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CONCRETE OVERLAYS Sustainable Solutions PDF
CONCRETE OVERLAYS Sustainable Solutions PDF
Guide to
CONCRETE
OVERLAYS
Sustainable Solutions for Resurfacing and Rehabilitating Existing Pavements
May 2014
source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT source: Jim Cable, Iowa State University source: Randell Riley, Illinois chapter, ACPA
source: Kevin Merryman, Iowa DOT source: The Transtec Group source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT
Technical Report Documentation Page
16. Abstract
The primary goal of this guide is to fill the knowledge gap about concrete overlays so that pavement owners can
confidently include concrete overlays in their toolbox of pavement solutions and make more informed decisions about
designing and constructing them. Another goal is to help owner agencies understand and appreciate the versatility of
concrete overlay solutions. This is not a complete step-by-step manual, nor does it provide prescriptive formulae or
specifications for designing and constructing concrete overlays. Rather, as the title suggests, this booklet provides expert
guidance that can supplement practitioners’ own professional experience and judgment. In particular, since the 2nd edition
was published, this edition enhances original material with updated information on the following topics:
• Evaluating existing pavements to determine if they are good candidates for concrete overlays
• Selecting the appropriate overlay system for specific pavement conditions
• Managing concrete overlay construction work zones under traffic
• Accelerating construction of concrete overlays when appropriate
Authors
Dale Harrington, Snyder & Associates, Inc.
Gary Fick, Trinity Construction Management Services, Inc.
Project Coordinator
Melisse Leopold, Snyder & Associates, Inc.
Managing Editor
Marcia Brink, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center
Copyeditor
Carol Gostele, Birch Tree Editing
Technical Illustrator
Luke Snyder, Snyder & Associates, Inc.
Disclaimers
Neither Iowa State University nor this document’s authors, editors, designers, illustrators, distributors, or technical advisors make any representations or warranties, expressed or implied, as to the accuracy of information
herein and disclaim liability for any inaccuracies.
Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, sex, marital status, disability, genetic testing, or status as a U.S. veteran. Inquiries can
be directed to the Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, Iowa State University, 3680 Beardshear Hall, 515-294-7612.
Contents
Unbonded Concrete Overlay on Concrete Pavements....................... 46 Measurement and Payment Items for Concrete Overlays................... 63
Application and Uses..................................................................... 46 Establishing Plan Quantity for Overlay Concrete.......................... 63
Performance.................................................................................. 47 Typical Costs of Concrete Overlays................................................... 64
Keys to Success.............................................................................. 47 Miscellaneous Design Details............................................................ 64
Overlay Process............................................................................. 47 Curb and Gutter Details................................................................ 64
Pavement Evaluation................................................................. 47 Leaving the Existing Curb in Place............................................ 64
Overlay Design.......................................................................... 47 Removing Curb and Gutter....................................................... 64
Construction............................................................................. 48 Overlay Curb............................................................................. 64
Future Repairs........................................................................... 49 Vertical Grade Changes................................................................. 65
Key Resources................................................................................ 49 Overhead Clearance .................................................................. 65
Barriers and Rails ...................................................................... 65
Ch 4. Concrete Overlay Design........................................... 51
Safety Edge ............................................................................... 65
Concrete Overlay Design Variables.................................................... 51
Cross Road Drainage Structures ................................................ 65
Existing Pavement Characterization............................................... 51
Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................. 65
Surface Considerations.............................................................. 51
In-place Pavement Structures......................................................... 66
Structural Considerations.......................................................... 52
Plate Dowel Details....................................................................... 66
Traffic Characterization.............................................................. 52
Corrosion Resistance................................................................. 67
Material Properties..................................................................... 52
Plate Dowel Installation for Construction Joints Formed with a
Climatic Factors......................................................................... 53 Bulkhead (Form).................................................................... 67
Distress Mode............................................................................ 53 Plate Dowel Installation in Slipform or Full-depth Saw Cut
