www.rejinpaul.com
.4.46 ; . <::ontrql
....',
·. . . ,,of
. . Gaseous.
·~.. .
Contaminants
. . . .. . . . ·. . ..
" ·. .· , .-; .
:~.
.'' ·-::.··. ·'.. :

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microorganisms diffused in ~1 thin fayer of moisture known as Some types of media lack proper nutrients and will require
Biofilm. -· the manual addition nutrient? (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorous
Bio-filtration is mainly used for elimination of malodorous compounds) in order to sustain microbiallife. Most bio-filters

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gas emissions and low concentrations of Volatile Organic will operate for 5-7 years before it is necessary to renew the
CompoundsCv O'Cs). filter media.

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The process of Bio Degradationis given by, 2 Support Bed
e,

Organic Pollutant +02 ~ C02+ H20 + Heat + Biomass Perforated support rocks are used to permit the air from

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the plenum to move into the bed media, and to contact
4.8.2. Components of a Bio-filter Unit
microbes that live in the bed. Perforationsalso permit excess,
Biofiltration utilizes a supported media for microbial condensed moisture to drain out of the bed to the plenum .

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. growth to remove odors and organic contaminants from air
streams. The filter consists of a closed chamber containing
contaminant degrading microbes and absorbed water
suspended in a filter medium.
3. Collecting Fan
Collecting fans are used to collect contaminated air. As the
emissions flow through the bed· media, the pollutants are

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1. Filter Media absorbed by moisture on the bed media. Microbes reduce
pollutant - concentrations by consuming and metabolizing
The moist filter medium provides physical and chemical
pollutants.
conditions suitable for the transfer of contaminants from the DecontaminatedAir to Atmosphere
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air to the liquid phase and the biodegradation of the
contaminants in the biofilm layer. The purpose of the bio-
filter media is to provide a large surface area for the Contaminated
Air
_-- -:- _-j Bed Media L -:
absorption and adsorption of contaminants, provide a low Plenum
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pressure drop for the gases passing through the media and
Water Drain to
have a long working life. Wastewater
Fan
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Typical bio-filter media material includes compost-based Treatment

materials, earth, heather, plastic, or wood-product based Fig. 4.17. Collectingfan

material. The media also serves as a nutrient source for the
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microbial population.
 .4A8.
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· . b61/trd6fGa~eoiti·cohtami(iiaits', · 4.49

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Biofilm.
Lit:fuid_!ayer Table 4.2. Difference between Bio Filtration, Chemical
Porous Particle
H)tedGas . , Oxidation and Thermal Processes

SL Bio- Chemical Thermal

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Fa ctor-
No Filtration Oxidation Process
1. By- pro.duct Waste Smog nitrogen

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Biomass Formation oxides
. which
causes

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ozone
Activated Carbon
Packed Filter Bed depletion

- .- Spray Nozzles
2. Funet ioning at Ambient Require Requires

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temperature precise additional

~_J - ,+, ,+_ 1,+, t---~ and Pressure

process.
temperature
and pressure
natura(--·
gas for
Humidifie,~d~BRll!!iiiliii. conditions achieving
Gas 1 --~--...!Waste Gas
Humidifier high tempt

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hence
Liquid Drain increases
Legends C02
-\S) Pressure Gauge
3. In'/es tment Less High high
@ Pump
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an dO peration
l><l Valve
co st
Fig. 4.18. Schematic Diagram of Conventional Biofilter
'l.8.4. 'I'ype s of Bio-Fillters
4.8.3. Difference between Bio Filtration, Chemical Bio-filters are classified on the basis of,
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Oxidation and Thermal Processes

a) Layout
Following table 4.2 gives the Difference between
../ Open Bed: Uncovered and Exposed to all Weather
Bio-filtration, Chemical Oxidation and Thermal Processes.
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conditions .
../ Closed Bed: Enclosed with a small exhaust port for
venting of cleaned air
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:. 4ir P:ol!u~ion,and Control,Engin~ering> .: :(;t:mtrpl of{!asgtp!S_ (Jgn[<ihJi~ts ::

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bjShape ../ Ability to retain moisture to sustain biofilm layer;
../ Horizontal ../ Large surface area, both for contaminant absorption
ot- Easy Maintenance and microbial growth;

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ot- With Larger footprints ../ Ability to retain nutrients and supply them to
ot- . Relatively inexpensive microbes as required;

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./ Vertical · · ./ Low resistance to air flow (minimizes pressure drop
ot- Designed to reduce the footprint required. and blower power requirements);
../ Physical characteristics, such as physical stability and

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ot- Use less surface area compared to Horizontal
ot- Expensive ease of handling.
Biotransformation ~-
Not easy to Maintain
. ot-

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c) Support Media Voltatile
Organic
Compost Bio-Filter: Soil, Peat, Compost material is ._ Compounds
2 L---,.---,---'
used li:: I
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Cl] I
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Synthetic Bio-Filter: Ceramic, Plastic. I

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Bib-Filters I
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t I
0 I
Based on Cl.
en
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Layout Shape
l
''
+.
Support Media
I I
I
I

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Open Bed Closed Bed
I I Untreated By-product Release Sludge in Leachate Innocuous
Horizontal Vertical Compost Bio Filter in Air or Water Gases
Losses from Biofilter to Air or Leachate Acids in
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Synthetic Bio Filter Leachate

Fig. 4.19. Types of Bio-Filters Fig. 4.20. Bio-filtration

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4~8.5.Factors considering filter material 4.8.6. Filtration Process

Following factors are to be considered while selecting The mechanism of the bio-filtration process includes a
suitable filter material.
combination of adsorption, absorption and microbial
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4.8. 7. Design
degradation. In bio-filtration, movement of the contaminants
from the air to the-water phase occurs. Microorganisms l -, Space Requirements ., A small bio-filtration unit can
be designed to handle approximately, 30 cft/min. per
contained in the biofilm layer continuously metabolize the I

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contaminants, as they are absorbed, and converting · them I 25 Sq.ft area.
ultimately to water, carbon dioxide and salts.
I 2. Chemical Constituents and Concentrations - Bio-

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The contaminants· in the gas · r-~~~~~~~~~~~
i filters performed best when treating hydrophilic
are either adsorbed onto the The oxidation of . iI 3.
compounds in low concentrations (<l 000 ppm).
Retention or Residence Time - Residence Time is
solid particles of the media or l

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organic matter
absorbed into the water layer
that exists on the media
generates heat in
Bio-Filtration. I the time duration for which, the microbes are m
contact with the contaminated air stream.
particles., _Concentration of
I . . Void Volume

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Residence Time= Vo1umetr.ic Fl ow R a1e
contaminants decreases from inlet to outlet as they partitioned
between various phases. Wastes partition out between soil
and gas, so that the voe remain in soil longer than in air.
I Consequently, longer residence times produce higher
efficiencies. However, a design must . minimize
Diffusion occurs through the water layer to the I residence time to allow the bio-filter to accommodate

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microorganisms in the slime layer on the surface of the media larger flow rates. For most bio-filters, residence times
particles. Through biotransformation of the food source, end
products are formed, . including carbon dioxide, water,
I 4.
range between 30 seconds to 1 minute.
Humidity - The humidity of gas stream is important
I for maintaining the moisture content of the bio-filter
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nitrogen, mineral salts, and energy.
Biotransformation act along with adsorption, absorption, media. The gas entering the bio-filter should be
and diffusion to . remove contaminants from the gaseous humidified to greater than:95% relative humidity.
stream. The media of the filter functions both to supply 5. · pH-Control The by-products of microbial
inorganic nutrients and as a supplement to . the gas stream degradation are organic acids. In order to maintain the .
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being treated for organic nutrients. pH of the vessel around neutral, or a pH of 7,

The sorbed gases are oxidized by the microorganisms to buffering material may be added to the organic media,
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C02• The volatile inorganics are also sorbed and oxidized to 6. Bio-filter Media - The media used in bio-filters can
form calcium salts. Half-lives of contaminants range from include peat, heather, bark, composted sewage sludge,
minutes to months. granular carbon or other suitable materials. Generally,
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the media should be capable of providing nutrients to

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4.54 .4_ir Pollu,tion (Jncf Crmtrol. Engineerillfj .- : 1~ - - . .
·~ Control
. , . .. . . ef..G@ff!ous-.Cqnf£Il!JiiuifitS:
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./ ·. It ~an be desi~ed to physically fit into any industrial
addition, the moisture content of the bio-filter media setting, i.e., any shape, size or as an open_field with
must be maintained between 30% and 60% in order to the piping and delivery system underground.
support the microbial population. In addition to

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I- ./ In addition, bio-filters can be designed with stacked
humidifying the airflow, sprinkler systems- are I! beds to minimize space requirements and multiple
frequently installed inside the bio-filter that can be

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J units can be run in parallel.
· controlled to maintain suitable bed moisture.
./ Biofiltration is versatile enough .to tre~t odors, toxic
7. Pressure Drop - Pressure drop across the bio-filter compounds, and voes. The treatment efficiencies of

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reactor vessel should be minimized since an increase these constituents are above 90% for low
in pressure drop requires more blower power and can concentrations of contaminants (<1000 ppm).
result in air channeling through the media. Pressure
./ Different media, microbes and operating conditions

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drop is directly related to the moisture content in the
can be used to tailor a bio-filter system for many
media and the media pore size. Increased moisture
and decreased pore size result in increased pressure I emission points.

drop. For a typical bio-filter pressure drops range

i 4.8.9. Disadvantages of Biofiltration

jin
between 1 and 10 hPa. Following are the disadvantages of using Biofiltration.
8. Maintenance -The operation and maintenance of the ./ Biofiltration cannot successfully treat some organic
bio-filtration system would require weekly site visits compounds, which have low adsorption or
during initiation of operations for ermssion. I degradation rates. This is especially true for
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However, after acclimation and all system problems l chlorinated voes.
are resolved the frequency of site visits could be I;
l ./ Contaminant sources with high chemical enussions
reduced to the biweekly or monthly.
l would require large bio-filter units or open areas to
4.8.8. Advant'ages of Biofiltration
'~
!
install a bio-filtration system.
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Following are the advantages of using Biofiltration. ./ Sources with emissions that fluctuate severely or
./ The main advantage of using bio-filtration over other produce large spikes can be detrimental to the of a
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more convention control methods are lower capital bio-filters microbial population and overall
costs, lower operating costs, low chemical usage, and 'performance.
no combustion source.
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./ Acclimation periods for the microbial population may 4•. Define Air Quality Index
take weeks or even months, especially for voe (Nov/Dec 2011) (May/June 2012) (May/June 2012, R-
treatment. ·. 2004) (Nov/Dec 2016)

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TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Air Quality Index is defined as a scale or an indicator of
·air quality, based on air pollutants that have adverse

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1. What is adsorption and absorption? (Nov/Dec 2011) effects on human health and the environment.
. Absorption is also a natural process, in which gaseous 5. ur;ite the purpose of air quality index. (May/June·2016)
and particulate matters of air pollutants are collected Air Quality Index is a number used by Government

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either by mist or rain and settle down with mist or rain. agencies to comr:nunicate to the public, how the air is
2. What is adsorption? (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2016) polluted at present.
Adsorption is the physical process pf collecting the

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6. 'Define Air Pollution Index.
gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a
(Nov/Dec 2012) (April/May 2017)
surface, where they are concentrated and retained.
Air Pollution Index is the index of quality of air based
3. Differentiate Adsorption and Absorption. on air pollutants and . it . is calculated from various air

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(Nov/Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2018) pollution data.
Adsorption is the physical process of collecting the
7. How combustion process brings air pollution Control?
gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a
Combustion or Incineration techniques oxidise the
surface, where they are concentrated and retained.
substances rapidly through the combination of oxygen
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In Absorption molecules are taken up by the volume, with , a combustible material in the .prcsence of heat.
not by the surface. When . combustion is complete, the gas stream is
Absorption is also a natural process, in which gaseous converted into C02 and water vapour.
and particulate matters of air pollutants are collected 8. State the mechanisms of controlling gaseous pollutants.
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either by mist or rain and settle down with mist or rain. (April/May 2015) (April/May 2017)
The difference between absorption and adsorption is The gaseous pollutants can-'becontrolledby,
that in absorption the molecules are taken up by a liquid
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1. Absorption
(absorbent, solvent), while for adsorption the molecules
2. Adsorption
are fixed onto solid surfaces.
3. Combustion or Incineration
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4. Condensation
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4.58 __._· .. ·<:.·---:__;=-. . __:·.

.459'

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· ;<.:9~··. :N1z11te the ;,ethods of controz1ingnitrogen oxides. ·
13. What are the wasteproductsfrom bin-scrubbers?
NOx control can be achieved by,
1. A discharge laden with salts and COD that cannot be
./ Fuel De-Nitrogenation degraded biologically.

