Introduction

1. NETWORK AS AN INFRASTRUCTURE FOR DATA COMMUNICATION:

1.1. Network as an infrastructure for data communication
Network infrastructure refers to the hardware and software that enable network connectivity and
communication between users, devices, apps, the internet, and more.

A typical network infrastructure includes:

Networking Hardware: LAN cards, Routers, Switches, Wireless routers, Cables
Network Services: Satellite, Wireless protocols, IP addressing
Networking Software: Network Operating systems, Firewall, Network security applications

1.2. Application of Computer network

1.3. Network Architecture

Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the

specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as communication protocols
used.

There are two major types of network architectures:

• Peer-To-Peer
Architecture •
Client/Server Architecture

Peer-To-Peer Architecture

• In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

• Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered
equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
• Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each
computer that’s connected to this network would act as the server for the files stored on
it.

Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

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 • It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
• If one computer stops working but, other computers will continue
working. • It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages
itself.

Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system.
Therefore, it cannot back up the whole data as the data is different in different
locations.
• Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
• As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network; performance, security, and
access become a major headache.

Client/Server Architecture

• Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients

(remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host
computer).
• In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful computer(server) act as a hub
in which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is the
heart of the system, which manages and provides resources to any client that requests
them.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

Advantages of a client/server network

• Resources and data security are controlled through the
server. Not restricted to a small number of computers.
• Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a client/server network

• Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices such
as hubs, routers, and switches.
• If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
• Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

Key Differences Between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network

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 • The key difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer network is that there is a
dedicated server and specific clients in the client-server network model whereas, in
peer-to-peer each node can act as both server and client.

• In the client-server model, the server provides services to the client. However, in peer-
to-peer, each peer can provide services and can also request for the services.

• In the client-server model, sharing information is more important whereas, in peer-

to-peer model connectivity between peers is more important.

• In the client-server model, data is stored on a centralized server whereas, in peer-to-

peer each peer has its own data.

• In peer-to-peer model, the servers are distributed in a system, so there are fewer
chances of server getting bottlenecked, but in the client-server model, there is a single
server serving the clients, so there are more chances of server getting bottlenecked.

• The client-server model is more expensive to implement than peer-to-peer.

• The client-server model is more scalable and stable than peer-to-peer.

1.4. Types of Computer Network

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number
of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices
within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions
of devices spread across the entire globe.

Local Area Networks (LAN):

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices and organizations to share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other
kinds of networks by three characteristics:

(1) Their size,

(2) Their transmission technology

(3) Their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and
known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that
would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management. Traditional LANs
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run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and
make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. A MAN is a computer network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographical area or region larger than that
covered by a LAN. It can be an interconnection between several LANs by bridging them with
backbone lines.
Characteristics:

• Generally, covers towns and cities (up to 50km)

• Transmission medium used for MAN is optical fiber, coaxial
cable etc. •Data rates adequate for distributed computing
applications

Advantages

• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fiber optic cables
• Good backbone for larger networks and provides greater access to WAN

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs. These machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication
subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's
personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by
a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation
of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the
hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design. In most wide area networks, the
subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements.
Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical
fiber, or even radio links. WANs are typically used to connect two or more LANs or MANs
which are located relatively very far from each other.

In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of
routers. If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do
this indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or
more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety,
stored there until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet organized
according to this principle is called a store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet. Nearly
all wide area networks (except those using satellites) have store-and-forward subnets. When
the packets are small and all the same size, they are often called cells. The principle of a packet-
switched WAN is so important. Generally, when a process on some host has a message to be
sent to a process on some other host, the sending host first cuts the message into packets, each
one bearing its number in the sequence. These packets are then injected into the network one at
a time in quick succession. The packets are transported individually over the network and
deposited at the receiving host, where they are reassembled into the original message and
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delivered to the receiving process. Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility
for a WAN is a satellite system. Each router has an antenna through which it can send and
receive. All routers can hear the output from the satellite, and in some cases, they can also
hear the upward transmissions of their fellow routers to the satellite as well. Sometimes the
routers are connected to a substantial point-to-point subnet, with only

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 some of them having a satellite antenna. Satellite networks are inherently broadcast and are
most useful when the broadcast property is important.