Thickness Design Selection............................................................ 53 (Butt-type) Construction Joints................................................. 67
Background of Design Methodologies....................................... 53 Dowel Installation for Contraction Joints.................................. 68
ACPA BCOA Method............................................................... 53 Transitions..................................................................................... 69
BCOA-ME Method.................................................................. 55 Mill and Fill Transitions for Bonded Concrete Overlays............. 69
1993 AASHTO Guide Method................................................. 55 Transition Details for Bonded Concrete Overlays...................... 69
AASHTO Pavement ME Design Guide Method....................... 56 Transition Details for Unbonded Concrete Overlays.................. 70
ACPA StreetPave Method.......................................................... 56 Widening and Lane Addition........................................................ 71
Slabs with Optimized Geometry and OptiPave2™ Design Typical Drainage Outlets for Interlayers........................................ 73
Software................................................................................. 57 Rural Conditions....................................................................... 73
Design Considerations for Bonded Overlay Systems......................... 57 Urban Conditions...................................................................... 74
Bonded Overlays of Asphalt and Composite Pavements................ 57
Bonded Overlays of Concrete Pavements....................................... 58 Ch 5. Concrete Overlay Materials and Mixtures................ 75
Interlayer................................................................................... 59 Admixtures.................................................................................... 76
Figure 1. Typical concrete overlay (before and after concrete Figure 26. Bonded concrete overlay of good condition concrete
overlay placement)........................................................ 1 pavement with surface distresses.................................. 34
Figure 3. Milling concrete (left) and milled surface (right)........... 3 Figure 28. Photo of concrete pavement with shotblast surface
prior to concrete overlay in 1994................................. 35
Figure 4. Forty-six states where concrete overlays have been
constructed (shaded in blue)......................................... 4 Figure 29. Three-inch concrete bonded overlay (photo dated
2013).......................................................................... 35
Figure 5. Appropriate preservation solutions at various stages
of pavement service life................................................. 5 Figure 30. Width of transverse joint in bonded concrete
overlay on concrete pavement should be equal to or
Figure 6. Typical bonded and unbonded concrete solutions greater than width of crack in existing pavement......... 36
at various stages of pavement service life........................ 6
Figure 31. Crack cage over concrete pavement crack.................... 37
Figure 7. Pavement evaluation process, with examples of
existing pavement conditions...................................... 10 Figure 32. Unbonded concrete overlay (previously called
conventional whitetopping) of poor-to-deteriorated
Figure 8. Examples of existing pavement conditions, from a condition asphalt pavement......................................... 38
condition assessment profile........................................ 11
Figure 33. Unbonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavement......... 38
Figure 9. Visual inspection for MRD deterioration at the edge
of pavement................................................................ 13 Figure 34. Poor to deteriorated asphalt pavement to be
resurface...................................................................... 39
Figure 10. Moderate ASR cracking along the perimeter of slab.... 13
Figure 35. Poor to deteriorated asphalt pavement resurfaced
Figure 11. D-cracked pavement................................................... 14 with unbonded concrete overlay.................................. 39
Figure 12. Typical joint deterioration with HMA patch .............. 14 Figure 36. Consider asphalt rut depth when determining
saw-cut depth.............................................................. 41
Figure 13. Dynamic cone penetrometer....................................... 16
Figure 37. Unbonded concrete overlay of poor-to-deteriorated
Figure 14. Selecting appropriate concrete overlay solution condition composite pavement.................................... 42
for asphalt pavements.................................................. 18
Figure 38. Unbonded overlay of composite.................................. 42
Figure 15. Selecting appropriate concrete overlay solution for
composite pavements.................................................. 20 Figure 39. Composite pavement prior to unbonded concrete
overlay......................................................................... 43
Figure 16. Selecting appropriate concrete overlay solution for
concrete pavements..................................................... 22 Figure 40. Unbonded concrete overlay over composite
pavement.................................................................... 43
Figure 17. Bonded concrete overlay of fair or better asphalt
pavement with surface distresses (previously called Figure 41. Consider asphalt rut depth when determining
ultra-thin whitetopping).............................................. 26 saw-cut depth.............................................................. 45
Figure 18. Bonded overlay of asphalt pavement............................ 26 Figure 42. Unbonded concrete overlay of poor condition
concrete pavement....................................................... 46
Figure 19. SH-119 in 1991 prior to placement of an bonded
