Chapter 4

Networking and Data Communications

What is Computer Network?
A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of Computers
and other hardware interconnected by communication channels that allow
sharing of resources and information.

The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone

lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

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 Basic components of a Computer Network

Following are the basic components of network.

1. Server:
Powerful computers that provides services to the other computers on the
network.
2. Client:
Computer that uses the services that a server provides.
3.Media:
A physical connection between the devices on a network.
4.Resources:
Any thing available to a client on the network is considered a resource,
Printers, data, fax devices and other network devices and information are
resources.

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5.Protocols:
These are written rules used for communications. They are the languages
that computers use to talk to each other on a network.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Networking
Advantages:
Computer networks have highly benefited various fields of educational
sectors, business world and many organizations.
❖Sharing of peripheral devices:
Each computer that is connected to the network can share the same
peripheral devices, such as a printer.
❖Sharing of Programs and data:
By sharing the software and data the usage of memory can be minimized,
thereby minimizing the expense.
❖Sharing a single Internet connection
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❖Better Communication:
Communication is one of the biggest advantages provided by the
computer networks. Information can be transferred within fraction of a
second over long distances. Example E-Mail

❖Security of information:
Data or information could be backed-up or duplicated on a network
storage device, shared by others.

❖Saves Cost
Building up links thorough the computer networks immediately transfers
files and messages to the other people which reduced transportation and
communication expense.

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Disadvantages:

⮚Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses

When computers are connected by a network, the virus can spread itself
electronically, at computer speeds affecting badly the network
performance and the performance of the computers.

⮚Difficult to secure information.

Confidential documents (files) can be accessed without the knowledge and
permission of the owner.

⮚Needs initial investment

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 Types of Networks

Based on the size/scope, the Computer Networks are classified into:

1.LAN (Local Area Network)
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. Such as
office building, school, or home and occasionally a LAN will span a group
of nearby buildings.

✔LAN connection is a high-speed connection.

✔Most connections are either Ethernet (10Mbps) or Fast Ethernet 6
(100Mbps), and a few locations have Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbps)
connections.

✔LANs typically use half-duplex communications.

✔Such computer networks are usually owned by one organization.

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2.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
A MAN is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in the
same city or town.
Also used to mean the interconnection of several LANs by bridging them
together.

▪MANs have the requirements of using telecommunication media such as

voice channels or data channels.

▪such computer networks are owned and operated by single entities such
as government bodies or large corporations.

▪Examples of Organizations that use MANs are; Universities and Colleges,

grocery chains, and Banks

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3.WAN (Wide Area Network)
✔WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs.
✔A network device called a Router connects LANs to a WAN.

✔Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization
but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management.
✔WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for
connectivity over the longer distances.

✔The Internet is an example of a worldwide public WAN.

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⚫A WAN differs from a LAN in several important
ways.
● WANs cover greater distance.
● WAN speeds are slower.
● WANs can be connected on demand or be
permanently connected. LANs have permanent
connections between stations.
● WANs can use public or private network transports.
LANs typically use private transports.
● WANs can use either full- or half-duplex
communications. LANs typically use half-duplex
communications.

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 Other types of networks include;
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN )
refer to LANs that are based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology.
Campus Area Network
A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a
university or local business campus.

Storage Area Network

connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fiber
Channel.

System Area Network

links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a
cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

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Based on the relationship among the computers, we can categorize
computer networks as:

A. peer-to-peer networks
Essentially, every computer on a peer-to-peer network can function as
both a server and a client; No hierarchy among computers.

Peer-to-peer networks are characterized by the following:

❑Security is not centralized; each computer is responsible to check access
rights for its resources.
❑Network is not scalable; it is good only for a few number of computers
(mostly ≤10).
❑No specialized operating system is required;
❑Each user is responsible for local backup

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Advantages
⚫ It is usually less expensive.
⚫ It is simple to design and maintenance.
Disadvantages
⚫ Decentralized – No central repository for files and
applications.
⚫ Security – Does not provide the security available on
peer-to-peer.

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B. Client/Server Networks
On a client/server network, every computer has a distinct role: that of
either a client or a server.

A server is designed to share its resources among the client computers on

the network.
A dedicated server computer often has faster processors, more memory,
and more storage space than a client.

A client system is a standard PC that uses resources available on Server.

A client computer typically communicates only with servers, not with
other clients.

Prepared by Feven T. 13
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Client/Server Networks
Client/server network is characterized by the following:
It has centralized, tighter security.
All user accounts are stored in the same database on the server.

The network is highly scalable;

you can have tens of thousands of workstations in the network.

Specialized networking operating systems are required

Backup is centralized

Accessibility : From various platforms in the network, server can be

accessed remotely.

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Disadvantages of client/ server
1)  Congestion in Network :
Too many requests from the clients may lead to congestion. Overload can
lead to breaking-down of servers.

2)  Client-Server architecture is not as robust as a P2P and if the server

fails, the whole network goes down.

3) Cost : It is very expensive to install and manage this type of computing.