• Covers large distances (states, countries, continents)

• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers

Advantages

• Covers large geographical area

• Shared software and resources with connecting workstations
• Information can be exchanged to anyone else worldwide in the network

Disadvantages

• Data security
• Network is very complex and management is difficult
• As size increases, the networks become more expensive

1.5. Protocols and Standards

1.6. OSI Reference Model
1.7. TCP/IP Protocol Suite
1.8. Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI reference model
1.9. Critiques of OSI and TCP/IP Reference model

2. The Physical Layer

2.1. Functions of Physical Layer
2.2. Data and Signals: Analog and Digital signals, Transmission Impairment, Data Rate Limits,
Performance

3. The Data Link Layer

4.
5.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

Network Protocols and Communications

 Last Updated : 28 Jul, 2020
Data communication are the exchange of data between two nodes via some form of link
(transmission medium) such as cable. Now these Data are exchanged in three ways :
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
Now let us understand them one by one :

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 Simplex :
Communication is always unidirectional, i.e., one device will transmit and other will receive.
E.g., Keyboard, traditional monitors, etc.
 Half Duplex :
Communication is in both directions but not at the same time, i.e, if one device is sending, the
other will receive and vice-versa. E.g., Walkie-Talkies.
 Full Duplex :
Communication is in both directions simultaneously, i.e, device can send and receive data at the
same time. E.g., telephone Line.
What are Network Protocols ?
Network protocols are sets of established rules that dictate how to format, transmit and receive
data so computer network devices — from servers and routers to endpoints – can communicate
regardless of the differences in their underlying infrastructures, designs or standards.
Why do we need Network Protocols ?
We need Network Protocols for :
1. Message encoding
2. Message formatting and encapsulation
3. Message timing
4. Message size
5. Message delivery options
Types of Computer Networks :
Client-Server Peer-to-Peer(P2P)

The server control over the security of the

network. No central control over security.

The server manages the network. No central control over the network.

Clients are not dependent on the central

Clients are dependent on the server. server.

The server can be upgraded to be made more If machines on the network are slow they
powerful to cope with high command. will slow down other machines.

Each computer is to be backed u. Data can

Data is all backed up on the main server. easily be deleted by users.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classification-of-computer-network-on-basis-of-architecture/

Network architecture generally refers to the physical/logical design of computer network or

communications network. It is basically defined and described as physical and logical design of
software, hardware, protocols, and media of data transmission. Network architecture is classified
into following categories :
a. Peer to peer b. Client server architecture

1. Peer-to-Peer Network : In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, ―peers” generally represent

computer system. Files might be shared directly without requirement of central server among
these systems on the network.
It can be said that each of computers on P2P network usually becomes file server even as
client also. In this architecture, every single node contains the same and equivalent
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 capabilities, abilities, and responsibilities and tasks are allocated at each and every device
available on network. This network is very essential and important for small environments,
usually up to at least 10 computers. Each and every computer in this network are treated same
and equally and might send even receive message directly. This P2P network is generally
useful in various fields such as business, education, military network.

P2P Advantages :

 No such Dedicated server or centralized is required for P2P architecture.

 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is less painless and
computer manages itself. P2P network is less costly and is very cheaper. It is affordable.
 Security is one of major issues in P2P because message that is sent flows freely among
connected computers.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources might
become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major issue with an increase in
number of computers on this network.

2. Client/Server Network : (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one

of centralized and powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to which many of
personal computers that are less powerful or workstations (commonly known as clients) are
connected. Clients in the C/S N/W just share or use resources. C/S is more stable and scalable
as compared to P2P network.

Advantages /Disadvantaes :
 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to provide resources to
many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is because data is
generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server with greater memory
as well as need for many networking devices such as hubs, routers, switches, etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/client-server-model/

The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions task or

workload between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters
called clients.
In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the
server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data packets
requested back to the client.
Clients do not share any of their resources.
A centralized network architecture that classifies computer into two sections, client and
server. A client is the requester, which can be a program that we use to make requests through the
network. The server component provides a function or service to one or many clients, which
initiate requests for such services. Server itself might be a client. For example, the server could
request something from a database server, which in this case, would make the server a client of the
database server. Examples of computer applications that use the client–server model are Email,
network printing, and the World Wide Web.
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Components of C/S architecture are : Workstations, servers, Network Devices
C/S architecture example: web server, File server, mail server (Mail servers
use the some protocols for sending and receiving emails such as SMTP, IMAP, and POP3. SMTP
protocol helps to fire messages and manages all outgoing email requests. IMAP and POP3 help to
receive all messages and handle all incoming mails.), DNS

How the Client-Server Model works ?