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./ Combustion Modification 2; Sludge discharged from the bioreactor. (This must
./ Modification of Operating Conditions be removed in an environment- conscious manner).

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./ Tail-End Control Equipment. . 14. Define Bio-filtration. .
• Selective Catalytic Reduction Bio-filtration is an air pollution control technique which
involves bio degradation of contaminants under the

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• Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
action of microorganisms diffused in a thin layer of
• Electron Beam Radiation
moisture known as Biofilm.
• Staged Combustion

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15. Write the difference between Bio-filtration, Chemical
10. How nitric acid is removedfrom atmosphere? Oxidation and ThermalProcesses.
(May/June 2014) Refer Table 4.2 Page 4.50
./ Fuel De-Nitrogenation REVIEW QUESTIONS

jin
./ Tail-End Control Equipment
J. Explain the Principlesof Control of gaseous Pollutants
./ Strong oxidization by KMnO 4
Refer Chapter 4.1.1Page4.1
11. How Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic Compounds 2. What is adsorption? How adsorption principles are
(VOC) are controlled? usedfor air pollution control?
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Control and treatment of Volatile Organic Compounds Refer Chapter 4.2 Page 4.2
and organic hazardous air pollutant emissions are · 3. Explain various absorption units in air pollution .
generally accomplished by adsorption, incineration, control
condensation and gas absorption. Refer Chapter 4.2.1Page4.3
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12. What is Bio-scrubber? 4. What is adsorption? How adsorption principles are

Bio-scrubbers or Biological scrubbers are the used for air pollution control? (8) (May/June 2012)
biological reactors, used to remove Volatile Organic
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(16) (Nov/Dec 2012) (8) (Nov/ Dec 2012, R-2004) (8)

Compounds (VOCs) and odorous molecules (like H2S
(May/June 2012) (8) (M(ly/June 2014) (8). (May/June
and organic sulphides) present in industrial gaseous 2016) (16) (ApriVMay2017)
emissions.
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Refer Chapter 4.3 Page 4.8

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5. ·Explain the design of adsorption process.
Refer Chapter 4.3.5 Page 4.18

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6. What is a condensation technique . in the control of
gaseous contaminants? Explain. (8) (Nov/Dec 2011)

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Refer Chapter 4.4 Page 4.20
7. What is combustion? -How do combustion process is
applied in gaseous emission control? (8)

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(Nov/Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter 4.5 Page 4.23
UNIT-V
8. What are the approaches for controlling oxides of

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nitrogen? Discuss the control methodology. INDOOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT ·
(April/A-fay 2015)
Sources, types and control of indoor air
Refer Chapter 4.6.1. Page 4.27 pollutants, Sick building syndrome and Building

jin
9. Discuss the control oxides of.sulphur. related illness- Sources and Effects of . Noise
Refer Chapter 4.6.2. Page 4.34 Pollution - Measurement - Standards -Control
and Preventive measures.
10. Write the working and design aspect of bio-scrubbers.
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Refer Chapter 4.7.l and 4.7.2. Page 4AO and 4.42
11. Write the advantages, disadvantages of bio-scrubbers
and waste products from bio-scrubbers.
Refer Chapter 4.7.6, 4.7.7. and4.7.5. Page 4.44 and 4.45
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12. What is Bio-filtration? Explain the components and

working of Bio-filtration units.
Refer Chapter .4.8. Page 4.45
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13. Write the advantages, disadvantages of bio-filters,

Refer Chapter 4.8.8 and 4.8.9. Page 4.54 and 4.55
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·. •. · A.Jrf.oll~tf.on..a~# <;:pntrptErzr;frt.eerini·-< < ·

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5. ·Explain the design of adsorption process.
Refer Chapter 4.3.5 Page 4.18

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6. What is a condensation technique . in the control of
gaseous contaminants? Explain. (8) (Nov/Dec 2011)

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Refer Chapter 4.4 Page 4.20
7. What is combustion? -How do combustion process is
applied in gaseous emission control? (8)

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(Nov/Dec 2012)
Refer Chapter 4.5 Page 4.23
UNIT-V
8. What are the approaches for controlling oxides of

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nitrogen? Discuss the control methodology. INDOOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT ·
(April/A-fay 2015)
Sources, types and control of indoor air
Refer Chapter 4.6.1. Page 4.27 pollutants, Sick building syndrome and Building

jin
9. Discuss the control oxides of.sulphur. related illness- Sources and Effects of . Noise
Refer Chapter 4.6.2. Page 4.34 Pollution - Measurement - Standards -Control
and Preventive measures.
10. Write the working and design aspect of bio-scrubbers.
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Refer Chapter 4.7.l and 4.7.2. Page 4AO and 4.42
11. Write the advantages, disadvantages of bio-scrubbers
and waste products from bio-scrubbers.
Refer Chapter 4.7.6, 4.7.7. and4.7.5. Page 4.44 and 4.45
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12. What is Bio-filtration? Explain the components and

working of Bio-filtration units.
Refer Chapter .4.8. Page 4.45
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13. Write the advantages, disadvantages of bio-filters,

Refer Chapter 4.8.8 and 4.8.9. Page 4.54 and 4.55
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INDOOR AIR QUALITY

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MANAGEMENT
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5.1. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
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l Indoor air pollution is defined as the degradation of
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' indoor air quality by. harmful chemicals and other materials

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!
1
and it can be up to 10 times severe effects than outdoor air
pollution.
l The inside environment of houses often has a higher level

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of air pollution than the surroundings in cities and towns.
J Most people spend, as much as 80-90% of, their time indoors
~ and hence indoor pollution should be given much importance.
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Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) refers to the air
quality within and around buildings and
structures, especially as it relates to the health and
comfort of building occupants.
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5.1.1. Causes of Indoor Air Pollution

The various causes of indoor pollution are,
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../ Uses of traditional fuel for cooking,

../ Tobacco smoke,
../ Temperature,
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../ Humidity,
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) ·•· . Micro~org~~~s and

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Pollutants such as - aldehydes, volatile, and semi-volatile
./ Allergens.
organic compounds are produced from resins, waxes,
The use of formaldehyde in construction materials and polishing materials, cosmetics, and binders.
poor ventilation due to energy conservation measures in new

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' It was found that emissions of sulphur dioxide and total
homes and offices are also responsible for indoor pollution.
'
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suspended particulate matter in all the fuels were much

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I. Burning of Traditional Fuels · hig_h<?:C than the average annual standard for ambient arr
In India, 20 Crore people are using fuel, for cooking.
Firewood _ 49% ·
l quality.
IL Pollellls and Dusts

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LPG -28.6% J Pollens, fungal spores, and various types of dusts pollute
Cow Dung Cake -8.9% ! indoor air, and cause allergic diseases, especially asthma
_Kerosene -2.9% Further, studies have indicated that an environment around an

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Coal, Lignite, or Charcoal - 1.5% I asthmatic has an important role in triggering an attack of
Biogas -0.4% I
l asthma. Pollens from trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, and weeds
Electricity _ O. I% causes allergy.
Others _ 0.5%
HI. Artificial Building M[aterials and Poor Ventilation

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The common pollutants
which cause indoor air pollution In our country, Formaldehyde vapours, leak into
problems due to incomplete over80% of the air when the temperature rises Particles smaller
combustion of fuels are suspended the time of and they combine with other than 3µ are
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particulate matter, oxides of housewives is contaminants into a mix that can directly inhaled
sulphur, nitrogen oxides, carbon- spent in an indoor cause headaches, respiratory into the lungs
monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic environment of irritations, watery eyes, nausea, and are mainly
and odour causing chemicals, which 3 to 4 hours diarrhea, skin irritations, and heart responsible for a
are spent in
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which have adverse effects on problems, Most involve 1 ung disease

health. kitchens for the formaldehyde in construction Pneumoconiosis
The combustion of coal results purpose of materials, such as particle board and
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in production of oxides of sulphur' cooking. indoor plywood, and in urea formaldehyde foam insulation.
arsenic, and fluorine.
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· Indoor.
_;:·,. ...
Air
..... ·.
--.·;;
Quality
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../ Biological Pollutants
· -. 5.1.2. Types of Indoor Air Pollutants .;. Pollens, which originate from ~lants
Following are the important types of indoor air pollutants· .;. Viruses, transmitted by people and animals

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and their major sources . .;. Bacteria, carried by people, animals, soil and
../ Carbon Monoxide (CO) plant debris

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.;. Wood stoves and fireplaces .;. Household pets, which are sources ·of saliva
.;. Gas stoves and animal dander (skin flakes)
· t;. · Generators and other gasoline powered .;. Droppings ·and body parts from ·cockroaches,

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equipment rodents and other pests or insects
.;. Kerosene and gas space heaters .;. The protein in urine from rats and mice is a
.;. Leaking Chimneys and Furnaces potent allergen. When it dries, it can become

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.;. Gas water heaters airborne .
.;. Automobile exhaust from attached garages ../ F onnaldehyde/Pressed Wood 'Products
.;. Tobacco smoke .;. Building materials
.;. Auto, Truck or Bus Exhaust from nearby. .;. Paper products
roads, or parking areas etc. .;. Asbestos cement products

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Nitrogen Dioxide (N02)
.;. Combustion Appliances, e.g. gas stoves • Heat-resistant fabrics

.;. Appliances with defective installations • Packaging

·.;. Welding • Gaskets
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.;. Tobacco Smoke
../
•
Radon
Coatings
.;. Kerosene Heaters
../ Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) • Earth and Rock under Buildings

.;. Paints; Paint strippers and other solvents • Some Earth-Derived Building Materials
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.;. Wood Preservatives • Groundwater

.;. Aerosol Sprays
../
• Well-Water from Private Supplies
Indoor Particulate Matter
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.;. . Cleansers and Disinfectants

.;. Air fresheners ../ Lead (Pb)
.;. Stored fuels and Automotive products ../ Pesticides
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../ Secondhand Smoke etc .

.;. Dry-cleaned Clothing
t'9 Pesticides
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. . 5.6 .
.... Indoor Aii Qu~li~"y
. . . .. . . ..
M.4ndi¢me~!
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A person has to inhale about 25,000 breaths Ventilation

(about 25·m3) of air per day to stay alive. Hence - The windows, doors and other openings which determine
the air should be fresh and clean. the ventilation of a building, control the air exchange between

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the indoors and outdoors. If the ventilation is poor, the
5.1.3. Factors Influencing Indoor Air Quality oxygen content of the indoor environments is limited and the

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(Indoor Air Pollution) quality of indoor air is depleted.
-The ·indoor air pollution is slightly influenced by the People living or working in a -poorly ventilated building

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changes in outdoor air pollution and is influenced by various may exhibit symptoms like drowsiness, nausea, sneezing,
factors such as, headache and dizziness. The set of symptoms is called the
It is estimated that "Sick Building Syndrome" .
./ Permeability of
22,00,000 deaths

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each
structures,
year are
- -
due to indoor ·
· It ts recommended by the American Society of
./ Ventilation of the 'Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
air pollution, compared.
Building, (ASHRAE} that the minimum volume of outdoor air entering
to 5,00,000 deaths from
./ Generation of pollutants a building for ventilation purposes must be 15 to 20 m ' per
outdoor air pollution.

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in indoor Environments, occupant.

./ Nature of Pollutants, Meteorological Factors

./ Pollutant Depletion Mechanisms, Meteorological factors tend to have secondary effects on
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./ Meteorological Factors, etc. indoor air quality. The indoor-outdoor temperature relation-
ship influences the penetration of outdoor pollutants and
P ermeahility of Structures
dilution of pollutants generated indoors. Depending on the
In some cold countries, measures to conserve energy m location of windows and doors the wind can have a profound
heating and cooling the buildings and thus the permeability of effect on the indoor-outdoor air exchange of a building.
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the structures also restricted. These measures in turn tend to

Moisture, whether originating indoors or outdoors, may
isolate the indoor ·environments from the outdoors. The
affect the relative permeability of the structure (causing
relative permeability of structures determines the ability of
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swelling of window and door frames, reducing leakages) and

outdoor pollutants to penetrate the interior and the rate at
can enhance pollutant deposition rates for gases such as
which pollutants generated indoors are diluted with outdoor So2 and 03.
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air.
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5.8 Air Pollution and Control Engineering~ J - Indoor.Air Qu_ality.Man.age11Jen,t $.9 -.
.·<.·5·1~4.)pQ.n#k>t()r·1r1_(16'6i:·.Ai~,P~i1litciiit~::·· •· . ~ :r •' ·. s~~~-;of the~~:~e~~~nsinclude energy-efficient heat recovery

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t
There are three basic methods to control the indoor air ventilators(also known as air-to-air heat exchangers).
pollution.
.. Ventilation and shading can help control indoor

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I. Source Control f temperatures. Ventilation also helps remo~e or dilute indoor
The most effective method to control indoor air pollutants ! airborne pollutants coming from indoor sources. This reduces

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is to eliminate individual sources of pollution or to reduce the level or
contaminants and imp:oves indoor air quality
their emissions. (IAQ).