4) You need professional IT people to maintain the servers and other

technical details of network.

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 Network Topologies
Network Topologies
Network topologies describe the ways in which the elements of a
network are mapped.

They describe the physical and logical arrangement of the network nodes.

• The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of

cables, computers, and other peripherals

Logical topology of a network refers to the method used to pass

information between devices on the network.

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 Main Types of Physical Topologies
1.Bus Topology
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at
each end.
All nodes(file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the
linear cable

Terminator
Terminator

Nodes
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Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
⮚Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

⮚Requires less cable length than a star topology.

⮚Failure of a single node does not terminate the network.

⮚If a cable that connect the nodes with the backbone fails, the
network does not fail.

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Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

⮚Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main

cable (backbone).

⮚Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

⮚Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts

down.

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2. Star Topology
A star topology is designed with each node connected directly
to a central network concentrator , typically hub.
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator
before continuing to its destination.
The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of
the network.
It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.
ConcentratorH
ub

Nodes

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Advantages of a Star Topology
⮚Easy to install and wire.

⮚No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing

devices.

⮚Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

⮚Easily scalable, i.e., you can add a node easily.

⮚Failure of a single computer/cable does not affect the rest of

the network.

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Disadvantages of a Star Topology
⮚Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

⮚If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

⮚More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators and extra cost of the hub.

⮚Broadcasting creates unnecessary network traffic.

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3. Ring Topology
A Ring topology is the one in which all computers and other
communication devices are connected in a continuous loop.
Electronic messages are passed around the ring in one direction, with each
node serving as the repeater, until they reach the right destination.

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Advantages of a Ring Topology
⮚There is less signal attenuation because each computer in the network is
used as a repeater.
⮚More than one computer can send data at a time.

Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

⮚Difficult to setup

⮚If any computer/cable in the ring fails, the whole network goes down.

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4. Mesh Topology
Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.

A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and connections

increase rapidly with the increase of computers to connect.

For n computers, n(n-1)/2 cables are required.

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Advantages of Mesh topology

⮚Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.

⮚ Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative

present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.

⮚Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting

other nodes.

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Disadvantages of Mesh topology
⮚ There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.

⮚Overall cost of this network is too high as compared to other network

topologies

⮚Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even

administration of the network is tough.

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5. Tree topology
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus topology.
In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus.
This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks
as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.

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Advantages of Tree Topology
⮚It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where
these topologies can't be implemented individually for reasons related
to scalability, tree topology is the best alternative.
⮚Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
⮚Here,we divide the whole network into segments (star networks),
which can be easily managed and maintained.
⮚Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the
central hub.
⮚If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

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Disadvantages of Tree Topology
Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus
cable, if it breaks whole network is crippled.

As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance
becomes difficult.

Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

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6. Hybrid Topology
• A combination of any two or more network topologies.
• It is a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a central
computer is attached with sub-controllers which in turn participate in
a variety of topologies

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Advantages of a Hybrid Topology
• It is extremely flexible.
• It is very reliable.

Disadvantages of a Hybrid Topology

• Expensive

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Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

Cost.
A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed.
The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth.
With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.
Cable type.
The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used
with star topologies.

Ease of installation
Ease of maintenance
Cable fault tolerance

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 Transmission Modes
There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another
1.Simplex:
▪In simplex mode the communication can take place only in one direction.
▪The receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device.
▪This mode of flow of information is Unidirectional.
▪One station is transmitter and the other is receiver.
Example: Radio, T.V..

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2. Half-duplex:
In half-duplex mode the communication channel is used in both
directions, but only in one direction at a time.
Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data.
Example is the wireless communication, Police radio (wacky talky) or talk
back radio

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3.Full-duplex:
In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the
same time.
Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around
time required in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated.
Example of this mode of transmission is the telephone line.

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 Transmission Medias
The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is
called transmission or communication media.
There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.
A. BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined
to narrow path.
Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually Copper)
bounded by jacket material
Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission.
These are
1.Coaxial Cable
2.Twisted Pairs Cable
3.Fiber Optics Cable

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B. Unbounded/Unguided Media
The unguided media is the wireless media.
It simply transports electromagnetic waves without using any physical
conductor.
Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum,
or water.
Three common types of unguided media are;
  (i) Radio wave
  
(ii) Microwave 

(iii) Infrared

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A number of design factors relating to the transmission medium and the signal
determine the data rate and distance such as;

Bandwidth:
All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a signal, the higher
the data rate that can be achieved.

Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance.

Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands

can distort or wipe out a signal.

Number of receivers:
A guided medium can be used to construct a point-to point link or a shared link with
multiple attachments.
In the latter case, each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the
line, limiting distance and/or data rate

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 1.Twisted Pair cable
The least expensive and most widely used guided transmission
medium is twisted pair.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a

regular spiral pattern.

A wire pair acts as a single communication link. Typically, a number

of
these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them in a
tough protective sheath.

The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between

adjacent pairs in a cable.

