CS8591_Introduction to Computer Networks and Physical Layer

CS8591_Computer Networks
UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER
Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol suite – OSI Model –
Physical Layer: Performance – Transmission media – Switching – Circuit-switched
Networks – Packet Switching.
DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication are exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as wired cable or wireless. The effectiveness of data communication system
depends on four fundamental properties.
 Delivery: The system must deliver the data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver the data in a timely manner.
 Jitter: Refers to the variations in the packet arrival
Networks
A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or

other devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of data. An excellent example of
a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people all over the world.
A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication

protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or
provided by the network nodes. A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in
order to share resources.
Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.
Computer Network, two or more computers that are connected with one another for the
purpose of communicating data electronically.
Networks performance is depends on throughput delay and security factors.
Components of Computer Networks
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Major components of a computer network are:
NIC(National Interface Card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub
distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.
Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data
to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the
network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say
that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.
Cables and connectors
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three
types of cables:
o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or
more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is
more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission
speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using
light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is
more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.
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Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect
the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.
Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found
on the motherboard.
Uses Of Computer Network

o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the
physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A
server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the
system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored
in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required
for installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home. The hardware
components are the server, client, peer, transmission medium, and connecting devices. The
software components are operating system and protocols.
The following figure shows a network along with its components:
Hardware Components
 Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they
give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file
servers, database servers, print servers etc.
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 Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to
access and use the network resources.
 Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in
a workgroup network.
 Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is
transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be
guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
 Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or
computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting
devices are:
a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches
Software Components
 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in

the server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications,
printers etc.
 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for
computer networks. The two popular protocol suites are −
o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
o b. TCP / IP Model
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communicationspathway

that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it issimplest to
imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication tooccur, two devices
must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. Theentire

capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Mostpoint-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the twoends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When we change television channels by
infrared remote control, we areestablishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television‟scontrol system.
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Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two
specificdevices share a single link. The capacity of the channel is shared spatially or
temporally.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topologyof a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links andlinking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologiespossible: mesh, star, bus, and
ring.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every otherdevice. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the twodevices it connects. To
find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh networkwith n nodes, we first
consider that each node must be connected to every othernode. Node 1 must be connected to
n-1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n
– 1 nodes. We need n (n – 1) physicallinks.
Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller,usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike
amesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controlleracts
as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends thedata to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.
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Bus Topology
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on theother
hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in anetwork .
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only thetwo
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, fromdevice to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates arepeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeaterregenerates the bits and passes
them along.
Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:
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o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
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There are two types of Personal Area Network:
o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a
network connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
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o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
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Examples of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose if
the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and
other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can
be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can
inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local
addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
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o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
Types of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other
computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection
to the external network.
2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main
aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet.
The information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be
accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected
to another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.
PROTOCOL LAYERING
Layered protocols are designed so that layer N at the destination receives exactly the same
object sent by layer N at the source. The layering principle offers:
Protocol designers can focus on the message exchange for a given layer with the assurance that
lower layers will not alter the message. The key is idea that a transport protocol can be
designed independent of other protocols.
End-to-End Property
A protocol is end to end if and only if the layering principle applies between the original sources
and ultimate destination. Others are machine to machine.
Advantages:
 Breaks down complex problem into more management components

 Implementation details of one layer are abstracted away from other layers
Disadvantages:
Can introduce overhead, leading to internal layer violations
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OSI MODEL
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – „International
Organization of Standardization„, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The functions of the physical layer are :

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of
bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
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* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver‟s MAC address
in the header.
The Receiver‟s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver‟s IP address are placed in
the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :

1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
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2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network

layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver‟s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of
the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At Sender’s Side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver‟s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications
have default port assigned.
At Receiver’s Side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer ,
breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus
by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to
the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
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2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented
service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :

1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
as synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to
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be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in the Internet because of its late
invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
TCP/IP
The OSI Model is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the functions of
the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and simpler
components. But TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of Defense
(DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It
contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows :
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1. Network Access Layer –
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for
the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about
declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing in
layer 3, being encapsulated by layer 2 protocols.
2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI‟s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.
3. Host-to-Host Layer –
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data.
It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control
mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features.
Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features.
It is the go-to protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very
cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
4. Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application,
Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls
user-interface specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS,
FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD. Have a look
at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these protocols. Protocols other
than those present in the linked article are :
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1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient
in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out
bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it‟s out of sync.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems
Control Protocol. Interconnection.
TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable
TCP/IP does not have very strict OSI has strict boundaries
boundaries.
TCP/IP follow a horizontal OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.
TCP/IP uses both session and OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the presentation layers.
application layer itself.
TCP/IP developed protocols then OSI developed model then protocol.
model.
Transport layer in TCP/IP does In OSI model, transport layer provides
not provide assurance delivery assurance delivery of packets.
of packets.
TCP/IP model network layer Connection less and connection oriented
only provides connection less both services are provided by network
services. layer in OSI model.
Protocols cannot be replaced While in OSI model, Protocols are better
easily in TCP/IP model. covered and is easy to replace with the
change in technology.
PHYSICAL LAYER PERFORMANCE
Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the termcan be
used in two different contexts with two different measuring values: bandwidth inhertz and
bandwidth in bits per second.
Bandwidth in Hertz
We have discussed this concept. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies containedin a
composite signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example,bandwidth of a
subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
18
The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or
even a network can transmit. For example, bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links
in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
Relationship
There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
second. Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits
per second. The relationship depends on whether we have baseband transmission or
transmission with modulation.
Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they
are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with T always less than B. In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a
link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data. For example, we
may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end of the link
may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this
link.
Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source. Latency is made of four
components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
Latency =propagation time +1 transmission time +1 queuing time
+processing delay
Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation
speed.
Propagation time =Distance / (Propagation Speed)
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on the
frequency of the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 × 108
m/s. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable.
Transmission Time
In data communications we don‟t send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first bit may take a
time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the last bit also may take the same
amount of time. However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last
bit arriving at the receiver. The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier;the last bit leaves later
and arrives later. The transmission time of a messagedepends on the size of the message and
the bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time =5 (Message size) / Bandwidth
Queuing Time
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each intermediate or
end device to hold the message before it can be processed. The queuing time is not a fixed
factor; it changes with the load imposed on the network. When there is heavy traffic on the
network, the queuing time increases. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the
arrived messages and processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each message
will have to wait.
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link. However, as we will see in this
19
chapter and future chapters, what is very important in data communications is the product of
the two, the bandwidth-delay product. Let us elaborate on this issue, using two hypothetical
cases as examples.
Jitter
Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter. Jitter is a problem if different
packets of data encounter different delays and the application using the data at the receiver
site is time- sensitive (audio and video data, for example). If the delay for the first packet is 20
ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses
the packets endures jitter.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the

transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form
of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1.
Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere,
water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media,
medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost
and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.
Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:
o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a
medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted
one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed
due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it
travels over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
20
Causes of Transmission Impairment:
o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This
type of distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each
frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time
which leads to the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.
Classification Of Transmission Media:
o Guided Transmission Media

o UnGuided Transmission Media
Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media.
Types of Guided media:
21
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted
pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair
cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0
to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
Types of Twisted pair:
Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of
the unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
22
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor
is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
23
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at

high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more
light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
24
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow
easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of
free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the
wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications of Radio waves:
o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
25
Advantages of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves
Microwaves are of two types:
o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a

radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz
to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,
i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are
the direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-
23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
26
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation
of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user

can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort
the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the
signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of
the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains
in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
27
Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides
in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.
SWITCHING
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique
will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification of Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
28
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:
Space Division Switches:
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single

transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of
crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch
is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a
control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar
switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
29
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch
has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it

becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and
then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for
each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even
if the channel is free.
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between
the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
30
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Advantages Of Message Switching
o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency
of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store
the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go,
but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
31
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is

considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:
32
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach
Node takes routing decisions to forward Node does not take any routing decision.
the packets.
Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
packets travel in different directions. it does not allow other packets to pass through.
It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.

treated as an independent entity.
o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the
nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the
message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach
Advantages of Packet Switching:
o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive

secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore,
we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established
path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication
channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:
o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require

low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
o ----------------------------------------------------END------------------------------------------------------------
33

CS8591_Introduction to Computer Networks and Physical Layer

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CS8591_Computer Networks

UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER

A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or

A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication

Networks performance is depends on throughput delay and security factors.

Components of Computer Networks

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC(National Interface Card)

Cables and connectors

Uses Of Computer Network

The following figure shows a network along with its components:

 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in

Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communicationspathway

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. Theentire

o LAN(Local Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

PAN(Personal Area Network)

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

Examples of Personal Area Network:

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

Examples of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

Advantages of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

 Breaks down complex problem into more management components

Can introduce overhead, leading to internal layer violations

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The functions of the physical layer are :

* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The functions of the data Link layer are :

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

The functions of the Network layer are :

2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

The functions of the session layer are :

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Access Layer –

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

PHYSICAL LAYER PERFORMANCE

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

Causes of Transmission Impairment:

Classification Of Transmission Media:

o Guided Transmission Media

Types of Guided media:

Types of Twisted pair: