Concept of computer network

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data
and resources with each other. A network connection between these devices can be established
using cable or wireless media. Once a connection is established, communication protocols -- such
as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange
data between the networked devices.
The first example of a computer network was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
This packet-switched network was created in the late 1960s by ARPA, a U.S. Department of
Defense agency.
A computer network can be as small as two laptops connected through an Ethernet cable or as
complex as the internet, which is a global system of computer networks.

How does a computer network work?

Devices attached to a computer network use IP addresses that are resolved into hostnames through
a domain name system server to communicate with each other over the internet and on other
computer networks. A variety of protocols and algorithms are also used to specify the transmission
of data among endpoints.
Network systems must follow certain standards or guidelines to operate. Standards are a set of data
communication rules required for the exchange of information between devices and are developed
by various standards organizations, including IEEE, the International Organization for
Standardization and the American National Standards Institute. For example, the Ethernet standard
establishes a common communication language for wired or physical networks, and
the 802.11 standard specifies connectivity for wireless local area networks (WLANs).
A computer network must be physically and logically designed in such a way that makes it possible
for the underlying network elements to communicate with each other. This layout of a computer
network is known as the computer network architecture.
The following are the two most common computer network architectures:
1. Client-server. This model consists of many clients -- or nodes -- where at least one network
node acts as the central server. The clients in this model don't share resources, but request the
central server, as all the resources are installed on it. A client-server network is the medium
through which clients access resources and services from a central computer, via either a local
area network (LAN) or a wide-area network (WAN), such as the Internet. Popular network
services include e-mail, file sharing, printing, and the World Wide Web. A major advantage of
the client-server network is the central management of applications and data.

Benefits ofClient-Server Computing

There are numerous advantages of the client server architecture model:

 A single server hosting all the required data in a single place facilitates easy protection of data
and management of user authorization and authentication.
 Resources such as network segments, servers, and computers can be added to a client-server
network without any significant interruptions.
 Data can be accessed efficiently without requiring clients and the server to be in close
proximity.
 All nodes in the client-server system are independent, requesting data only from the server,
which facilitates easy upgrades, replacements, and relocation of the nodes.
 Data that is transferred through client-server protocols are platform-agnostic.

Difference between Client andServer

Clients, also known as service requesters, are pieces of computer hardware or server software
that request resources and services made available by a server. Client computing is classified
as Thick, Thin, or Hybrid.

 Thick Client: a client that provides rich functionality, performs the majority of data processing
itself, and relies very lightly upon the server.
 Thin Client: a thin-client server is a lightweight computer that relies heavily on the resources
of the host computer -- an application server performs the majority of any required data
processing.
 Hybrid Client: possessing a combination of thin client and thick client characteristics, a hybrid
client relies on the server to store persistent data, but is capable of local processing.

A server is a device or computer program that provides functionality for other devices or
programs. Any computerized process that can be used or called upon by a client to share
resources and distribute work is a server. Some common examples of servers include:

 Application Server: hosts web applications that users in the network can use without needing
their own copy.
 Computing Server: shares an enormous amount of computer resources with networked
computers that require more CPU power and RAM than is typically available for a personal
computer.
 Database Server: maintains and shares databases for any computer program that ingests well-
organized data, such as accounting software and spreadsheets.
 Web Server: hosts web pages and facilitates the existence of the World Wide Web.

2. Peer-to-peer (P2P). Each connected device on this network behaves as the client, as well
as the server, and enjoys similar privileges. The resources of each peer are shared among the entire
network, including memory, processing power and printing. Many companies use
the P2P architecture to host memory-intensive applications, such as three-dimensional rendering,
across multiple network devices. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized communications model in
which all nodes in the network have equivalent capability and can function as both a client and
server. Nodes in peer-to-peer computing collectively use their resources and communicate with
each other directly on-demand.
An algorithm in the peer-to-peer communications protocol balances load, making other peers
available to compensate for any resource downtime, and rerouting requests as the load capacity
and availability of peer changes. A major advantage of peer-to-peer networking is the ability to
expand the network to manage a large number of clients.
In client-server computing, a centralized communications model, the server is the central node that
communicates with other client nodes. A major advantage that the client-server relationship has
over the peer-to-peer relationship is the ability to manage data and applications in one, centralized
server.