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1. Sources, like those that contain asbestos, can be The introduction of outdoor air is one important factor in
sealed or enclosed. promoting good air quality. Air may enter a home in several
different ways, including,
2. Others, like gas stoves, can be adjusted to decrease the

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amount of emissions. ./ Throuzh
b .natural ventilation, such as through windows

In many cases, source control is also a more cost-efficient and doors

approach to protect indoor air quality than increasing ./ Through mechanical ventilation, such as through
ventilationbecause increasing ventilation can increase energy outdoor air intakes associated with the Heating,

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costs. Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system
II. ·ventilation :./ Through infiltration. (Infiltration occurs in all homes
to some extent.)
Ventilation is defined as the art of supplying air to a given
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space and also includes the art of remove the old vitiated air . Infiltration is a process by which outdoor arr
1
from that space. flows into the house through openings, joints and
Another approach to lowering the concentrations of indoor cracks in walls, floors and ceilings, and around
air pollutants-inhome is to increase the amount of outdoor air windows and doors.
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coming indoors. Opening windows and doors, operating

Natural ventilation describes air movement through open
window or attic fans, when the weather permits, or running a
windows and doors. If used properly natural ventilation can at
window air conditioner with the vent control open increases
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times help moderate the indoor air temperature, which may

the outdoor ventilation rate.
become too hot in homes without air-conditioningsystems or
Advanced designs of new homes are starting to feature when power outages or brownouts limit or make the use of
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mechanical systems that bring outdoor air into the home. air conditioningimpossible. 1
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· Natur'al ventilatioI1.can also improve indoor air quality by

HI. Control measures
reducing pollutants that are indoors. Example of natural
Following· are the control measures of Indoor Air

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ventilation is opening windows and doors.
PoDution.
Most residential forced air-heating systems and air-

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1. Adequate ventilation is . an easy way to exchange of
conditioning systems do not bring outdoor air into the house . indoor and outdoor air. - .
mechanically, and infiltration and natural ventilation are · 2. Avoiding smoking Win reduce the level indoor -
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relied upon to bring outdoor air into the home. · pollutant and avoids the seco~dJl.andsmoke.

Advanced designs for new homes are starting to add a 3. Exhaust fans may be used in the kitchen and
·bathroom.

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mechanical feature that brings outdoor air into the home
/ through the HV AC system. Some of these designs. include
4. Air
filters must be changed at intervals in forced-air
. heating and cooling systems.
energy efficient heat recovery ventilators to mitigate the cost
5. Air fresheners, scented candles, incense, and other
of cooling and heating this air during the summer and winter.'
odor-masking fragrances, which can trigger asthma,

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Air Cleaners should be avoided.
Some air cleaners are highly effective at particle removal, 6. Microfiber-Dusting Cloth will capture more dust than
while others, including most table-top models, are much less a cotton rag.
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so. Air cleaners are generally not designed to remove gaseous 7. Carpets can trap pollutants such as dust mites, pet
dander, mold spores, and other dirt and dust and
pollutants.
· should be minimized.
Over the past few years, there has been some publicity 8. To reduce mold, de-humidifiers may be used to keep
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suggesting that houseplants have been shown to reduce levels moisture down.
of some chemicals in laboratory experiments. There is 9. Solvents, glues and pesticides should be stored away
currently no evidence, however, that a reasonable number of from living areas.
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houseplants remove significant quantities of pollutants in 10. Pets should be cared, and they should not be permitted
homes and offices. to create allergy.
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_ Indoor A.fr Quality}efan,ngem..el'lt _ . . _ . ·. . . . . _
:5.13·
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and. Control Engirz(i!ering°
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Air Pollution
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'. ·.. 5~2. SICK Bt.fiLDING SYNDROME (SBS)
SI.
- - Sick building Building-Related
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) or Tight Building
I Factor svndrome illnesses

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;
No
an
Syndrome is a medical condition, where people in a building 1. Identifiable has no identifiable have
suffer from symptoms of illness or feel unwell without any cause or problem identifiable cause

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cause
specific reason or cause. In this, building occupants have a for the symptoms
constellation of nonspecific symptoms .including headaches, or diseases that are
being identified in

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irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, mental fatigue, nausea,
the building's
skin irritation and dizziness.
occupants
The complainants may be localized in a particular room or
It is possible to

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zone or may be throughout the building. 2. SY1!1P!oms Without
investigation, it is know the
5.2.1. Building Related Diseases impossible to know . symptoms
Building-related diseases are distinct disease that can be the symptoms

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traced back to a specific cause. These can range from
5.2.3. Symptoms of Sick Building Syndrome
allergies from molds found in a building, to bacterial
Following are the commonly reported symptoms for SBS.
infections related to contaminated- cooling towers, to cancers
from prolonged exposure to carcinogens. Headache
../'
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../' Dizziness
One of the most· famous . examples of building-related
../' Nausea
disease occurred in 1976 when 182 people attending the
../' Skin irritation
American Legion convention became sickened with
../' Mental Fatigue
pneumonia and many died. Ultimately, the cause was found ./ Difficulty in concentration
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to be the building's cooling towers, which were infected ../' Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat
previously by bacteria, Legionella pneumophila, These symptoms will be resolved, soon after leaving t~e
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building and should be found in a number of individuals m

5.2.2. Difference between SBS and Building-
Related Illness the building.
Following table 5.1 explains the difference between SBS
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and building-related illness.

 5.14 www.rejinpaul.com
I
Air Pollution and Control Engineering .
< . ._. _.
_· lndo'Qr-AirQ:ua,lity;lt(fanaIJ_eni,en,_t
· .·ciltlse~''Ji si~k:Bti.iidi~~ Syndfo~e. -.- .·_. ~(',_,It i~: .important to_ make ~ure-that- there are no hazards

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There are many theories on the causes of sick building I
sry9r-Gme.Commonly cited causes are inadequate ventilation,
I irrthe building like mold or bacteria. ,
,r . If there is no identifiable cause for the occupai:ts
chemical contaminants from indoor sources, and chemical symptoms and signs and there is _a suspicion of sick

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contaminants from outdoor sources. building syndrome, the first step is to ·make sure the
.. Inadequate Ventilation is one the most often cited alf. 1 1andling
. system is clean and functioning well. ..

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. reason. ,r Air filters may need to have - .more. frequent
From Outdoor Sources - Contaminants from outside replacement. . . - - .1 • -
like pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust, plumbing ,r The HV AC system may need to have the venti . . anon

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vents and building exhausts rates increased. If there are any chemicals ~eing
" From Indoor Sources The most common t . a., they must be stored_ in appropriately ventilated
sore
contaminant of indoor air includes the volatile organic areas.

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compounds (VOC). ,I' If chemicals are being used to clean, there must be
• Electromagnetic Radiation good ventilation.
• Psychological Factors -Excessive work stress or ,I' Smoking must be restricted in the building
dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and environment.
Education and communication are .important parts of

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poor. communication are often seen to be associated
with SBS. .any air quality management programme.
• Poor and Inappropriate Lighting with absence of Lighting and colour must mix well with t~e
sunlight, bad acoustics, poor humidity may also · surroun
. . .di n gs , and man-made electro-magnetic
contribute to- SBS. radiation must be reduced as much as possible.
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• Biological Conta.minants The biological
contaminants include pollen, bacteria, viruses, fungus, 5.3 .. NOmSE PO~L~L=U~T~l~O~N_:_ ~
molds, etc. Sound is defined as the energy and atmospheric or air
prone vibrations understandable to the ear. The sound travels
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5.2A. Prevention and Control .Measures of Sick

Building Syndrome - tl1e c.1orm of waves , when
1n - these waves enter to the ear; we
Following are the preventive and control measures of Sick feel a sensation of hearing.
Building Syndrome.
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Sound is classified as,

./ Providing more ventilation and make possible .of air 1. Musical Sound
flow inside the building.
2. Noise
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The sound ~hi~h produces 8: pleasing effec~ is calied ~s- Main· sources of community noise pollution include the
·mu.sical sound. The-waves of the musical sound are regular, following
penodic and are of long duration.
I (i) Road, Rail and Air traffic

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If the sound waves are not periodic, irregular and of short (ii) Construction and Public work
I
!
duration,_~t produces an unpleasant effect and that sound is ! (iii) Sound from neighbourhood.

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- --called noise: Noise is defined as the sound, which causes (music, speaking, etc.)
unwanted and undesired effect. I.
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Industrial Noise Pollution

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The intensity of sound wave combined with the reception
characteristicof ear is called loudness.
Noiseis.pollution because it creates numerous effects on
Industrial noise pollution is defined as the pollution of
i
{ sound created by all types of industries and workshops. An
occupational exposure limit of 85 dB for 8 hours should

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humans and other living things. protect most people against a permanent hearing impairment,
induced by noise after 40 years of occupational exposure.
Noise pollution is defined as the type of energy pollution
in which, distracting, irritating and the dam.agi d 5.3.2. Terms used in Noise Pollution
. mg soun s are

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audible freely. The following terms are used in the noise pollution studies

5.3.I. Types of Noise Pollution

and its control.

There are two types of noise pollution. 1. Noise

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Unwanted sound produces undesirable effects on humans
1. - Environmental noise pollution and livings.
2. Industrial noise pollution
2. Noise Pollution
Environmental Noise Pollution Noise pollution is defined as the type of energy'pollution
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in which, distracting, irritating and the damaging sounds

En~ironmental noise pollution is defined as the noise are audible freely.
pollution, created from all the sources except at industrial
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workp~ace.It is also called community (or domestic) noise 3. · Frequency of Sound waves
pollution. In a sound wave, the number of times a peak arrives in
one second is called frequency. (Fig. 5.1)
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 5.18 www.rejinpaul.com

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9. Acceptable Noise Level
The maximum level of noise, which will neither annoy
the occupants nor .damage the acoustics of the building,

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. is called accep1f,bfonoise Ievel.
(a) 10. Threshold Slilift

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(+) Threshold Shift is defined as the degree of hearing loss
Wave length {I.) ..
1.. l 1 (or impairment) in terms of decibel (dB) shift from a
patient's previous audiogram.

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11. Temporary Threshold Slilift (TTS)
TTS is defined as the loss of hearing which the' ear
(b)

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recovers. It has been due to the metabolic changes in the
Fig. 5.1. Sound Waves
4. Frequency of Sound ear failure, 8!11d to return the normal state in hours or
days.
Number of vibrations per unit time Unit of f .
Hz (Hertz). . · . requency Is 12. Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS)

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5. Power of Sound P1'S is defined as the shift produced by the noise, which
Rate of doing work by a travelling sound wave in the produces TTS and it is exposed to for long time and the
forward direction of the wave notation. person may recover the normal state of hearing by the
6. Acoustic Reflex next days or after week.
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.The
. mec hanism
· b 13. Wave Number (WN)
y which ear response to sound, when it
IS heard is called acoustic reflex. Wave Number is defined as the spatial frequency of a
7. Threshold of Hearing sound wave either in cycles per unit distances or radians
It is the pressureat which th d . pe:runit distance.
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' e soun source m the

absence
. of
· any background noise,
· It can be defined as the number of waves that exist over a
g_ first becomes audible.
Hearmg Threshold Level
specified distance.
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Th~ hearing threshold level is the sound level below 14. Ultra Sound
which a person's ear is unable to detect any sound. For Ultra sound is an oscillating sound-pressure wave, with
adults, 0 dB is the reference level.
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a frequency greater than the upper limit of the human

 5.20
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0
it cannot 'be heard. by the humans. Ultra sound devices

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The.._
ratio of the forced
In forced harmonic motion, if.
can be operated with the frequencies above 20 kHz. motion amplitude to the
the frequency of forcing is

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These sounds are used to detect objects and measure the
f near the resonance frequency static deflection is
distances.
l of the oscillator, the amplitude called magnification

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low bass animals and medical and diagnostic / of vibration is larger than that factor.

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.
notes chemistry destructive and NDE
of the forcing function. The
20Hz 1 20kHz 1 1 1 ratio is called the magnifiCation factor.
• •
2MHz 200MHz.
......
1

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lnfrasound Acoustic Ultrasound

Fig. 5.2. Ultrasound

I 5.4. TYPES OF NOISES AND EFFECTS
In general, a noise is characterized by,

II

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I. The change of sound pressure -
Ultrasonics is the application of ultra sound and which is
2. Breaking t he noise
· ·
Ill to noise frequency
used in the medical imaging, detection, measurement and
components. (Spectra)
cleaning etc. At higher power levels, it is used to change the
chemical properties of substances. Noises are classified based on the following two important

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factors.
Occupational exposure to ultrasound, m excess of (i) Sources and the Location of Noise
120 dB may lead to hearing loss. Exposure in excess of 160 (ii) Duration of Noise
dB may produce heating effects that are harmful to human
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1. Classification Based on Location
body. It is noted that the exposure above 180 dB may lead to
death. Based on the location, noise is classified as follows.
(a) Indoor Noise
15. Noise Criteria (NC) (b) Outdoor Noise
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The Noise Criteria (NC) rs a single numerical index (a) Indoor Noise . .
commonly used to define the design goals for the maximum If the noise is created in the same room or in the adjacent
allowable noise in a given space. The NC consists of a group room, where it is noticed is called indoor noise.
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of curves that define the maximum allowable octave-band (b) Outdoor Noise . . all d
sound pressure level, corresponding to a chosen NC design If the noise is created from the nearby streets, it is ~ ~
value. • an d the largest source of outdoor noise is
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as outdoor noise
generally the automobile traffic on roads. .
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IOJ:~::::-·~-·o-:-h-::-:-··m_c_:-:--ar-e-"-,------"--"-~----·
·_:s_··:_..,..2_3

The other important noise is the noise due to, !

' 1. Traffic noises
1. Railway

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2. Industrial noises
2. Aeroplanes
3. Loudspeakers 3. Other importantsources (loudspeakers, sirens etc.)

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4.. Machines in nearby factories and industries, etc.
I. Traffic Noises
2. Classification Based on Duration of noise The intensity of noise produced by the traffic is depending

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Depending on the duration of noise continued, it can be on the following factors.
classified as follows. L Type of the traffic
(a) Continuous Noise 2. Volume of the traffic

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Continuous noise rs an uninterrupted noise level that 3. Distance of the traffic
varies less than 5 dB during the complete period of 4. Wind effects
observation. A running fan sound is an example ~
5. Other disturbances

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continuous noise.
The following points are to be considered in the traffic
(b) Intermittent Noise noise.
Intermittent noise is a noise, which continues for more I. A petrol car produces lesser noise than the diesel
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than 1 second and is then interrupted noise. A drilling jeep.
machine used by a dentist produces the intermittent noise. 2. In general, a new automobile produces lesser noise
than the old-poorly maintained vehicles. ·
(c) Impulse Noise
Impulse noise is the noise with a change of sound 3. A propeller type aircraft produces lesser noise than
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a jet type aircraft.

pressure of atleast 40 dB within 0.5 second. With duration of
less than one second, the ·sound produced by firing the 4. An electric train produces "lesser noise than the
diesel and .steam locomotives.
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weapon would come· in impulse noise type.

Noise levels produced by different types of traffic are
5.4.1. Sources of Noise and Noise Levels
given in the following Table.S.Z.
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Generally, outdoor noises are not completely cleared.

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. . . .. Air.PollWio~:<»;4l;ona:_Qf§rigb;i~rjng>

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Table 5.2. Noise l~v~l~bytr~ffi~- .. -·. ·. . . The owners of the vehieles will have to secure the
.
Sources of noise
-Noise level certificates that their vehicles will meet the prescribed noise
SI. No
(in dB)

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pollution norms.
Air traffic
II. Industrial Noise
Jet aircraft at take off

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100-110 Industrial noise is generally produced through vibration
1. stage at about 300 m
caused by various industrial processes, such as drilling,
Propeller aircraft at take 90- 100 rotating, reciprocating or other types of machinery.

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off stage about 300 m
The amplitude of such noises varies with operating speed.
2. Rail Traffic (about 30 m) 90 llO
Electrical machines produce noise from magnetic as well as
3. Heavy Traffic (Highway) 80-90
mechanical forces. In ~non-rotating machines, (such as

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4. Medium Traffic (Main - 70-80 transformers, magnetic relays and switches) the noise
Streets) frequencies are line frequencies and uniform.
5. Light traffic (Side Streets) 60-70 Belts and screw conveyors, vibrations from feeding
devices, jiggers, shakers, screens and other vibrating devices

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Noise levels (LN) are very high in all places especially in
big cities nowadays due to the tremendous increase m produce little audible noise in themselves.
automobiles and vehicles. Impact noises are very common in the following industrial
process.
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In order to prevent the problems due to excessive noise
1. Material handling
Government of India - Union Environment. Minist~
2. Metal piercing
recommended that the noise standards for different kinds of
3. Metal forming
vehicles, as follows. 4. Metal fabrication
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1. Two wheelers - 80dB

5. Material testing etc.
2. Cars . - 82 dB
3. Passenger and commercial vehicles III. Noise produced by other sources
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(a) Upto 4 MT - 85 dB In the other social activities such as festivals, etc., the
(b) Between 4 m to 12 M1' _ 89 dB loudspeakers, firecrackers are the major source of noise
(c) More than 12 MT - 91 dB
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pollution.
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(v) Gastric secretions
buildings, highway projects, city urban streets, etc. is a major (vi) Panic attacks etc.
noise problem for urban development. .Following are some of the mental health affected by noise.

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- -(i) Stress
Construction norse sources include the pneumatic
(ii) Sleep disruption
hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, clump trucks

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(iii) Memory loss
and pavement breakers etc. But the above said sources are
(iv) - Severe depression
time bounded and hence these sources are not included in the (v) Lack of concentration

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industrial source.
3. Communication Disturbances
5.4.2. Effeocs-of Noise or-Noise Pollution Noise can disturb the communication or telephonic
Following are the UUcJ30Ftant undesirable effects of noise

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conversation. The presence of noise reduces the essence of -
and noise pollution. speech.
1. Irritation and Nuisance 4. Decreased Output.and Efficiency
One of the important effects of=noisepollution on human Noise is an unavoidable one in industries. However, the

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rs annoyance and irritation due to the disturbance. .continuous noise pollution creates the continuous irritation
Annoyance by noise is a response to the auditory experience. among the workers and causes the reduction of output and
When a person wants to put off a sound or wish to leave thus theoverall efficiency.
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the sounded area, then the sound is said to be a noise and the
5. Reduced Mental Illness
noise is an annoyance one.
Noise pollution attacks the humans peace of mind. The
2. Health Effects noise is recognized as the major cause of increasing the
Noise pollution damages the physical and mental health of already existing tensions of livings. These tensions results in
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human beings. Following are some of the physical health mental illness.
affected by noise.
6. Aggressive Behaviour
(i) Temporary and Permanent Deafness
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(ii) Increased Blood pressure Noise above 80 dB may increase the aggressive behaviour
(iii) Fatigue of humans at a particular instant.
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(iv) HefC:laches
 Indoor Air Quality Management
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..

.. ..
81. N'()ise Le'Ve1 · .. . ..

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- Effects
7. Effects on Vegetation No (in dB) .
Plants are also similar to human beings. Noise pollution 8. 140 Pain in ears
creates the poor quality crops and reduced yielding.

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9. 150 Burning of skin
8. Effects on Animals 10. 160 Minor damage start

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Noise pollution affects the nervous system of animals. 11. 180 Major permanent damage
Animal loses the control of mind and they become dangerous
5.5. MEASUREMENTS OF SOUND
during high-level noise. Changes in the animals' habitat may

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occur and bring about environment imbalances due to the The intensity of sound can be measured on a logarithmic
noise pollution. scale, duly a wide range of variation in the intensity of
sound.

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9. Effects on Property -
The unit of sound measurement is bel. The unit value of
Loud noise is very dangerous to bridges, buildings and
bel is very large and the sound intensity is low, hence instead
monuments. It creates waves and the energy of noise struck
of using bel, decibel (dB) is used.
the walls and makes the walls to danger condition.

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The following table 5.3 shows the various effects of noise I !dB = 10!be! I
on humans.
The two sounds of the same character and same intensities
Table 5.3. Effects of Noise on Human Beings Q1 and Q2 (energy unitsjare said to differ by n bels, when
.
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SI.
No
Noise Level
(in dB)
Effects Sound level, I n = log10 ~ I
L 0 Threshold of audibility The unit of Sound level obtained from the above equation
2. 80 Annoyance
..
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is in terms of bels (B) and a smaller unit of decibels (dB) is

3. 90 Hearing damage used.
4. 95 High annoyance:
Sound level by decibels is given by,
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5. 110 Stimulation of reception in skin

6. 120 Pain threshold I L = 10 log10 ~ in decibels
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7. 110 - 135 Nausea, Vomiting

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5:30.-'. · Indoor AirQ?tality M/magemel'lt ·: .······

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5.5.3. Instrurnents used for noise measurements
Sound level IS defined as the scale of measuring the
The following instrwnents are used for the . noise
intensity of sound based on the sound of pressure and a
measurements.

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reference standard pressure. The following two points are
1. Portable Sound level meters
importantin Sound Pressure Level.
2. Sound monitors

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1,.... ·Sound intensity varies as square of the sound
. · 3. . Noise exposure indicators
pressure.
4. Audiometers
2. An increase of 20 dB in sound pressure level will

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5. Octave-band Analyser
correspond to the sound pressure or loudness of
6. Graphic-wide band recorders
sound, increasing by 10 times
7. Loudness computers etc.

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5.5.1. Measurement of Sound
The above instruments operated m the sound range of
Sound pressure is the cyclic variation super imposed on
30 dB to 140 dB and generally from 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
the steady . or atmospheric pressure and ~enerally it is· a
Root Mean Square (RMS) value. The unit of the sound .5.5.4. Noise Assessment and Evaluation-- Noise

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Study
pressure is the unit of force per unit area, i.e., N/m2•
Noise assessment IS the analysis of noise level and it is
5.5.2. Objective of Noise l\'Ieasurements carried out to ensure the health and safety of the employees,
Following are the important objectives of the noise •.vho are exposed to noise.
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measurements.
Noise assessment should,
I. To understand the noise generatingmechanism (in 1. Identify the location of high risk of noise
order to choose the noise control technique).
2. Identify the persons likely to be affectedby noise
2. To rate the sound field at v~rious locations (on a
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3. Include the reliable estimate of the employee's

scale related to the physiological or psychological
exposure and compare the exposurevalues
effects of noise on human beings).
,, 4. Identify the control measures required
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.) . To. rate the sound power output of a source (for

future engineering calculations that can estimate Noise assessment may be simple or complex, depending
; the sound pressure it produces at a given location). on the sources of noise.
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~oiSe
53

assessment is the an:::::/~:on I !nef~A~;;:;:;~::~:::~~~s =:=b=~a:::C '·

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' and ~ntr,~ ~ri.<e•i~ f
J. Level of noise g
j ./ Considering the effect of meteorological conditions,

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2. How long the employees are exposed to noise. such as temperature, barometric . pressure, relative
Dosimeter is the instrument used for the noise assessment. humidity, and wind speed and direction on noise

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It determines the noise level to which employees are exposed 'i levels.
by measuringsound over time and analyzing the 'information I.. ./ Mapping significant information such as residential,
to produce, a noise intensity (in terms of percentage). commercial, or industrial zones, population densities,

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_. _ _ . _ Actual duration of exposurein hours(C) special areas (like hospitals etc.,) and areas of unique
Npise'lntensity,D - Noise exposure limit in hours(T) noise characteristics.

Average of Sound Pressure Level II. Guidelines for conducting pfant noise survey

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· . .-- Following equation is used to calculate the average The following are the important guidelines to conduct a
pressure level. plant noise survey.
I n =N Ln/20 ../ Review of the working area situation , the type of
APL, LP .:== 20 log10 N :L (10) (in dB)
sound fields, the number of people.affected, and their

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n = I
locations.
Where, N Number of measurements
./ Determination of the machine, which generates the
L; . nth sound pressure level in dB
most sound and finding of its true sound level.
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n - l, 2, to N ./ - Surveying under time variations 'as well as normal
plant operations. The change in humidity or outside
I. Noise Pollution Study and Survey
interference can alter results shouldbe noted ..
In addition tothe objectives previously mentioned, a noise
./ Selection of sound measuring dev~, carefully,
survey can be conducted to define a baseline for noise-level
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giving particular attention to the types of microphones.L,

analysis. Planning for a noise survey includes the following.
necessary.(In this, required practice should be taken
./ Determination of the type of acoustical data and time for operating the sound measuring __ ~_g.uipment before
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of day measurements are to be taken .

testing and the calibration should be verified)
./' Determination of the sampling locations and . the
./ Setting up of the measuring devices properly· without
significant sound sources.
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any interferences to testing conditions, if possible.

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.• ·Ail~ 1:9llution a!!~fomrfl{fi,ng}IJ'!efiiJg:_ ;:--.:• .· /: .: ;1Tj4Qo,Att q;;<#i!Y Mand~merit .·: . : .~ ~-
(The microphone hmst be -mounted on -~ ~pod at.-~~·. ,

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j The value of L:N represents the sound pressure level that
same height as the worker's ear.. It should be ;;-oted ' will exceed for N% of the gauging time.
~
that all equipment aiding in measuring i.e., the meter
100

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recorder, and correcting apparatus ' is outside the 90
testing area. )
i

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I
.. III. P_r?b!ems in Noise pollution Study
Generally, the following problems and issues are L50 = 65 dB
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associated with the noise pollution studies .

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../ Improper Data Collection
Inadequate information regarding Noise level
. . - -

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Non-availability of Noise Level Meters 50 60 70 80
Sound Level in dB
./ Inaccurate noise source detection
../ Inaccurate Sound-Identification (due to mixed noise) Fig. 5.3. L N System
For example, the given 65 dB value of L50 will mean that
5.5.5. Noise Rating System

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the sound level will exceed 65 dB for 50% of the measuring
. A noise may consist of different types of sounds with
time.
different sound pressure levels and different time intervals. The cumulative distribution curve is obtained when ~ is
The frequencies of the sounds also vary.
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plotted against the sound level (N):
The combined impact of different sound pressure levels, 2. Lequ System (Equivalent Noise Level)
lasting_ for different periods are calculated by using the Lequ is defined as the statistical value of sound pressure
following two systems.
level that can be equated to any fluctuating noise level.
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I. LN System Lequ .is the constant noise level, over a given time expands

2. Lequ System the same amount of energy as is expanded by the fluctuating

levels over the same given time. It is expressed as follows'.
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1. LN System
The parameter ~ is a statistical measure indicating how a -~ n L/10
LP = IO.log 2: (10) x ti
particular sound level is exceeded frequently. . i = I
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5.36
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..
. .-'--,--~-.,.,--"~-:--:--:-:--'-_,..,.--,--'~-,.,.~..,......-'-'-c..-.,~-;,-........,'-'.-'"......,_~"'--'~
;'n4oor-Air ~ltty M~i:u:igelJl~nt.~ .::f-;:::. : . . · ·S'~;n '-:> -~~/::o.::·:~:

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n total number of samples taken Table 5.5.Noise Criteria Levels for Room
L noise level in dB of the ith sample
~
SI. No Types of Space
- NC Level
t .: fraction of total sample time 1. Conference rooms, church, iecture

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30-35
The variations in the emission of noise levels ·in a halls, class room
particular environment can be accessed from the statistical 2. Open-offices, Schools, Lobbies,

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35-40
d~s~but~on of noise levels in that environment. To draw the Public Areas
distribution curve, L10, L50 and L90 are essential. · · 3. Large Public Offices 40-45
I. Noise Criteria.

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4. Shops.iGarages, etc. 50-60
The Noise Criteria (NC) is a single numerical index 5. \Vorkspaces(withoutllearing
55-70
commonly used to define the design goals for the maximum Damage)

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allowable noise in a given space. The NC consists of a group
of curves that define jhe maximum allowable ·octave.:.band 5.5.6. Sound Levei Meter
sound pressure leve( corresponding to a chosen NC design The instrument used to measure the sound or noise level in
value. dB units is called Sound Level Meter or Noise Indicator.
NC :urves are used to evaluate the existing situations by

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Principle
measuring the sound levels· at the highest noise location in
roo~s. NC curves are also used to specify the steady or The pressure of the sound waves under study activates the
contmuous background noise levels needed. microphone and thus converting the sound energy into
electrical signals, which is displayed in the output device.
Accepted NC for various spaces are given in table 5.4.
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Table 5.4. Acceptable NC
Space NC Values
Lab office 35
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Laboratory 45
Instrument room
. 40
'
Temp. room 45-
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Darkroom 35
Glass wash 45
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Fig. S.4. Noise Indicator

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5.38.

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an electric current when submitted to mechanical
The National . Institute for Occu~ational Safety and
tension.,
Health (NIOSH); part of the Cenfers for Disease The vibrations in the air, resulting from the sound
2.

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Control and Prevention (CDC), developed the NIOSH - waves, are picked up by the microphone membrane
Sound Level Meter (SLM) app for iOS devices, to and -the resulting pressure on the piezoelectric

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promote better hearing health and prevention efforts. crystal transforms the vibration into an electric

Component Parts l
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,.,
-'.
signal.
These microphones are stable, mechanically robust

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The important parts of a sound level meter are as follows. and not appreciably influenced by ambient climatic
1. The microphone (transducer) conditions. They are often used in sound survey
2. Electronic amplifier and calibrated attenuator meters.

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3. The frequency ana!y~er
(lb) Condenser Microphone
4. The data storage units
1. In a condenser microphone, the microphone
5. Display membrane is built parallel to a fixed plate and
'
I. Microphone forms with a condenser.

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The important part of the sound level meter . is the
microphone and it is the .interface between the acoustic field
. and the measuring system. It absorbs the sound waves and
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transforms the sound waves into electrical signals which can
be interpreted and displayed as a data in the output display.
Following are the four types of microphones used in the
sound level meter.
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2. A potential difference is applied between the two
plates using a D.C. voltage supply (the polarization
voltage) .
3. The movements, which the sound waves provoke
in the membrane, given origin to variations in the
electrical capacitance and therefore in a small
electric current.
4. These microphones are more accurate than the

1. Piezo-electric microphones
other types and are mostly used in precision sound
2. Condenser microphones
level meters.
3. Electret microphones
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4. Dynamic microphones (c) Electret Microphon e 1

A variation on the condenser microphone which is

(a) Piezoelectric Microphone
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currently very popular is the electret.

1. In a piezoelectric microphone, the membrane · is
attached to a piezoelectric crystal which generates
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· In this case the potential difference is provided by a 1. The frequency response
permanent electrostatic charge on the condenser plates and no
This characteristic is the deviation between the measured
external polarizing voltage.

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value and true value as a function of the frequency.
This type of microphone is less sensitive to dirt and
moisture than the condenser microphone. As the ear is capable of hearing sounds between 20 Hz and

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20 KHz, the frequency response of the sound level meter
(d) Dynamic Microphone
should be good, with variations smaller than 1 dB, over that
. In dynamic microphone, where the membrane is range.·
and

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connected to a coil, will be centered in a magnetic field
whose movements triggered by the mechanical fluctuations 2. The dynamic range
of the membrane, gives origin to a potential differential in the This characteristic is the range in dB over which the

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poles of the coil. ~e~ured value is proportional to the true value, at a given
The dynamic microphone is more mechanically resistant frequency (usually lOOOHz).
but its poor frequency response severely limits its use in the This range is limited at lower levels by the electrical
field of acoustics. background noise of the instrument and at higher levels by

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. IT. Working of Sound Level Meter the signal distortion caused by overloading the microphone or
The electrical signal from the transducer rs fed to. the amplifiers.
pre-amplifier of the sound level meter and a weighted filter When more details are required about a complex sound is
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over a specified range of frequencies. needed, the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz can be split
Further amplification prepares the signal either for output intc sections or bands. This is done electronically within a
to other instruments such as a tape recorder or for Sound level meter.
rectification and direct reading on the meter.
These bands usually have a bandwidth of one octave or
The scale on the indicating device is such that the linear
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one third octave. More advanced instruments may able to

signal may be read in dB.
. give a narrow band analysis of the noise data. This may be an
The two main characteristics of the sound level meter are,
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FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) or information in 1/12 octaves.

1. Frequency Response
An octave band is a frequency band where the highest
2. Dynamic Range
frequency is twice the lowest frequency.
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f For example, an octave filter with a centre frtquencv of
M lkHz has a lower frequency of 707 Hz and an upper
frequency of l.414 kHz. Any frequency below and above

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these limits are rejected.

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A one-third octave band is defined as a frequency band

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(f2) is the· lower band
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whose upper band-edge frequency
frequency (f1) times the cube root of two. It has a width of
1
l /3 of that of. . octave band.

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C; 5.6.. Acr:EPTABLE NOISE STANDARDS
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2 -NV\/\_
The Maximum noise level, which will neither annoy nor

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damage the acoustics of the building, is called acceptable
~ noise level.
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::::; It depends on the following factors.
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1. Nature or Source of the noise
2. Type and use of the building
.... 3. Time of fluctuation of noise
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4. Background noises
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2 L__~-

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The following table 5.6 indicates the acceptable noise
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levels for different structures from the economic, comfort and
practical point of view.
(l.)
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. a.
.c: Table 5.6. Noise Standards
-------------e--
.2
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----------------- f
SL Acceptable noise level
~ Type of building
No (in dB)
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Fig. 5.5. Block Diagram of the SoundLevel Meter . L Radio and T. V Studios 25 to 30
Auditoriums and music
2. 35 to 40
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roorns
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·Indoor Air Quality Management 5.45

Eng'ine~riizg; by ~hicii ~~i~e i;;.Ve!S i~ a di~~ct nV:e-~f'sight air pa~ - ')

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.. -·. AirPollut"'.wn:ar.idC
. · ontrol -: patli : '•
.; between the source and the listener (receiver). Noise also
SI. Acceptable noise Ievel-
Type of building travels from one point to another by one path or combination
No (in dB)

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- of several paths.
Small offices, court rooms,
3. 40 to 45 The receiver may be a single person or a suburban
libraries
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4. Hospitals 40 to 50 community.
5. Schools . 45 to 50 The solution of a noise pollution requires modification or
- -
Residential buildings and alteration of any one or all of the following ·three basic
6. 45 to 55

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Restaurants -
elements.
Banks, stores, large public l. Modifying the source (to reduce its noise output).
7. 50 to 60 I
offices
2. Controlling or changing the transmission path and

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8. Factories and Industries 60 to 65
'- the environment (to reduce the noise level reaching
5.7. NOISE CONTROL METHODS the receiver)
In order to analyze the method of con~rolling of noise 3. Providing the personal protective equipment.

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pollution, it is important to know
. . the followi
.t~ 1ng +-:1ourc.tactors. By considering the above three factors, the following
1. What is noise doing? techniques are employed for noise control.
2. What is t~e source of the noise?
l. Control at source
3· What is the transmission path?
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2. Control in the transmission path
4. What is to be done about it?
There are three fundamental. elements to be examined i.e.,
source, path and the receiver as shown in figure 5.6.
! 3. Control by using protective equipment

.
5.7.1. Control at Source
·~
The noise pollution can be controlled at source by
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~---------------------- ---------- 'v
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employing the following techniques.
. Path l. Using less noise machineries
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Source Receiver 2. Process substitution

3. Machine substitution
Fig. 5.6.Concept of Noise 4. Systems design

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~e source can be' one or more. number of mechanical

.'!l·;. --
devices that produces noise. The most 0 b vious
. · . .
transmission 1·.
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-
5. Control of noise source by design 3. Machine Substitution
(a) Reducing impact forces Noise reduction can be significant when belt drives are
(b) Reducing speed and pressure - used instead of gears. If using gears are necessary, rotating

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(c) Reducing frictional resistance gears are to be substituted for square gears, nylon gears for
( d) Reducing radiating area metallic gears.

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(e) Reducing noise leakage
4. System Design
(f) Isolating and da~ping-vibrating elements
If machines are laid too closely, the operator may be
6. Performing routine maintenance I 'exposed to a high sound pressure level. If the machines are

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(a) Reducing noise from domestic sectors
j separated adequately apart, noise level can be limited within
(b) Prohibition of usage of loudspeakers
the permissible limits.
(c) Low voice speakin~ ··- ...... _

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Noise - can be confirmed within a restricted area by
7. Other methods
engineering means.
1. Using Less Noise Machineries I 1. Building location and arrangement
The best way to control the noise at source is to use the 2. Design

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less noise creating machineries.. Buying less noise 3. Use of suitable building materials
machineries is always economical than trying to reduce the
noise by modifying the machine after purchase.
I 4. Location of noise producing and noise-sensitive
areas

I Sound control for ceilings in offices must also be planned

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· 2. Process Substitution
Substituting the less-noising machine, tool and/or process at the architectural stage.

is another important method of ·controlling the noise. I 5. Control of Noise Source by Design
Operations,. such as riveting, punching, shearing and the This method c.an be employed by,
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metal-forming are often performed by impact, when a -slower (a) Reducing Impact Factors
energy application is equally effective. Welding is a less- \ A familiiarexample is the keyboard and its key. Keys must
noising process, substitute for riveting, drilling for punching, .Istrike.
the board. The force on the key producesnoise as the
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pressing or rolling for forging, hot forming for cold \impact falls on the board.
I -
' Several steps are used to reduce the noise from impact
forming, grinding of casting for chipping.and hydraulic and
forces base:don the nature of the machine.
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pneumatic equipment for mechanical equipment:

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 Air Pollution
. :: .. . . . . . . . •:..
and- Control
·.···. . ~ Engine"i?.7'.i"r,g:,
. . .. ' . .. . ~ . ,.. . .
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. . . ~~- -." - -~

·. (b)Re&u~ing Speed ai1dP~ressure~ ·.· ~u:rf~6~sthat r~dia~ethe 6nergy. S~c~nd, the .ene~gymust be

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dissipated or-attenuated somewhere in the structure. The first
Reducing speed of rotating and moving parts in machines
problem can be solved by isolation and the second one can be
and mechanical system results in smoother operation and
solved by damping.