In this article we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at how
the Internet works via, web browsers.
Client: A Client is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of receiving information or using a particular
service from the service providers (Servers).
Servers: A Server is a remote computer which provides information (data) or access to particular
services.
So, it’s basically the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as its present in
the database.

e.g. :- How the browser interacts with the servers ?

There are few steps to follow to interacts with the servers a client.
 User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The Browser then
requests the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.
 DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.
 DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.
 Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to WEB Server’s IP (provided by DNS server).
 Server sends over the necessary files of the website.
 Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is done with the
help of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter and JS Engine collectively
known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.

Advantages of Client-Server model:

 Centralized system with all data in a single place.
 Cost efficient requires less maintenance cost and Data recovery is possible.
 The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.
Disadvantages of Client-Server model:
 Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server or uploaded into the
Server.
 Server are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.
 Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.
 Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are common
and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.

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https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-client-server-and-peer-to-peer-network/

Client-Server Network: In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is used to store the data.

Peer-to-Peer Network: This model does not differentiate the clients and the servers. In this each
and every node is itself client and server. In Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can do
both request and respond for the services.

Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network:

https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-client-server-architecture-article

 The client/user uses their web browser to enter the URL they want
 The browser asks the Domain Name System (DNS) for an IP address
 The DNS server finds the desired server’s IP address and sends it to the web browser
 The browser creates either an HTTPS or HTTP request
 The server/producer sends the user the correct files
 The client/user receives the files sent by the server, and the process is repeated as needed
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Client-Server Architecture
Client-server architecture brings its share of positives and negatives to today’s digital consumers. We
start with a list of advantages:
 It’s a centralized system that keeps all the data and its controls in one place
 It brings a high level of scalability, organization, and efficiency
 It allows the IT staff to change the Client and Server capacities separately
 It’s cost-efficient, especially in terms of maintenance
 It allows data recovery
 It allows load-balancing, which optimizes performance
 It allows different platforms to share resources
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 Users don’t need to log into a terminal or another processor to access corporate information or
desktop tools like PowerPoint presenters or spreadsheet utilities
 The setup reduces the incidence of data replication
Naturally, client-server architecture isn’t all sunshine and lollipops. Here are the downsides:
 If the server has a worm, virus, or Trojan, the users will likely catch it since the network consists of
linked clients and servers
 The server is vulnerable to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks
 Data packets can be spoofed or modified during transmission
 It’s expensive to start up and initially implement
 If a critical server goes down, the clients are dead in the water
 The setup is prone to phishing and Man in the Middle (MITM) attacks
https://teachcomputerscience.com/client-server-architecture/

Client-Server Architecture Examples:

1. Web Servers:
A robust computational device that can manage many websites is like a web server. Installing
numerous kinds of web server applications on this computer, such as Apache or Microsoft IIS, offers
links to the various web pages hosted on the online, and such servers are connected to the Internet by
higher-speed connections that offer ultra-speed data transfer speeds.
2. E-Mail Servers:
e-mail servers are a valuable asset for companies, agencies and individuals as well. That enables the
transferring of messages among various stakeholders. Specific applications perform functions on the
mailing servers that permit the administrators to establish and control email accounts for the specific
domain that the server hosts. Various protocols include SMTP, IMAP, POP3 for email
communication. Service Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a general approach used for firing the
messages as well as to controlling the outgoing emails. However, the Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP) and Post Office Protocol V3 (POP3) is used for reception and controlling the
incoming emails.
3. File Servers:
File servers are exclusively allocated structures that facilitate all data to be accessed by clients. It
serves as a consolidated place for storing data, and many terminal systems may manage it.
4. Domain Name Server (DNS):
The DNS is an essential term of the Internet. Most internet users are getting benefit from this
application daily but not each user is familiar with this terminology. DNS is a kind of digital
directory that holds the names of and matches those names with numbers. Here we consider the
internet protocol (IP) as numbers. IP’s are used as addresses for communication of devices connected
with the Internet. Devices connected to the Internet that include a smartphone, laptops, personal
computers, and tablets have a unique IP address. Therefore, it is the decentralized system used for
matching the website names (URL) and numerical address (IP) on the web of a specific website for
which the client is requesting.
Client-Server Architecture Advantages:
The benefits related to client-server architecture are discussed below.
1. There is a centralized network that has full leverage to control the processes and activities in a
client-server architecture.
2. The central area of the architecture is used for the storage of data.
3. The devices used in architecture can be controlled centrally.
4. Network protection, data backup and all other concerned elements are tackled centrally.
5. Users have the authority to access all the files at any time residing on the central storage.
6. There exists no restriction regarding geography to access the information. One can access any
information from any place.
7. The architecture can be expanded as the growth requires the scaling of users or any other
parameters.