A well-defined computer network also takes network capacity into account. A network's capacity
is how much traffic the network can support at any given time, while still meeting service-level
agreements. It's measured in terms of bandwidth, which is quantified by the theoretical maximum
number of bits per second that can pass through a network device.

Core components of a computer network

The following building blocks -- network devices, links and communication protocols -- make
computer network operations possible:

Network devices
These physical devices or nodes are the data communication equipment that is connected inside a
computer network. Examples of network devices include modems, routers, PCs, servers, firewalls,
switches and gateways. Each device in a computer network is identified by a network address and
often has easily identifiable hostnames.
The most common types of network devices include hubs, switches, routers, bridges, gateways,
modems, repeaters, and access points. Below is a more detailed description of each of these
devices.

Hubs: Hubs are used to connect multiple network devices together. They can be used to transmit
both digital and analog information. Digital information is transmitted as packets, whereas analog
information is transmitted as a signal. Hubs also act as a repeater, which amplifies signals that
have weakened after being transmitted across a long distance. Hubs operate at the Physical layer
of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Switch: A switch is a multiport network device whose purpose is to improve network efficiency
and improve communication between hubs, routers, and other network devices. Switches are
intelligent devices that gather information from incoming packets in order to forward them to the
appropriate destination. Switches generally have limited information about the other nodes on the
network.
Router: The main role of the router is to forward packets of information to their destinations.
Routers are more intelligent than hubs or switches as they store information about the other
network devices they are connected to. Routers can play an important role in network security, as
they can be configured to serve as packet-filtering firewalls and reference access control lists
(ACLs) when forwarding packets. In addition to filtering authorized network traffic, they also are
used to divide networks into subnetworks, thus facilitating a zero-trust architecture.

Modem: A modem, which is short for “modulators-demodulators”, is a piece of network hardware

that is used to convert digital signals into analog signals, in order to transmit them over analog
telephone lines. When the signals arrive at the destination, another modem will convert the analog
signals back to a digital format.

Repeater: A repeater is a relatively simple network device that amplifies the signal it receives in
order to allow it to cover a longer distance. Repeaters work on the Physical layer of the OSI model.

Access Point: An access point (AP) is a network device that is similar to a router, only it has its
own built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter. An AP can be used to connect a variety of network
devices together, including both wired and wireless devices. Access points can be fat or thin. A fat
AP must be manually configured with network and security settings, whereas a thin AP can be
configured and monitored remotely.

Firewall: A Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on an organization’s previously established security policies. At its most
basic, a firewall is essentially the barrier that sits between a private internal network and the public
Internet. A firewall’s main purpose is to allow non-threatening traffic in and to keep dangerous
traffic out.

Links
A link is the transmission medium used for connecting the nodes and enabling them to transmit to
each other. The links can be either wired, wireless or optical, such as an Ethernet cable or a Wi-Fi
signal. The links can be configured in different ways, both physically and logically, and
the network topology dictates the manner in which links and nodes relate to each other.
 To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network, network cables are
used. There are three types of network cables; coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic.

Coaxial cable
This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding,
and sheath. The sheath covers the braiding, the
braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation
covers the conductor.

Following are the components of coaxial cable.

Sheath
This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects
the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield
This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the same
metal that is used to build the core.

Insulation
Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided shield. Since both the
core and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch each other and
create a short-circuit in the wire.

Conductor
The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial
cable and multi-core coaxial cable.

A single-core coaxial cable uses a single

central metal (usually copper) conductor,
while a multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple
thin strands of metal wires. The following
image shows both types of cable.

Coaxial cables in computer networks

The coaxial cables were not primarily
developed for the computer network. These cables were developed for general purposes. They
were in use even before computer networks came into existence. They are still used even their use
in computer networks has been completely discontinued.
At the beginning of computer networking, when there were no dedicated media cables available
for computer networks, network administrators began using coaxial cables to build computer
networks.
Because of its low cost and long durability, coaxial cables were used in computer networking for
nearly two decades (the 80s and 90s). Coaxial cables are no longer used to build any type of
computer network.
 Twisted-pair cables
The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks. This cable is also known
as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this cable.