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lower noise output. Likewise, reducing pressure and _!low
velocities in air, gas and liquid circulatio~ system reduces the 6. Performing Routine Maintenance
From the experimental studies, it is clear that the

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turbulence resulting in decreased noise radiation.
• I . . maintenance of the pavement surface is essential to keep ~e
For example, the noise due' to the impact created by the noise at minimum levels: Normal road wear can yield noise
. .
faster movement .of
.
lift 1n construction sites, are highly
- increases on the order of 6 dBA.

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reduced by reducing the speed of the motor, operating the lift. Faulty installation and maintenance can result in excessive
(c) Reducing Frictional Resistance vibration. Equipment should be checked periodically.
Reducing the friction between rotating, sliding or moving Gradually increase in vibration should be examined in routine

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parts in mechanical systems frequently results in smoother maintenance. Increase 'the vibration in missionary can be
operation and lesser noise output. Similarly reducing flow caused by the following.
resistance in fluid distribution systems results in less noise I. Misalignment of couplings or bearings
radiation, 2. Eccentricjournals

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3. Defectiveor damaged parts
( d) Reducing Noise Radiating Area
4. Mechanicallooseness
Reducing the noise radiation by reducing the noise
5. Faultierto drive bell -
radiating area is the best method of noise control. The design
6. Rubbingparts and resonant conditions
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includes making parts smaller, removing excess material or
cutting openings, slots or perforations in the parts. 7. Reducing the Noise Levels from Domestic Sectors
The domestic noise coming from TVs, Radio, Mixers,
· (e) Reducing Noise Leakage
Washing Machines, cooking operations, etc., can be
In most of the cases, machine cabinets can be made into minimised by choosing the suitable materials. By using
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effective soundproof enclosures through simple design carpets (or any other shock absorbing materials), the noise
changes and the application of some sound absorbing generated from falling of items in house can be reduced.
treatment.
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8. Prohibition of Usage of Loudspeakers

(f) Isolating and Damping Vibrating Elements
Prohibiting the usage of loudspeakers in the urban areas,
Generally, vibration energy has two parts. First; energy
except for importantmeetings and functions
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transmission must be prevented : between the source and

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Air Pollution and Contr.;!En 'gtneermg
. .. _ _ · in.doo1;, A: i't};jpi1lity
··.-.·····.··
Manqgen1.ent,·· ; · ··
~-······· ..

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9. Low-Voice Speakin~
When the distance from the point of sour~e- is d~~bled . the •· .
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sound pressure level is lowered by 6 dB.

.
Speaking at low voice is enough for communication
Noise moves after hitting from one hard surface to another
reduces the excess noise levels.

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surface. In noise control techniques, the method used to
5. 7.2. Noise Control in th T . . . ' control the noise by using the bouncing principle of noise is
After all the possible wa : otansrm~s1on Path il

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called Reverberation. If a soft, spongy material is placed on
source are tried the next ~ 1 control.lmg the noise at the

.
is can be
. '
:t_h e transmission path t
done
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. con _ro process is to set d .
- d up
o re uce the flow of sound
several ways.
evices
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energy. I the walls, floors and ceiling, the reflected sound is diffused
and absorbed.

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Th ~
Sound absorbent materi2.ls are rated (grouped) by the
1.
2.
Ab~~rbing .ne sound along path
Defl~cting. the sound in some other
l ' following NW systems.
a. Sabin Absorption Coefficient

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placmg a reflecting barrie . . direction by
. _ r in rts path.
b. Noise Reduction Coefficiertt
3. Containing
the so d · the so•
ind by. p 1 acmg
. - . - source inside
the
I
un msu1 ating box or enclosure. a. Sabin Absorption Coefficient (SAC)
Selection
followi c:
of the most effective
,. .
technique depends on tl)r~
I The absorption coetri<ient introduced by the Sabin is

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. ng tactors. • defined as the: quantity of sound (intensity of sound level)
l. Size an<ltype cf source absorbed in the actual absorbent material. It is expressed as,
2. Intensityano frequency ra.rge of no.

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3. Nature and the type of the cnviro~::t
The available techniques are, Where,
· 1. Acoustical separati on and absorbent rharerial . la Absorbed sound intensity .
2. Installation of barriess s li Incident sound inte!lSity
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3. Installation of panels or enclosures Sabin is a unit of sound absorption and the number of
4. Green belt development , Sabin's per unit is equal to the total surface of the unit that is
exposed to sound (or noise) multiplied by the absorption
l. Acoustical Separation and Absorbent-Mat . I
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U · ena s
coefficient of the material.
1 · smg the absorptive
· capacity of th e- a t rnosphere
. and The total absorption of a room in metric Sabins can be
. ·ec ivergences,
. acoustical . separation is the simple and
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cakulated as follows.
-conomical method of reducing the noise
. level.
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5.52

aI+s2 ~2
Air Pollutionand Controi Engineerinp. . . . .

if f 1.) . . .
1~:~:::::~::7:~:::11ed either dose to the source or
I . . . .· . . . .· . . . . . . . . . . . •·c- >/ . .,. . . . 5:.SJ'.i. ·

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]~ . - . s, + : ..... +.sn "~
Where,
the listener in such a way that the transverse length for the
A. Absorption of the room (m- metric Sabin)

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sound wave is to be increased.
Sn · - Area of the actual surface (m2)
The following two methods are adopted.
an - Absorption coefficient

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b. Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)
Noise Reduction Coefficient is defined as the scalar ·
lI (;-/
.~0 .:
<)"/,
,
1"
Sha d ow zone

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representation of amount of sound energy absorbed upon I! ·
striking a particular surface. NRC value lies between 'O'
and 'I'.

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An NRC of 'O' indicates the perfect reflection and an
NRC of' I' indicates the perfect absorption.
2. Installation of Barriers Fig. 5. 7. Noise Path

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Placing of barriers, screens or deflectors in the noise path (a) Barrier close to the Source
is an effective way of reducing the noise transmission. The
effectiveness of the noise reduction barrier is depending on
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the following factors.
1. Barrier's Location •
2. Barrier's Height Source Receiver

3. Barrier's Length
ID>>RI
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A noise can follow five different paths as shown m R D

figure 5.7 I .. .. 1 ..
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Fig. 5.8. Barrier close to the Source

Installation of-"barriers between the noise source and the
listener
-
can.reduce, the effeer
- of the noise levels.
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(b) Barrier close to the Receiver
noise sqyrce and-the enclosure must be avoided or the source
vibration can be transmitted to the enclosure walls and 'thus
short-circuitthe isolation .
• WJ- --- - --- -n:;;;;;,;;;;;;~,-,; p;;;;;--+-- - -- -<fj

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4. Green belt development
Source -~ Receiver Green belts reduce the effect of noise pollution and ~e

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l::
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\ i::q very good absorbers of noise especially of high frequencies.
ID>>RI In urban areas, the vegetation belt with appropriate height
D and width can be used for .noise reduction. Plant leaves

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R
.. I .. .. I absorb acoustic energy, by transferring the kinetic energy of
Fig. 5.9. Barrier close to the Receiver vibratingair molecule in. a sound field to the vibration pattern.
of the leaves. ·-

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3. Installation of Panels or Enclosures
Installing the panels in noisy machine in a separate room 5.'7.3. Control by Pz-ot.e ct.Irrg Equipment
or box is more practical and economical than quieting the
This technique rs implemented when the protecting
machine by changing the design, operations or parts.
methods at sources and transmission paths are not
Install Double Wall for Acoustical Lining

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Optimum Sound Isolation Reduces Noise satisfactory. It is essential to control the noise at source or at
Buildup Solid Wall
Construction a transmission path that and when it is not possible or
insufficient, the receiver rnust be protected.
r: Install Lined Ducts if
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Avoid Structural - Ventilation or It is the ultimate step in the noise control technology.
contact between - . Cooling is needed
walls 1 Following are:some of the methods of controlling of noise by
the usage of protective technology.
Airflow t
Isolate source Airtight Seal needed 1.. Job Rotation
from Enclosure __ _,_,__ to preserve isolation
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»: 2.. Exposure Reduction

3.. Hearing Protection
Spring Mount I
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Fig. 5.JQ. Installation of Panels or Enclosures 1. Job Schedule or Job Rotation

The walls of the enclosures should be massive and air tight . By changing the job schedules and working hours between
to the sound source. Direct and structural contact between the the workers, working at a particular noise source, the effects ·
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of noise can be highly reduced.

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..

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-: A~;·p~z!~;}b~ d~~do~ti~ik~gfheerifij-.3:' :.t !' ·.. tnfioOJ:'4ilQu«J;,} ¥.vi.~fpi....&i \ -.
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.process is supervised from observation posts, i.e., from·
Continuous health check-ups and medical awareness remote control stations, where workers are - adequately-
programmes should be conducted for the workers, working at 1 protected. ·
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higher noise level. 5.8. DIFFERENCESBETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND
2. Exposure Reduction
I
~
NOISE POLLUTION

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The schedule of the workers should be planned in such a The following ·table 5. 7 shows the characteristics,
· differences between air pollution an? noise pollution.
way that, the workers 'should not be overloaded with work at
the higher noise levels. They have to be altered in different Table 5.7.

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schedules and working environments, if possible. SI.
Item Air Pollution Noise Pollution
No
3. Hearing Protection Very highand may Less effects

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Molded and pliable earplugs, ·cup-type protectors and Effects on lead to severe
helmets are the commercially available hearing protectors. 1. human
Affects physical Affects
Such devices reduce the noises between 15 dB and 35 dB. health
health highly psychologically
0
Nature of International Localized
2.
problem Problem Problem

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High level controls No. such high-
.§ and legal level treatments
<:; Treatment
~ 201.=--~-4~~~--i-~~--l-~~-+~~~-+-~----I 3. requirements are are required to
methods
~ required to control noise
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minimise pollution
Contains toxic
It is harmless
chemicals and
because there is
4. Harmfulness particles, affects
no harmful
the severely-and
chemical present.
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SOL-.~--'~~~--'~~--'~~--'-~~~~~---' harmful.
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 Duration is high
Frequency, Hz (bi Cycles per second) and may continue
Controlled or
for some hours or
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Fig; 5.11. Hearing Protection 5. Duration avoided

minutes after
4. Other possibilities immediately -
created by the
When the noise, within the confined area is too high to source.
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allow the workers into it (even with personal protection

devices) the operation must be automated. An automatic
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5.9. NOISE CONTROL LEGISLATION L Factor-ies Ad (Reduction of Noise and Oil of
Uncontrolled noise presents a great' danger to the health Machinery)
and welfare of the public, particularly in urban areas. The The Factories Act does not contain any specific provision

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major sources of noise include· transportation vehicles and for noise control. However, under the third schedule Sections
equipment, machinery, appliances, and other products in 89 and 90 of this Act, noise induced hearing loss, is

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commerce. The laws related to. establish a national policy to mentioned as notifiabledisease, Similarly,
. under. the Modal
promote an environment, should be free from noise. The Rules, limits for noise exposure for work zone -area have been
prescribed.
regulations and rules also serve to,

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1. Co-ordinate the research and activities m noise 2. Motor V chicle Act (Provision Relation to use of horn
control and change of Engine)
2. Establish the noise emission standards- for products In Motor vehicle Act rules regarding usage of horns and

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distributed in commerce any modification in engine are made.
3. Provide information to the public respecting the
3. Noise Pollution Control Rule 2000 (under Environment
noise emission and to,
Protection Act, 1996)
4. Provide information to the public respecting noise

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In order to control the increasing problem of noise
reduction characteristics products.
pollution, the Government of India has enacted the Noise
Following regulations control the noise pollution.
Pollutiion Rules (2000) that includes the following main
1. Aircraft Act, 1934 provisions, as follows.
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2. Noise Control under Railway Act, 1890 > The state government may categories the areas in the
3. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 industrial or commercial or residential areas
4. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the >- The ambient air quality standards in respect of noise
Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 for different areas have been specified.
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5. Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000

> State government shall take measure for abatement of
noise including noise emanating from vehicular
etc.
movement and ensure that the existing noise levels do
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Following regulations are also implemented for

not exceed the ambient air quality standards specified
controlling the noise pollution.
under these rules.
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5.60 - - - . and··.·Control
Air Pollution . .. .
Engineering
. .....
1 . ·s.61,•·.·

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. .,
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3•. · Define ventilatlon ·and what is its usage in controlling

. educational institutions and court may be declarecas the indoor pollution?
silence are for the purpose of these rules.

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Ventilation is defined as the art of supplying air to a
);.>- A loud speaker or a public address system shall not be given space and also includes the art of remove the old
used except after obtaining written permission from ·

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vitiated air from that space.
the authority and the same shall not be used at night
Ventilation and shading- can. help control indoor
(between 10 pm to 6 am)
temperatures. Ventilation also helps remove or dilute

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);.>- A person found violating the provisions as to the indoor airborne pollutants coming from indoor sources.
maximum .noise permissible in any particular area
shall be Hable to be punished for it as per the 4. Define Sick Building Syndrome.

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provision of these rules and ~y other law in force. Sick-Building Syndrome (SBS) or Tight Building
Syndrome is a medical condition, where people in a
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS building suffer from symptoms of illness or feel
·J. Define Indoor air pollution unwell without any specific reason or cause.

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Indoor air pollution is defined as the degradation of 5. State the Causes of Sick Building Syndrome
indoor air quality by harmful chemicals and other Inadequate Ventilation
•
materials and it can be up to 10 times severe effects than
• From Outdoor Sources
outdoor air pollution.
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• From Indoor Sources
2. Write various causes of Indoor Air Pollution.
• Electromagnetic Radiation
The various causes of indoor pollution are
• Psychological Factors
./. Uses of traditional fuel for cooking,
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• Poor and Inappropriate Lighting

./ Tobacco smoke,
• Biological Contaminants
./ Temperature,
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./ Humidity, 6. Define sound. (Nov/Dec 2018)

../ Micro-organisms and Sound is defined as the energy and atmospheric or air
prone vibrations understandable to the ear.
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./ Allergens
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. ' . .. . . '::- . ·.: ....~ ..
·'... . . . . . . ·. ·'" .
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12. Define "Rearing Tiir~slwldLever (HTL).

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7. How sound is classified? (April/May 2018) - -
(April/May 2018)
1. Musical Sound
The hearing threshold level is - the sound ·level below
2. Noise

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which a person's ear is unable to detect any sound. For
8. List the unit of measurement of sound. (Nov/Dec 2018)
adults,0 dB is the reference level.

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13. What ls threshold Shift? (Nov/Dec2012)
Sound pressure is the cyclic variation super imposed on
the steady or atmospheric pressure and generally it is a (Nov/Dec2012, R-200/:J)(Ma_y/june2012 (Nov/Dec 2016)
Root Mean Square (RMS) value. The unit of the sound 'fhreshold Shift is defined as the degree of hearing loss

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pressureis the unit of force per unit area, i.e., Nlm2. (or impairment) in terms· of decibel (dB) shift from a
The unit of sound measurement is bel. The unit value of patient's previous audiogram.
• - ! •

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- bel is very large and the sound intensity is low, hence 14. List o,;t iize classification of noise pollution.
instead of using bel, decibel (dB) is used. (May/June 2013)
(a) Indoor Noise -
I 1 dB .~ 10 lbel I
(b) Outdoor Noise
9. What is Noise?

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15. What are the various noise sources? (May/June 2013)
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2016) (April/May 2017)
(May/June 2016) (N.ov/Dec 2017) Or What are the
Unwanted sound produces undesirable effects on humans
most common sources of noise pollution? (Nov/Dec
and livings.
201/J Or Identify the primary sources of
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10. Define Noise Pollution. , (Nov/Dec 2015) environmental noise. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Noise pollution is defined as the type of energy pollution I. Traffic noises
in which, distracting, irritating and the damaging sounds
2. Industrial noises
are audible freely.
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3. Other important sources (loudspeakers, sirens etc.)

11. Define Sound Pressure Level.
16. Whatarethe causes of Industrial.Noise?
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012) (April/May 2017)
(Nov/Dec 2017)
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Sound level or Sound Pressure Level is defined as the

1. - Material handling
scale of measuring the intensity of sound based on the
sound of pressure and a reference standard pressure 2. 1v1eta1 piercing
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5.64 =,
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·. ,Aci". Pr!{u.~i~n. ar.q;f:<;::61JJre{E;ngfJ1~i;ri1.ig, ~. :/J~_> Inc!o°:[.Air-(Juqhty:~a'}~g~~:e_";t:':. . ,_ "'. . ·

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3. Metal forming 19. What are the major:effects of noise on people?
4. - Metal fabrication (April/May 2015)
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5. Material testing etc. l
. l Table 5.3. Effects of Noise on Human Beings Page 5.28

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17. Differentiate
.
between continuous ' intermittent and '
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{
20. State the noise standards. (May/June 2013)
impulsive noise. (April/May 2015) l
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Refer Table 5.6 Noise Standards Page 5.43

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Depending on the duration of noise continued, it can be 21. What is LN? (Nov/Dec 201Z).
classified as continuous noise, intermittent noise and The parameter L; is a statistical measure indicating how
impulse noise

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a particular sound level is exceeded frequently.
Continuous noise is an uninterrupted noise level that 22. Define Leq- (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec ~015)
varies less than 5 dB . during the complete period of
- -
I Leq is defined as the statistical value of sound pressure

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observation. A running fan sound is an example for -
continuous noise. . level that can be equated to any fluctuating noise level.
23. Write any three acts for controlling the noise pollution
Intermittent noise is a noise, which continues for more
than 1 second and is then interrupted noise. A drilling
I in India.
1.
(May/June 2014)
Factories Act (Reduction of Noise and - Oil of

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.machine used by a dentist produces the intermittent
noise. Machinery)

Impulse noise is the noise with a change of sound 2. Motor Vehicle Act (Provision Relation to use of
pressure of atleast 40 dB within 0.5 second. With horn and change of Engine)
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duration of less than one second, the sound produced by 3. Noise Pollution Control Rule 2000 (under
firing the weapon would come in impulse noise type. Environment Protection Act, 1996)
18. How is a noise characterized? (Nov/Dec 2011) 24. What are grab samples? Wizenare they used?
In general, a noise is characterized by (Nov/Dec 2014)
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1. The change of sound pressure A grab sample (or catch sample or individual sample)
2. Breaking the noise into noise frequency is a sampling technique in which is a single sample or
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components. (Spectra). measurement is taken at a specific time or over as short a

period as is feasible.
3. Other important sources (loudspeakers, sirens etc.)
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Grab samples provide an immediate sample, and are thus 6. Write short notes on, Noise Criteria.
preferred for some=tests. This is the most common type (6) (May/June 2012) (4) (April/May 2017)
of sample and is the sampling technique used for most Refer Page 5. 19

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labs. 7. Write short notes on, Wave Number.
25. What is noise indicator? (May/June2016) (5) (May/June 2012) (4) (April/M. a_v 2017)

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The instrument used to measure the sound or noise level Refer Page 5. 19
in dB units is called Sound Level Meter or Noise
8. Write short note on Magnification factor
Indicator.

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(4) (April/May 2017)
26. Write the ambient Noise level for Residential and
Refer Page 5 .20
Industrial zone. (Nov/Dec 2017)
9. Briefly explain about various types-of Noise Pollution.

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Refer Table 5.4 Acceptable NC Page 5.36 and
(10) (Nov/Dec 2017)
Table 5.5 NoiseCriteria Levels for Room Page 5.37
(Or)
REVIEW QUESTIONS Describe the sources of Noise Pollution. (8) (Nov/Dec
2015) (16) (Nov/Dec 2018) (May/June 2014)

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1. Describe the causes of indoor air pollution.
Refer Chapter 5. 1.1. Page 5 .1 (Or)

2. Explain the types of indoor air pollutants. Enumerate the causes for noise pollution:

I
(6) (May/June 2016)
Refer Chapter 5.1.2. Page 5.4
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Refer Chapter 5.4.1 Page 5.22 ·
3. How the indoor air pollutants can be controlled?
10. Write 'short notes on Industrial noise.
Refer Chapter 5.1.4. Page 5.8

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(5) (April/May 2015)
4. What.is Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) and explain.
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Refer Chapter (II) 5.4.1. Page 5.25

(16)
il 11. Write the effects of noise pollution.
Refer Chapter 5.2. Page 5.12
~ (8)(Nov/Dec 2012)
=«. (5)(May/June
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5. Write short notes on Ultra 2012)

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(4) (April/May 2017)
(Nov/Dec 2017) (9) (May/June 2013)
Refer Page 5 .19
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Refer Chapter 5.4.2. Page 5.26

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•.. ·,_ $:6S:~: : ...· ;A.f~,Pp.l!uti~11lif!d,Conir.9rp,ngihfr?fihg;. , · :_ .. I .. . Indoor. ,.4.ir
. . . . ' Quality
.. - . Management
. . . . .. : . . ~ ·. . . :
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.. about .. I~dian Standard for A;,,,_bient
.·
12:_What are the effects of noise on human beings?
Explain in detail. (8) (Nov/Dec 2011) (8) (May/June
I Noise Levels. (8) (Nov/Dec 2017)
2012) (8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (10) (Nov/Dec 2014) Refer Chapter 5.6. Page 5.43

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Refer Table 5.3. Effects of Noise on Human Beings 20. Explain the effects and assessment of Noise Pollution
and list the standards. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Page 5.28

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Refer Chapter 5.4.2.~5.5.4 & 5.6 Pages 5.26,-5.35_&;.5.43
13. How the noise is measured? (8) (April/May 2015)
(or) How do you measure sound? Explain. 5. Write a detailed note on Controlling Method of Noise
Pollution. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (16) (May/June 2013)

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(8) (Nov/Dec 2017)
(8) (May/June 2014) (10) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov/Dec
Refer Chapter 5.5. Page 5.29
2017)
14. Write a detailed note on_ Assessment Method of !ifoise

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(Or)
Pollution (8) (May/June 2014) (10) (May/June 2016)
Explain any three Noise pollution control methods.
Refer Chapter 5.5.4. Page 5.31 (15) (Nov/Dec2018)
15. What are the difficulties in noise pollution study? (Or)
(9) (Nov/Dec2012)

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Explain control strategies for noise pollution.
Refer Chapter (III) 5.5.4. Page 5.34 (8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (16) (Nov/Dec 2016)
16. Explain=the=issues, problems associated with noise Refer Chapter 5.7. Page 5.44
pollution studies. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012, R-2004) (Or)
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Refer Chapter (III) 5.5.4. Page 5.34 What are the sources of noise pollution and control
17. What is noise rating system? What is its importance? strategies to be adopted? (8) (April/May 2015)
(8) (Nov/Dec 2011) (7) (May/June 2013) (Or)
[OR] Write short notes on Noise prevention methods.(5)
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Explain LN and Lequ concept in noise rating. (April/May 2015) (8) (Nov/Dec 2015) (16) (April/Ma)
(8) (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012) 2018) (16) (Nov/Dec 2017)
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Refer Chapter 5.5.5. Page 5.34 Refer Chapter 5.7. Page 5 .44
18. Explain the effects of Noise pollution and list the 22. Explain the methods to controlnoise pollution in an
industrial area. (10) (May/June 2016)
standards (Nov/Dec 2018)
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Refer Chapter 5.7. Page 5 .44

Refer Chapter 5.4.2 and 5.6 Pages 5.26 and 5.43
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23. Explain in detail ab:ut~:0:::c:=n:::n:::::, . • · l·

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control measures. · (May/June 2012) I
[OR] ,~.

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Explain in detail. about the sources of noise and its
control measures. (April/May 2017) I
Refer Chapter 5.4.land 5.7. Page 5.22 and 5.44 . l

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24. What is control of noise source by design? Explain. (8) · · ! Time: Three Hours Maximum: I 00 'Marks
· (Nov/Dec 2011) (8) (May/June 2012) (8) (Nov/Dec I
I Answer ALL Questions

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2017) I_,._'

Refer Chapter (5) 5.7.1Page5.44 PART A-(10 x 2 =20 Marks)

-1~
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· 25. Explain the impact of noise pollution on numans an·d
. '<!
Ir_
1·
What are secondary air poll1.!tants?
Giveexamples.