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 8. It offers service incorporation, which ensures that it allows user authorization to view
business data through its device and to delete any inappropriate access for logging in.
9. Clients have the facility to share any resources at various platforms and places.
10. The client-server design is implemented on a distributed model basis, ensuring that the server
is replaced, restored, upgraded and moved without influencing the client.
11. The architecture can tackle massive weight given clients, systems, devices and network loads.
12. The architecture provides an easy user interface, file finding procedure and management
system for keeping all the files in an organized pattern.
13. The architecture facilitates the data overwhelming by the reduction in data replication.
Client-Server Architecture Disadvantages:
The limitations of the client-server architecture are focused below.
1. The users will suffer if the primary server goes dump.
2. The architecture requires a particular OS related to networking.
3. Configuration of Hardware components and software tools utilize plenty of costs.
4. There is a need for technical as well as skilled staff for maintenance of the network specifically
for server machines.
5. Numerous requests simultaneously can cause ―traffic congestion problems‖.
6. The architecture can mostly be availed in large organizations and enterprises as the cost is
unbearable for typical clients.
Peer to Peer & Client-Server Network, Differences:
Table 1: Difference between Client-Server and Peer to Peer Networks
S.
Client-Server Network Peer to Peer Network
No.

Clients and Servers are specified as both the systems No differentiation between clients and
1
are distinct servers

The primary purpose is to maintain

2 The main target is to share the information
connections among the peers

For the storage of data a centralized approach

3 Each connected device retains its data.
(server) is used

Each time the client requests the server for specific

Peers have the authority of both
4 data and the server provides the data in response to
request and response services.
that request.

The approach is more expensive than the P2P The technique is cheaper than a client-
5
network. server network.

This kind of networking technology is used for P2P networks are commonly used by a
6
small and enlarged networks. few users, mostly less than ten devices.

1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-computer-networking/
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tcp-ip-model/
3. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/layers-of-osi-model/
4.
5. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-network-tutorials/
6.
7.
8.

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 9. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-devices-hub-repeater-bridge-switch-router-
gateways/
10.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address

IP Address: An IP address serves two main functions:

i.) network interface identification ii. location addressing.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated
territories for assignment to local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), and
other end users.
IP addresses are assigned by IANA(known as Internet Corporation For Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority).

Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a network.

Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on
network practices and software features.

a. geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-an-ip-address

All the computers of the world on the Internet network communicate with each other with
underground or underwater cables or wirelessly. To download a file from the internet or
load a web page or literally do anything related to the internet, our computer must
have an address so that other computers can find and locate our in order to deliver
that particular file or webpage that we are requesting. In technical terms, that address is
called IP Address or Internet Protocol Address.

Let us understand it with another example, like if someone wants to send you a mail then
he/she must have your home address. Similarly, your computer too needs an address so that
other computers on the internet can communicate with each other without the confusion of
delivering information to someone else’s computer. And that is why each computer in this
world has a unique IP Address. Or in other words, an IP address is a unique address that is
used to identify computers or nodes on the internet.

Working of IP addresses
The working of IP addresses is similar to other languages. It can also use some set of rules to send
information. Using these protocols we can easily send, and receive data or files to the connected
devices. There are several steps behind the scenes. Let us look at them
 Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then grants your device
access to the web.
 And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range available.
 Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route it back to you,
using your IP address.
 Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off can change your IP
Address.
 When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t accompany you. It
changes as you change the network of your device.