This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires are twisted
around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one solid color and one
stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green, and orange. In stripped color, the solid
color is mixed with the white color.
Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair cable;
UTP and STP.
In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal shield,
then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables:
 Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
 Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
 Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
 Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.
 The STP provides more noise and EMI resistance than the UTP cable.
 The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
Fiber optic cable
This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from thin strands of
glass or plastic that can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped in the cladding; the
cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.
 Core carries the data signals in the form of light.
 Cladding reflects light back to the core.
 Buffer protects the light from leaking.
 The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.
Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data over a long
distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps.
Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on how
many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber optical cable; SMF
and MMF.

SMF (Single-mode fiber) optical cable

This cable carries only a single beam of light. This is more reliable and supports much higher
bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF cable. This cable uses a laser as the light source
and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
MMF (multi-mode fiber) optical cable
This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries much
more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used for shorter distances. This cable uses an LED as
the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
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Wireless Communication
Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media or Unbounded transmission
media. In this mode, no physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals. In wireless communication, we can transfer our message through the air, water or
vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave wave. So, we don’t worry about the cables or any
material to transfer messages, as we can send out a message without and medium.
Wireless communication has advantages and also have disadvantages like it is less secure if we
talk about security.
Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure.
Let’s discuss some of its types:-
Infrared
Infrared is used for short-range communication like TV remotes, mobile phones, personal
computers etc. In science, the Infrared is part of a spectrum that is not visible to the human eye.
The limitation of infrared rays is that they cannot penetrate any obstacles and can only use for
short-range. Also, Infrared is used in night vision cameras as it has thermal properties. The
frequency range of infrared rays 300GHz – 400THz
Uses:
As we have already have discussed they are used in TV remotes, Pc devices like mice, and
keyboards.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

If we talk about the merit part of infrared then we can say Infrared is one of the secure wireless
communication mediums as it is used for short-range. Also, unlike other wireless mediums,
infrared is quite inexpensive, and this is some reason it is used in many electronic devices.
Now, let’s talk about the disadvantaged part of Infrared waves so they can only be used in short-
range communication. Also, they cannot penetrate any obstacles like walls or any bu ilding.

Radio Waves
So we have seen the limitation of infrared waves, so here’s another wireless communication that
does not have limitations like infrared. Here we are discussing radio waves that can travel large
distances as well as can penetrate any wall (Omni-directional, these waves can move in all
directions). These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The requirement of
radio waves is antennas, sending antennas where one can transmit its message and the other is
receiving antennas. The frequency range of radio waves: 3 KHz – 1GHz. Also, radio waves of
frequency 300 KHz-30MHz can travel long distances. Moreover, they are Susceptible to
interference meaning they can penetrate any walls.

Uses:
Radio waves are used in AM and FM radios, and cordless phones. Also, some private and
government organization reserves certain radio frequencies for direct communication.

Cellular and PCS telephone and pager systems use several radio communications technologies.
However, all of them divide a geographic area into small areas, or cells, typically from one to
several square miles in area. Each cell has its own low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna
device to relay calls from one cell to another. Computers and other communications processors
coordinate and control the transmissions to and from mobile users as they move from one area to
another.
Cellular phone systems have long used analog communications technologies operating at
frequencies in the 800–900 MHz cellular band. Newer cellular systems use digital technologies,
which provide greater capacity and security, and additional services such as voice mail, paging,
messaging, and caller ID. These capabilities are also available with PCS (personal communications
services) phone systems. PCS operates at 1,900 MHz frequencies using digital technologies that
are related to digital cellular. However, PCS phone systems cost substantially less to operate and
use than cellular systems and have lower power consumption requirements.

Advantage and Disadvantage:

Radio waves have some advantages like they can travel long distances in all directions and can
pass through any obstacles, and since they are wireless communication mediums so there is no
need of digging and spreading wires. But, yes radio waves have some disadvantages too like
radio waves are not effective in bad weather conditions, and they are less secure as they can
travel large distances.

Microwaves
Microwaves are a line of sight transmission, meaning both the antennas sending and receiving
should be properly aligned. Also, the distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to
the height of the antenna. Microwaves have a frequency Range between 1GHz – 300GHz.
Basically, we used Microwaves in mobile phones communication and television distribution.
Unlike radio waves, they are unidirectional, as they can move in only one direction, and therefore
it is used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as radar and satellite.
Uses:
Microwaves are used in mobile phones communication and television distribution.

Terrestrial microwave involves earthbound microwave systems that transmit high speed radio
signals in a line-of-sight path between relay stations spaced approximately 30 miles apart.
Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks, and
they are a familiar sight in many sections of the country. They are still a popular medium for both
long-distance and metropolitan area networks.