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•Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties:
shielded and unshielded.
i.Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded twisted Pair(UTP) is ordinary telephone wire.

This is the least expensive of all the transmission media commonly

used for local area networks and is easy to work with and easy to
install.
The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted
with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.

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The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five
categories of wire. Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit
connections.
Category 1:  
Two twisted-pair (four wires).
Voice grade (not rated for data communications).
Category 2:  
Four twisted-pair (eight wires). Suitable for up to 4Mbps.

Category 3: 
 Four twisted-pair (eight wires), with three twists per foot.
Acceptable for 10Mbps.

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Category 4:  
Four twisted-pair (eight wires) and rated for 16Mbps.

Category 5:  
Four twisted-pair (eight wires) and rated for 100Mbps.

Category 6:  
Four twisted-pair (eight wires) and rated for 1000Mbps.

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-

45 connector.

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ii. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

STP is a twisted pair shielded with a metallic braid or sheathing that

reduces interference.

This shielded twisted pair (STP) provides better performance at

higher data rates.

However, it is more expensive and more difficult to work with than

unshielded twisted pair.

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 2.Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center.
A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a
braided metal shield
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

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Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to
signal interference.

It can support greater cable lengths between network devices than

twisted pair cable.

The two types of coaxial cabling are

1. Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet.
It is 10Base2.
10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying
Ethernet signals.
The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200
meters.
In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters.

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2. Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet.

It is 10Base5.

Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps
keep moisture away from the center conductor.

However, One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend

easily and is difficult to install.

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 Coaxial Cable Connectors

(BNC) connector:
The most common type of connector used with ThinNet coaxial
cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector

D-type Connectors:
The first type of networking connector was the D-type connector.

The Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) connector is a D-type connector

used to connect your computer to ThickNet coaxial cable.

.
Prepared by Feven T. 48
 3.Fiber Optic Cable
An optical fiber is a thin flexible medium capable of guiding an
optical ray.

Various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers.

An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three

concentric sections:

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 Fiber Optic Cable
a. The core
It is the innermost section and consists of one or more very thin strands,
or fibers, made of glass or plastic
b. The Cladding
a glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different from
those of the core that surrounds the fiber .
The interface between the core and cladding acts as a reflector
to confine light that would otherwise escape the core.

c. Jacket
The outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle
of cladded fibers.
The jacket is composed of plastic and other
material layered to protect against moisture,
abrasion, crushing, and other environmental
dangers.
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Fiber optic transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair.

It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds.

however, it is more difficult to install and modify.

Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber
optic cable are an ST connector and SC, connector

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 Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

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 Networking Devices
The Network Interface Card (NIC)
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection
between the network cable and the computer.

The role of the NIC is to:

•Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
•Send the data to another computer.
•Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
•Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can
be understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

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 I. Hub
A hub joins multiple computers (or other network devices) together to form
a single network segment.
A hub is the central device in a star topology.

Most hubs are simple multiport repeaters. That is, they receive a signal on
one port and repeat it to all other ports.

Hubs can be active or passive.

An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before

sending the data on to its destination.

Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.

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 II. Repeaters

The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.

They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the
standards set for the type of cable being used.

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 III. Switch
Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it
moves from one device to another.

Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they
memorize addressing of computers and send the information to the correct
location directly.
Switches are:
Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports Often used in a star or
star-wired ring topology
Sold with specialized software for port management

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 IV. Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks.

The main reason for putting a bridge in a network is to connect two

segments together, or to divide a busy network into two segments.

Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically figure out the
address of each computer on both sides of the bridge.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both

sides of the network.

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 V. Router
A router translates information from one network to another
Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination
address and origin.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the
network, routers know the addresses of computers, bridges, and other
routers on the network.

Routers can even "listen" to the entire network to determine which sections
are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections until they
clear up.

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Router also determines the best route to send the data over the
Internet.

Routers can:
•Direct signal traffic efficiently
•Route messages between any two protocols
•Route messages between linear bus, star and ring topologies
•Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial and twisted-pair cabling

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 VI. MODEM
A modem is a device that changes digital data into an analog form for
transmission over an analog medium and then back to digital again at the
receiving end.

A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate

over telephone lines.

The term “modem” is actually an acronym that stands for

MOdulator/DEModulator.

Modems connect to the phone line using

standard telephone RJ-11 connectors.

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 Protocol
These are written rules used for communications.
Communications thus between computers on a network is done through
protocol suits.

A protocol suit consists of a layered architecture where each layer depicts

some functionality which can be carried out by a protocol.

The most widely used and most widely available protocol suite is TCP/IP
protocol suite.

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 Chapter 4
Introduction to Computer Networks and the Internet
TCP/IP Protocol
TCP/IP is a large collection of different communication protocols based
upon the two original protocols TCP and IP.
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
IP (Internet Protocol)
TCP/IP is normally considered to be a 4 layer system.
❖Application layer
❖Transport Layer
TCP
UDP
❖Network Layer
❖Data Link Layer

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THANK YOU!!

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