Classes of IPv4 Address: There are around 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses and managing all those
addresses without any scheme is next to impossible. Let’s understand it with a simple example. If
you have to find a word from a language dictionary, how long will it take? Usually, you will take
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less than 5 minutes to find that word. You are able to do this because words in the dictionary are
organized in alphabetical order. If you have to find out the same word from a dictionary that
doesn’t use any sequence or order to organize the words, it will take an eternity to find the word. If
a dictionary with one billion words without order can be so disastrous, then you can imagine the
pain behind finding an address from 4.3 billion addresses. For easier management and assignment
IP addresses are organized in numeric order and divided into the following 5 classes :
IP Class Address Range Maximum number of networks

Class A 0-126 126 (27-2)

Class B 128-191 16384

Class C 192-223 2097152

Class D 224-239 Reserve for multitasking

Class E 240-254 Reserved for Research and development

Classification of IP Address
An IP address is classified into the following types:
1. Public IP Address: This address is available publicly and it is assigned by your network
provider to your router, which further divides it to your devices. Public IP Addresses are of two
types,
 Dynamic IP Address: When you connect a smartphone or computer to the internet, your
Internet Service Provider provides you an IP Address from the range of available IP
Addresses. Now, your device has an IP Address and you can simply connect your device to
the Internet and send and receive data to and from your device. The very next time when you
try to connect to the internet with the same device, your provider provides you with different
IP Addresses to the same device and also from the same available range. Since IP Address
keeps on changing every time when you connect to the internet, it is called a Dynamic IP
Address.
 Static IP Address: Static address never changes. They serve as a permanent internet address.
These are used by DNS servers. What are DNS servers? Actually, these are computers that
help you to open a website on your computer. Static IP Address provides information such as
device is located on which continent, which country, which city, and which Internet Service
Provider provides internet connection to that particular device. Once, we know who is the
ISP, we can trace the location of the device connected to the internet. Static IP Addresses
provide less security than Dynamic IP Addresses because they are easier to track.

b. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/structure-and-types-of-ip-address/

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the device
over the network. It is almost like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over the
Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a specific
network and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.

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IP address structure: IP addresses are displayed as a set of four digits- the default address may be
192.158.1.38. Each number on the set may range from 0 to 255. Therefore, the total IP address range
ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
IP address is basically divided into two parts: X1. X2. X3. X4
1. [X1. X2. X3] is the Network ID
2. [X4] is the Host ID
1. Network ID–
It is the part of the left-hand IP address that identifies the specific network where the device is
located. In the normal home network, where the device has an IP address 192.168.1.32, the
192.168.1 part of the address will be the network ID. It is customary to fill in the last part that is
not zero, so we can say that the device’s network ID is 192.168.1.0.
2. Hosting ID–
The host ID is part of the IP address that was not taken by the network ID. Identifies a specific
device (in the TCP / IP world, we call devices ―host‖) in that network. Continuing with our
example of the IP address 192.168.1.32, the host ID will be 32- the unique host ID on the
192.168.1.0 network.

1. Static IP Address–
A static IP address is an invalid IP address. Conversely, a dynamic IP address will be provided
by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which can change. The Static IP
address does not change but can be changed as part of normal network management.
Static IP addresses are incompatible, given once, remain the same over the years. This type of IP
also helps you get more information about the device.
2. Dynamic IP address–
It means constant change. A dynamic IP address changes from time to time and is not always
the same. If you have a live cable or DSL service, you may have a strong IP address. Internet
Service Providers provide customers with dynamic IP addresses because they are too
expensive. Instead of one permanent IP address, your IP address is taken out of the address
pool and assigned to you. After a few days, weeks, or sometimes even months, that number is
returned to the lake and given a new number. Most ISPs will not provide a static IP address to
customers who live there and when they do, they are usually more expensive. Dynamic IP
addresses are annoying, but with the right software, you can navigate easily and for free.

c. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-of-classful-ip-addressing/

An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address space of 2 32.

Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal notation and
hexadecimal notation.
Dotted Decimal Notation:

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Hexadecimal Notation:

Some points to be noted about dotted decimal notation:

1. The value of any segment (byte) is between 0 and 255 (both included).
2. There are no zeroes preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).

Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for multicast
and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determine the classes of
IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
 Network ID
 Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns IP address to each device that is connected to its network.

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Note: IP addresses are globally managed by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA) and
regional Internet registries(RIR).
Note: While finding the total number of host IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are not counted and are
therefore, decreased from the total count because the first IP address of any network is the network
number and whereas the last IP address is reserved for broadcast IP.
Class A:
IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in first octet
are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any
network. The default subnet mask for class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a total of:
 2^7-2= 126 network ID(Here 2 address is subtracted because 0.0.0.0 and 127.x.y.z are special
address. )
 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 1.x.x.x – 126.x.x.x

Class B:
IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from medium-sized to
large-sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The remaining
14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used to determine the host in any
network. The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has a total of:
 2^14 = 16384 network address
 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.x.x – 191.255.x.x.