Communications satellites also use microwave radio as their telecommunications medium.

Typically, high-earth orbit (HEO) communications satellites are placed in stationary
geosynchronous orbits approximately 22,000 miles above the equator. Satellites are powered by
solar panels and can transmit microwave signals at a rate of several hundred million bits per
second. They serve as relay stations for communications signals transmitted from earth stations.
Earth stations use dish antennas to beam microwave signals to the satellites that amplify and
retransmit the signals to other earth stations thousands of miles away.
Whereas communications satellites were used initially for voice and video transmission, they are
now also used for high-speed transmission of large volumes of data. Because of time delays caused
by the great distances involved, they are not suitable for interactive, real-time processing.
Communications satellite systems are operated by several firms, including Comsat, American
Mobile Satellite, and Intellsat.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
If we talk about the advantages of microwaves then we say that it is a very fast way of
communication that can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time. Also, it is a wireless
communication medium so there is no need of digging and spreading wires.
Now demerits of microwaves are the first expense, their installation and maintenance are very
expensive that turns this into a very expensive mode of communication. Moreover, Microwaves
are also not very effective in bad weather conditions.

As hort-range wireless technology called Bluetooth is rapidly being built into computers and other
devices. Bluetooth serves as a cable-free wireless connection to peripheral devices such as
computer printers and scanners. Operating at approximately 1 Mbps with an effective range from
10 to 100 meters, Bluetooth promises to change significantly the way we use computers and other
telecommunication devices.
To fully appreciate the potential value of Bluetooth, look around the space where you have your
computer. You have your keyboard connected to the computer, as well as a printer, pointing
device, monitor, and so on. What joins these together are their associated cables. Cables have
become the bane of many offices and homes. Many of us have experienced trying to figure out
what cable goes where and getting tangled up in the details. Bluetooth essentially aims to fix this;
it is a cable-replacement technology.
Conceived initially by Ericsson and later adopted by a myriad of other companies, Bluetooth is a
standard for a small, cheap radio chip to be plugged into computers, printers, mobile phones, and
so forth. A Bluetooth chip is designed to replace cables by taking the information normally carried
by the cable and transmitting it at a special frequency to a receiver Bluetooth chip, which will then
give the information received to the computer, telephone, printer, or other Bluetooth device. Given
its fairly low cost to implement, Bluetooth is set to revolutionize telecommunications.

Communication protocols
These are the rules or protocols that all nodes on a network must follow for information transfer.
Common protocols include the TCP/IP suite, IEEE 802, Ethernet, WLAN and cellular standards.
TCP/IP is a conceptual model that suggests the following four functional layers for these
communication links:
1. Network access layer. This layer defines how the data is physically transferred through the
network, as well as how hardware devices send bits through a network medium, such
as coaxial, optical, fiber or twisted-pair cables.
2. Internet layer. This is the layer where routing takes place. It packages data into packets and
enables them to be sent and received over the network. The internet layer includes IP, Address
Resolution Protocol and Internet Control Message Protocol.
3. Transport layer. This layer ensures the stable, sequenced and error-free delivery of data
packets. It achieves this by swapping acknowledgment of data reception and retransmitting
lost or dropped packets. Typical protocols used at the transport layer include TCP and User
Datagram Protocol.
4. Application layer. Security protocols, such as Transport Layer Security, operate at this layer
and play an integral part in ensuring network security. This is the abstraction layer that
 communicates directly with applications and defines how high-level apps should access the
network to start a data transfer. For example, the application layer is used to define where,
when and how much data should be sent at a specific rate.
The modern internet architecture is mostly built on the TCP/IP model, which is the simplified
version of the more conceptual Open Systems Interconnection model.