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how it can he controlled at source. (16) ~ (May/.lune 2012) (Nov/ Dec l012) (May/June 2013)
(April/May 2018) ~ (Nov/Dec 2011) .. (May/June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2017)
Refer Table 5.3. Effects of Noise on Human Beings and ! Primary pollutants react with one another or with water
Chapter 5.7.1. Page 5.28 and 5.45 I vapow·in the presence of sunlight forms, a new form of

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pollutant, called secondary pollutants.
6. How could noise pollution control he achieved by 1-•---·. z.
interfering in its transmission path? (8)(Nov/Dec 2011) . Ex: Sulphuric Acid (H2S04), Ozone (03) etc.

(O~ ~ What are grab samples? When are they used?

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Explain the principles of achieving noise control in ~ Grab Samples are air pollutants samples which are
transmission path. (8) (May/June2012) collected over a very short period of time in· sampling
Refer Chapter 5.7.2. Page 5.50 •-. bags etc. This
'
is used for air quality monitoring or any
7. Write short notes on Environmental Laws on noise . time pollutants need to be collected and identified.
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control (6) (April/May 2015) 3. Define Plume rise.

Refer Chapter 5.9. Page 5.58 s
(,l\fov/Dec2011) (May/June 2014)(Nov/Dec 2015)
~
DOD
I Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume
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. from the· stack into the atmosphere, due to the buoyancy

and mo:mentum.
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4. Wh~t are dfsper~ion modeis? (VOCs) and odorous molecules (like H2S and organic
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012) sulphides) present in industrial gaseous emissions.
Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or 9. Define Sick Building Syndrome.

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approaches made to the dispersion of pollutants to study Sick .Building Syndrome (SBS) or Tight Building
how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. I . Syndrome is a medical condition, where people in a

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5. State the objectives of using air pollution control? I . 'building suffer from· symptoms of illness or feel unwell
(April/May 20i5) (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017) I without any specific rea 'on or cause,

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The important objectives of the air pollution control are JO. Define Sound Pressure Lev.!l
as follows. (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012) (April/May 2017)
1. Controlling of effects of • pollution on public
I Sound level or Sound Pressure Level is defined as the.

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scale of measuring the intensity of sound based on the
2. Protection of animals, plants, etc. '
·m sound of pressure and a reference standard pressure.
3. Protection of properties against pollutants attack li

4. Providing the acceptable environment etc. Part B (5x13 = 65 marks)

jin
6. What is_ the principle of Electrostatic precipitator? 1L a) (i) Explain the elements of the atmosphere. (8)
(Nov/Dec 2018)
(Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2018)
Refer Chapter 1.2.3. Page 1.10
ESP is working based on the principle that, the ESP uses
(ii) Briefly discuss about the various types of gases
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the electrical forces to move the particulate matter, out of
causing air pollution.
the flowing gas stream and on to collector plates. ·
(6) (Nov/Dec 2017)
7. What is adsorption? (May/June 2012) Refer Chapter 1.6 Page 1.20
(Nov/Dec 2016)
L ·[OR]
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Adsorption is the . physical process of collecting the

b) Describe in detail the effects of air pollution on
gaseous, liquid and solid air pollutants in the air by a
human beings vegetation and animals.
surface, where they are concentrated and retained.
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(13) (Nov/Dec 2016)

8. What is Bio-scrubber? Refer Chapter 1.8.1., 1.82. and 1.8.3.
Bio-scrubbers or· Biological scrubbers are the biological Page 1.30 and .1.34
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reactors, used to remove Volatile Organic Compounds

 www.rejinpaul.com

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12. (a) On a summerafternoon with a wind speed of 3.20 ~) How does a.:_..bag house filter work? What are the
· m/s the concentration of particulate . matter was
positives and· n~g,itives of filtration process? (13)
found to be 1520 µg/m3 at a point 2 km down wind'
and 0.5 km perpendicular to the plume centerline (1Vov/Dec 2012) (13) (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec2017)

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from a coal fired power plant Determine the Refor Chapter 3. Page 3.35
. particulate emission rate of the power plant, given 14. a) What is Bio-filtration? Explain the components

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the following:
and working of Bio-filtration units.
Stack Paramet~rs Atmospheric Condition
Refer Chapter 4 .. 8. Page 4.45
Height . : 75.0 m Pressure : 100 Kpa

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[OR]
Diameter: 1.50 m Temperature: 28" C
Exit Velocity:l2 m/s b) What are the approaches for controlling oxides of
Temperature: 322° C nitrogeni: Discuss the control methodology•.
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Make any assumption, if found necessary. (April/Maj 2015)
(Nov/Dec 2011) {May/June 2012) (Nov/ Dec 2012) Refer Chapter 4.6.1. Page 4.27
Refer Example 2.1; Page 2.49. 15. a)- Explain the Indoor pollution and its control
[OPJ methods. (13) (Nov/Dec2018)

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b) Define Dispersion model and explain their types with Refer Chapter 5.1. Page 5.1 .
. its application. (13) (May/June 2013) (May/June 2014) ___ -[QRJ
(Nov/Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2016) (Nov/Dec 2016, R- b) Writesnort notes on,
2013) (April(May 2017)
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(i) . Ultra sound.
Refer Chapter 2.6; Page 2.53
13. a) (i) List the factors influencing the choice of air
pollution control equipment.(7)(May/June 2013)
I Refer Page 5 .19
(3)(May/June 2012) (April/May 2017)

(ii) Noise Criteria.

2013) (Nov/Dec 2017) (May/June 2016) (3) (May/June2012) (April/May 2017)
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(Nov/Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2016) Refer Page 5.19

Refer Chapter 3 .13 Page 3 .2 {iii) WaveNumber.
(ii) Explain any three airpollution control measures. (4) {M47y/June 2012) (4) (April/May 2017)
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(6) (Nov/Dec 2018) Refer Page 5.19

Refer Chapter 3.2 and 3.3 Page 3.8 and 3.10 (iv) .Magnif1eatu~ilfactor (3) (ApriVMay 2017)
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[OR] Refer Page 5.20

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'l>ari c (1x15 :_·1s marks) · · Model Question Pap·er --.11 '.

16. a) Explain about the building related air 'pollution B.E/B.TechDEGREE EXAMINATION Ii
Air Pollution and Cont~ol Engineering

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[OR]· ·-~~;~ . (Regulation 201 7) . I ~
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b) How air pollution can be controlled ,globally? · Time: Three Hours Maximum: 100 Marks
Explain the roll of trees_in Air pollution· control. · Answer ALL Questions
.aaa PARTA--(10 x 2= 20Marks)

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Brief the effect of Carbon Monoxide 'on human being.
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)

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(Nov/Dec 2017)
· Carbon monoxide has a greater blood-affinity property
and which has been affected by blood hemoglobin zoo
times more than 02• This CO, replaces the 02 present in

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the _hemoglobin and forms Carboxy-hemoglobin,
{CO.H~).
If the quantity of Carboxy-hemoglobin is less, it
produces the little headache, reduction ill ·reaction. time ·.
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etc. on human beings.
: 2.. What are the sources of air pollution? (Nov/Dec 201~)
(Nov/Dec20i6, R-2008) (Nov/Dec 2017) .
I. Natural Sources
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2. Man-Made Sources
3. What is lapse rate? (Nov/Dec 2016, R-2008) (Nov/De<-
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2()16;R;20J3) · fN.ov/Dec·2ol 7) (April/May 2018)

..:· The :ra.te at. which, the. .temperature chariges wi
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. in~r~fng:&~i~t9ft}lei.atrnQsphereis called Lapse Ra:

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C>f Teinpe~ature:Laps~ ~te~ · · ·. · · · · ·· ·

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th~ gas stream· is
4. What isturb~ience alUl}wwit isformed?_ ·If ·
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converted into co~
- .
and water vapour.
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,(May/June 2013) (ApriVMay 2017) 8. Define Air' Quality1n<lex.

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. Turbulence-is defuled as the gas (or' a fluid). flow, (Nov/Dec 2011) {May/June 2012)
· differe~tiated by its .properties, changes with r~s~ect to (May/JU:.ne2012,R~2004)(No~/Dec 2016)
· . hi'c.h , 1s
· , .ufo. irm ed · due . to the rapid vanat10n of

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time, w · . . Air Quality Ind~x is defined.~ ~ scale or an indicator of
pressure, velocity et~. . . · air quality, based. on air 'pollutants that have .adverse
. (Nov/l)ec 2018) effects on human health and the environment. -
5. _ Define stokes law.

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Sto k es • s· · 1aw, srates '.the. settling velocities , of small 9. · J'Jefine Indoor air pollution
spherical particles in a fluid medium. , , . Indoor air pollution is defined as the degradation of .
The terminal settling.velocity be calculatedby usmg can indoor air quality by harmful chemicals and other

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materials and it can- be up to l 0 times severe effects than - .
- 'the Stoke's law,B~ · outdoor air pollution.
. , = d2_ (Pe Pg)
. v, g p 18µg 10. '11Vhat _are the various noise sources? (May/June 2013)
, , ... , ?
(May/June 20~6) (Nov/D_ec 2017) (Nov/Dec 2017)
6. What are pollution control equipments·

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(,N'ov/Dt~c2014)
. {Nov/Dec 2012) (Mayl.[une 2012) (May/June 2016) 1. Traffic noises
· · . . .· · · . (Nov/Dec 2016)
2.. . Industrial noises
Following are the important. equipment used to control
3. Other important sources (loudspeakers, sirens etc.)
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the particulate matter.
Part B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)
1. , Gravitational Settling Chambers . ,_
2. Centrifugal Collectors (Dynamic prec1p1tators, Ji. a) (i) Define air pollution and explain classification of
'cyclone collectors, etc.) , ' , , air pollution, with suitable examples •.
3. Wet Scrubbers (or) Wet Collectors (Spray towers, (7) (May/Jun e201.f) (iVov/Det.:2015)
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Wet Cyclone Scrubbers, Venturi-Scrub"ers etc.) (16) (ApriVMay 2017)

4. ESP (Ele(?tro-Static Precipitators) , · , Refer Chapter 1.1 and I .5 Page 1.1 and 1.18
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5. Fabric Filters . .
, (ii) What are the devices used for sampling gases and
7. How comb~tion process brings air pollution c_o~1trol?
vapours ... Describe any one in detail
Combustion or Incineration technique~ oxidize the .
b ·tan. ces rapidly·. thrpugh·· . the. C.·omb Refer Chapter 1.lJ.6~
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.: inatlon of OX··ygen ·
:~ a }-~omb~tib~e· ffi.atetjal in the. presence of beat. .
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- b) (i) Explain the elements of the atmosphere; _ used for air pol~ution control? (13) -
___ (7) {ivov/Dec 2018)
- . (May/June2012) ((Nov/Dec 1012) (No~/ Dec 2012,.
-_-Refer Chapter 1._2.3~ Page LIO

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R-:-2004) (.May/June 2012){May/June 2014) (May/June -
- (ii). Explain the effect oj air pollution o1!plants. - 201.6)(April/May 2017)

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_(6) (Nov/Dec 2018) Refer Chapter 4.2 Page 4.2
·Refer Chapter 1.8.2. Page 134 [OR]

12. a) Briefly discuss about the. various meteorological b) Write _the working and design aspect of bio-

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parameters that influencing air pollution. scr.ubbers.
(Nov/Dec2017) . - Refer Chapter 4~ 7 .I and 4. 7.2. Page 4.40 and 4.42
Refer Chapter 2,1.1. Page i.1 15. ·a) What is Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)- ~nd explain. '

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.{OR] (13)_

- b)lVh~t is a Plume? Explain the different plume beh'!viour Refer Chapter 5 .2. Page 5~12
- - with respect to the prevailing lapse rates. [OR]
(May_/June2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)

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b) -Expiain the impact of noise po/1ution on h.umans
Ref~r Chapter 2.4.3. Page 2.40 and how - it can be controlled at · source. (13) -
13. (a) What is the principle of ESP? Explain its working (April/May 2018)
principle and the factors influencing its performances? Refer Table 5.3. Effects of Noise on Human Beings and
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(Nov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2012) (May/June 2012, R- _Chapter 5.7.l. Page 5.28 and 5.45
2004) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov/Dec 2015)
(May/June2016) (Nov/Dec 2016) (April/May 2017) - Part C (lxlS = 15 marks)
· (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May2018)
16.'::a) _What_ are the- -Global effects of Environmental
Refer Chapter 3.9 Page3.43 . !_ollution? Explain in Details.
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-_[OR] [OR]
=b). What are inertia{ separatorsr State the types and
b} How the nofyepollution is controlled effectively?
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'explain any one. (May/June 2013)

Refer Chapter 3.8. L Page 3.35 aaa.
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