Class C:
IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110. The
remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used to
determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C has a total of:
 2^21 = 2097152 network address
 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address

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 IP addresses belonging to class C ranges from 192.0.0.x – 223.255.255.x.

d. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-ipv4/

Parts of IPv4
 Network part:
The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network. The network
part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.
 Host Part:
The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of the IPv4 address
is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half must vary.
 Subnet number:
This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers of hosts are
divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.
Characteristics of IPv4
 IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
 The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.
 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.
 IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
 RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
 Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
 Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.
Advantages of IPv4
 IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.
 IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical routers.
 It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while not NAT.

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 This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as economical knowledge
transfer.
 IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.
 Routing is a lot of scalable and economical as a result of addressing is collective more
effectively.
 Data communication across the network becomes a lot of specific in multicast organizations.
 Limits net growth for existing users and hinders the use of the net for brand new
users.
 Internet Routing is inefficient in IPv4.
 IPv4 has high System Management prices and it’s labor-intensive, complex, slow &
frequent to errors.
 Security features are nonobligatory.
 Difficult to feature support for future desires as a result of adding it on is extremely
high overhead since it hinders the flexibility to attach everything over IP.

e. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-mac-address-and-ip-address/

Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a device on the internet. NIC
Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC Address, on the other hand, Internet Service Provider
provides IP Address.
The main difference between MAC and IP address is that MAC Address is used to ensure the
physical address of the computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network. While IP
addresses are used to uniquely identifies the connection of the network with that device takes part
in a network.
Let’s see the difference between MAC Address and IP Address:
S.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address stands for Media Access IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
1. Control Address. Address.

MAC Address is a six byte hexadecimal IP Address is either a four-byte (IPv4) or a

2. address. sixteen-byte (IPv6) address.

A device attached with MAC Address can A device attached with IP Address can retrieve
3. retrieve by ARP protocol. by RARP protocol.

NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the

4. MAC Address. Internet Service Provider provides IP Address.

MAC Address is used to ensure the IP Address is the logical address of the
5. physical address of a computer. computer.

MAC Address operates in the data link

6. layer. IP Address operates in the network layer.

MAC Address helps in simply identifying IP Address identifies the connection of the
7. the device. device on the network.

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S.NO MAC Address IP Address

MAC Address of computer cannot be IP Address modifies with the time and
8. changed with time and environment. environment.

MAC Addresses can’t be found easily by a

9. third party. IP Addresses can be found by a third party.

It is a 48-bit address that contains 6 groups

of 2 hexadecimal digits, separated by IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses in dotted notations,
either hyphens (-) or colons(.). whereas IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses in
Example: hexadecimal notations.
00:FF:FF:AB:BB:AA Example:
or IPv4 192.168.1.1
10. 00-FF-FF-AB-BB-AA IPv6 FFFF:F200:3204:0B00

IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E classes for IP

11. No classes are used for MAC addressing. addressing.

In IP address multiple client devices can share

12. MAC Address sharing is not allowed. the IP address.

MAC address help to solve IP address IP addresses never able to solve MAC address
13. issue. issues.

MAC addresses can be used for The IP address can be used for broadcasting or
14. broadcasting. multicasting.

15. MAC address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.

https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers
are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.

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 o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead
to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
AD

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it
cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access
the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to
send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The
server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data
easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the
whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but
the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

f. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-private-and-public-ip-addresses/
g. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-ip-address-and-port-number/
h. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/private-ip-addresses-in-networking/
i. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-ipv6/
j. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-ipv4/
k. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/differences-between-ipv4-and-ipv6/
l.

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My classes are always going to be full of relevant information that is certainly not included in the
syllabus.

An IP address serves two principal functions: it identifies the host, or more specifically
its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability
of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what
we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."[2] The header of each IP
packet contains the IP address of the sending host and that of the destination host.

Types of computer N/W and n/w Topology

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-computer-networks/
https://www.javatpoint.com/types-of-computer-network
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-network-topology/
https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-topologies

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