Telecommunications software
Telecommunications software is a vital component of all telecommunications networks.
Telecommunications and network management software may reside in PCs, servers, mainframes,
and communications processors like multiplexers and routers. Network servers and other
computers in a network use these programs to manage network performance. Network
management programs perform functions such as automatically checking client PCs for
input/output activity, assigning priorities to data communications requests from clients and
terminals, and detecting and correcting transmission errors and other network problems.
For example, mainframe-based wide area networks frequently use telecommunications monitors
or teleprocessing (TP) monitors. The CICS (Customer Identification Control System) for IBM
mainframes is a typical example. Servers in local area and other networks frequently rely on
network operating systems like Novell NetWare or operating systems like UNIX, Linux, or
Microsoft Windows Servers for network management. Many software vendors also offer
telecommunications software as middleware, which can help diverse networks communicate with
one another.
Telecommunications functions built into Microsoft Windows and other operating systems provide
a variety of communications support services. For example, they work with a communications
processor (such as a modem) to connect and disconnect communications links and to establish
communications parameters such as transmission speed, mode, and direction.

Advantages of using a computer network

Computer networks are ideal for the quick exchange of information and the efficient use of
resources.
The following are benefits of using a computer network:
 Resource sharing. Enterprises of all sizes can use a computer network to share resources and
critical assets. Resources for sharing can include printers, files, scanners and photocopy
machines. Computer networks are especially beneficial for larger and globally spread-out
organizations, as they can use a single common network to connect with their employees.
 Flexibility. Today's computer networks enable people to use flexible communication and
resource-sharing methods based on their needs and preferences. For example, some people
might use email or instant messaging to communicate, while others might prefer using an app
such as WhatsApp.
 Higher connectivity. Thanks to computer networks, people can stay connected regardless of
their location. For example, video calling and document-sharing apps, such as Zoom
and Google Docs, enable employees to connect and collaborate remotely.
 Data security and management. In a computer network, data is centralized on shared servers.
This helps network administrators to better manage and protect their company's critical data
assets. They can perform regular data backups and enforce security measures, such
as multifactor authentication, across all devices collectively.
 Storage capacity. Most organizations scale over time and have an abundance of data that
needs storage. Computer networks, especially those that employ cloud-based technologies, can
store massive amounts of data and backups on a centralized remote server that's accessible to
everyone, at any given time.
 Entertainment. Computer networks, especially the internet, offer various sources of
entertainment, ranging from computer games to streaming music and videos. Multiplayer
games, for example, can only be operated through a local or home-based LAN or a wide area
network (WAN), such as the internet.

Types of computer networks

There are several types of computer networks. Which network an organization uses depends on
factors such as the number of devices, types of operating systems, transmission medium used,
network topology, the distance between each device and their geographic scale.
Some examples of computer networks are the following:
 LANs. LANs interconnect endpoints in a single domain. Examples of LANs include schools,
hospitals and office buildings.
 WANs. WANs interconnect multiple LANs and span larger geographical areas, such as big
cities, states and countries.
 Metropolitan area networks (MANs). A MAN connects computer resources in a large
geographic area, such as a city.
 Storage area networks (SANs). SANs are specialized and dedicated networks that connect
multiple high-performance data storage devices and resources. They provide built-in security
and block-level access. A SAN provides disaster recovery because it includes different storage
devices, such as disk drives, magnetic tapes and optical storage.
 Personal area networks (PANs). A PAN is used by one person to connect multiple devices,
such as printers and scanners.
 WLANs. This is a group of collocated devices that use radio transmission instead of wired
connections.
 Campus area networks (CANs). A CAN is a collection of interconnected LANs that are
commonly used by larger organizations, such as governments and universities.
 Virtual private networks (VPNs). A VPN extends a private network over a public network
to improve the privacy and security of a network connection.
 Passive optical networks (PONs). A PON is a fiber optic network that delivers broadband
access to end users.
 Service provider networks. These are network providers that lease network capacity and
functionality to customers. Providers typically consist of telecommunication companies, data
carriers, internet service providers and cable television providers.
 Cloud networks. This is a type of WAN, but its infrastructure is delivered by a cloud-based
service, such as Amazon Web Services. Cloud networks are a standard approach for modern
networks.

What are the different types of network topologies?

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of a network. All topologies come
with different pros and cons. Organizations should consider the scope of a network -- including its
size, scaling needs and business goals -- before selecting a particular topology.
The dots represent the nodes in the various topologies, and the lines represent the communication
links.
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver
is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and
the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
 Mesh Topology
Figure: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known
as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the
total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the
total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology
Figure: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
Figure: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having
2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology,
the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology
Figure: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing
the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.

Tree Topology
Figure: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then
to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central
hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance
that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these
can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.
 Hybrid Topology
Figure: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have
a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch
or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different
rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices.
This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while
providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.

Trends in Telecommunication
Telecommunications is the exchange of information
in any form (voice, data, text, images, audio, video)
over networks. The Internet is the most widely visible
form of telecommunications in your daily lives. Early
telecommunications networks did not use computers to
route traffic and, as such, were much slower than
today’s computer based networks. Major trends
occurring in the field of telecommunications have a
significant impact on management decisions in this
area. You should thus be aware of major trends in
telecommunications industries, technologies, and
applications that significantly increase the decision alternatives confronting business managers and
professionals.
Industry Trends
The competitive arena for telecommunications service has changed dramatically in recent years.
The telecommunications industry has changed from government-regulated mono polies to a
deregulated market with fiercely competitive suppliers of telecommunications services. Numerous
companies now offer businesses and consumers a choice of everything from local and global
telephone services to communications satellite channels, mobile radio, cable television, cellular
phone services, and Internet access.
The explosive growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web has spawned a host of new
telecommunications products, services, and providers. Driving and responding to this growth,
business firms have dramatically increased their use of the Internet and the Web for electronic
commerce and collaboration. Thus, the service and vendor options available to meet a company’s
telecommunications needs have increased significantly, as have a business manager’s decision-
making alternatives.

Technology Trends
Open systems with unrestricted connectivity, using Internet networking technologies as their
technology platform, are today’s primary telecommunications technology drivers. Web browser
suites, HTML Web page editors, Internet and intranet servers and network management software,
TCP/IP Internet networking products, and network security firewalls are just a few examples.
These technologies are being applied in Internet, intranet, and extranet applications, especially
those for electronic commerce and collaboration. This trend has reinforced previous industry and
technical moves toward building client/server networks based on an open-systems architecture.
Open systems are information systems that use common standards for hardware, software,
applications, and networking. Open systems, like the Internet and corporate intranets and extranets,
create a computing environment that is open to easy access by end users and their networked
computer systems. Open systems provide greater connectivity, that is, the ability of networked
computers and other devices to access and communicate with one another easily and share
information. Any open-systems architecture also provides a high degree of network
interoperability. That is, open systems enable the many different activities of end users to be
accomplished using the different varieties of computer systems, software packages, and databases
provided by a variety of interconnected networks. Frequently, software known as middleware may
be used to help diverse systems work together.
Middleware is a general term for any programming that serves to glue together or mediate
between two separate, and usually already existing, programs. A common application of
middleware is to allow programs written for access to a particular database (e.g., DB2) to access
other databases (e.g., Oracle) without the need for custom coding. Middleware is commonly
known as the plumbing of an information system because it routes data and information
transparently between different back-end data sources and end-user applications. It’s not very
interesting to look at—it usually doesn’t have much, if any, visible “front end” of its own—but it
is an essential component of any IT infrastructure because it allows disparate systems to be joined
together in a common framework.
Telecommunications is also being revolutionized by the rapid change from analog to digital
network technologies. Telecommunications systems have always depended on voice-oriented
analog transmission systems designed to transmit the variable electrical frequencies generated by
the sound waves of the human voice. However, local and global telecommunications networks are
rapidly converting to digital transmission technologies that transmit information in the form of
discrete pulses, as computers do. This conversion provides (1) significantly higher transmission
speeds, (2) the movement of larger amounts of information, (3) greater economy, and (4) much
lower error rates than with analog systems. In addition, digital technologies allow
telecommunications networks to carry multiple types of communications (data, voice, video) on
the same circuits.
Another major trend in telecommunications technology is a change from reliance on copper wire–
based media and land-based microwave relay systems to fiber-optic lines and cellular,
communications satellite, and other wireless technologies. Fiber-optic transmission, which uses
pulses of laser-generated light, offers significant advantages in terms of reduced size and
installation effort, vastly greater communication capacity, much faster transmission speeds, and
freedom from electrical interference. Satellite transmission offers significant advantages for
organizations that need to transmit massive quantities of data, audio, and video over global
networks, especially to isolated areas. Cellular, mobile radio, and other wireless systems are
connecting cellular phones, PDAs, and other wireless appliances to the Internet and corporate
networks.

Business Application Trends

The changes in telecommunications industries and technologies just mentioned are causing a
significant change in the business use of telecommunications. The trend toward more vendors,
services, Internet technologies, and open systems, and the rapid growth of the Internet, the World
Wide Web, and corporate intranets and extranets, dramatically increases the number of feasible
telecommunications applications. Thus, telecommunications networks are now playing vital and
pervasive roles in Web-enabled e-business processes, e-commerce, enterprise collaboration, and
other business applications that support the operations, management, and strategic objectives of
both large and small business enterprises.

The Business Value of Telecommunication Networks

What business value is created when a company capitalizes on the trends in telecommunications
we have just identified? Use of the Internet, intranets, extranets, and other telecommunications
networks can dramatically cut costs, shorten business lead times and response times, support e-
commerce, improve the collaboration of workgroups, develop online operational processes, share
resources, lock in customers and suppliers, and develop new products and services. These benefits
make applications of telecommunications more strategic and vital for businesses that must
increasingly find new ways to compete in both domestic and global markets.
Figure illustrates how telecommunications-based business applications can help a company
overcome geographic, time, cost, and structural barriers to business success. Note the examples of
the business value of these four strategic capabilities of telecommunications networks. This figure
emphasizes how several e-business applications can help a firm capture and provide information
quickly to end users at remote geographic locations at reduced costs, as well as support its strategic
organizational objectives.
For example, traveling salespeople and those at regional sales offices can use the Internet,
extranets, and other networks to transmit customer orders from their laptops or desktop PCs, thus
breaking geographic barriers. Point-of-sale terminals and an online sales transaction processing
network can break time barriers by supporting immediate credit authorization and sales processing.
Teleconferencing can be used to cut costs by reducing the need for expensive business trips,
allowing customers, suppliers and employees to participate in meetings and collaborate on joint
projects without traveling. Finally, business-to-business e-commerce Web sites are used by
businesses to establish strategic relationships with their customers and suppliers by making
business transactions fast, convenient, and tailored to the needs of the business partners involved.

Networking the Enterprise

When computers are networked, two industries—computing and communications— converge,
and the result is vastly more than the sum of the parts. Suddenly, computing applications become
available for business-to-business coordination and commerce, and for small as well as large
organizations. The global Internet creates a public place without geographic boundaries—
cyberspace—where ordinary citizens can interact, publish their ideas, and engage in the purchase
of goods and services. In short, the impact of both computing and communications on our society
and organizational structures is greatly magnified.
Telecommunications and network technologies are inter-networking and revolutionizing business
and society. Businesses have become networked enterprises. The Internet, the Web, and intranets
and extranets are networking business processes and employees together and connecting them to
their customers, suppliers, and other business stakeholders. Companies and workgroups can thus
collaborate more creatively, manage their business operations and resources more effectively, and
compete successfully in today’s fast-changing global economy. This chapter presents the
telecommunications and network foundations for these developments.
Because of our focus on information systems and technologies, it is easy for us to think of networks
in terms of connected computers. To understand the value of connecting computers fully, however,
it is important to understand the concept of a network in its broader sense.
By definition, the term network means an interconnected or interrelated chain, group, or system.
Using this definition, we can begin to identify all kinds of networks: a chain of hotels, the road
system, the names in a person’s address book or PDA, the railroad system, the members of a
church, club, or organization. The examples of networks in our world are virtually endless, and
computer networks, though both valuable and powerful, are just one example of the concept.

The concept of networks can be expressed as a mathematical formula that calculates the number
of possible connections or interactions in a one-way communication environment: N(N -1), or N2-
N . In the formula, N refers to the number of nodes (points of connection) on the network. If only
a few nodes exist on a network, the number of possible connections is quite small. Using the
formula, we see that three nodes result in only 6 possible connections. A network of 10 nodes
results in a somewhat larger number—90 connections. It’s when a large number of nodes are
connected that the possible number of connections grows to significant proportions. A network
with 100 nodes has 9,900 possible connections, and a network with 1,000 nodes has 999,000
possible connections. This type of mathematical growth is called exponential. This term just means
that the growth in number of connections is many times greater than the number of nodes. Adding
only one more node to a network makes the number of connections grow many times greater.
Think of the effect of adding a new entry and exit ramp on a highway system that connects 30,000
cities and towns. How many more connections does that one new ramp create? Maybe more
relevant is the effect of adding one additional person as a friend to your Facebook, MySpace, or
Plaxo account. If you have 100 unique friends who each have 100 unique friends and the new
friend has 100 unique friends—well, you get the picture.