concrete overlay........................................................... 27 Figure 43. Unbonded concrete on concrete.................................. 46
Figure 20. SH-119 in 2009 after 18 years of service..................... 27 Figure 44. Route D35 existing pavement in poor condition......... 47
Figure 21. Longitudinal joints should be arranged to avoid Figure 45. Route D35 5-inch unbonded overlay.......................... 47
wheel paths................................................................. 28
Figure 46. Overlay design factors that affect one another............. 51
Figure 22. Bonded concrete overlay of fair or better condition
composite pavement with asphalt surface distresses..... 30 Figure 47. Illustration of structural capacity loss over time
and with traffic............................................................ 56
Figure 23. Bonded overlay of asphalt............................................ 30
Figure 48. Width of overlay joint saw cut must be greater than
Figure 24. Existing composite pavement...................................... 31 the crack width in the existing pavement..................... 58
Figure 25. Bonded on composite pavement................................. 31
Figure 49. Upper sketch shows concrete overlay locking up Figure 73. Mill and fill transition for concrete overlay of asphalt
with old pavement (keying), and lower sketch shows or composite pavement............................................... 69
interlayer separates overlay from existing pavement..... 59
Figure 74. New transition tapers used to meet bridge approach
Figure 50. Geotextile fabric separation layer................................. 60 slabs or maintain clearance under bridges with bonded
overlay of concrete pavement....................................... 69
Figure 51. White geotextile fabric interlayer................................. 60
Figure 75. New transition tapers used to meet bridge approach
Figure 52. Overlay blowup where expansion joint should have slabs or maintain clearance under bridges with
been cut over existing concrete expansion joint........... 60 bonded overlay of asphalt pavement............................ 69
Figure 53. Asphalt stripping of interlayer..................................... 61 Figure 76. New transition tapers used to meet bridge approach
slabs or maintain clearance under bridges with
Figure 54. Tapered plate dowel baskets in transverse contraction unbonded overlay of concrete pavement...................... 70
joints and football-shaped plate dowels for slipformed
longitudinal construction joints.................................. 61 Figure 77. New transition tapers used to meet bridge approach
slabs or maintain clearance under bridges with
Figure 55. Higher shrinkage restraint in joint intersection unbonded overlay of asphalt pavement........................ 70
with round dowel (left) versus joint intersection
with plate dowel (right)............................................... 61 Figure 78. Temporary granular transition to existing side
road/driveway.............................................................. 70
Figure 56. Digital terrain model acquired through laser
scanning...................................................................... 63 Figure 79. Asphalt wedge transition to existing side
road/driveway.............................................................. 70
Figure 57. Concrete overlay cost by thickness............................... 64
Figure 80. Bonded overlay of concrete pavement with
Figure 58. Milling detail when leaving the existing curb in widening unit.............................................................. 71
place............................................................................ 64
Figure 81. Bonded overlay of asphalt or composite pavement
Figure 59. Milling detail when removing and replacing curb......... 64 with widening unit...................................................... 71
Figure 60. Detail of curb overlay.................................................. 64 Figure 82. View of tiebars for concrete overlay widening unit.........71
Figure 61. Concrete curb overlay.................................................. 64 Figure 83. Unbonded overlay of concrete, asphalt, or
composite pavement with widening unit..................... 72
Figure 62. Typical safety edge for concrete overlay without
paved shoulder............................................................ 65 Figure 84. Bonded or unbonded overlay of asphalt or composite
pavement (previously widened with asphalt or concrete,
Figure 63. Dowel options in superelevation areas......................... 65
and to be widened again with new concrete overlay)... 72
Figure 64. Concrete overlay with standard manhole..................... 66
Figure 85. Unbonded overlay of concrete, asphalt, or composite
Figure 65. Diamond-shaped plate dowels in fixed-formed pavement with full concrete lane addition................... 72
construction joints (right side) and football-shaped
Figure 86. Interlayer outlet for concrete overlay shoulder............. 73
dowels by slipforms..................................................... 66
Figure 87. HMA interlayer outlet for asphalt shoulder................. 73
Figure 66. Detail of construction joint plate dowel for
fixed-form paving........................................................ 67 Figure 88. Geotextile interlayer outlet with new paved shoulder
(concrete or asphalt).................................................... 73
Figure 67. Taper-shaped construction joint plate dowel using
fixed forms.................................................................. 67 Figure 89. Drainage of separation layer (interlayer) into an
existing underdrain system when existing curb is
Figure 68. Detail of construction joint plate dowel for slipform
removed and replaced.................................................. 74
paving......................................................................... 67
Figure 90. Drainage of separation layer fabric into intake
Figure 69. Slots being cut to accept the football-shaped plate
when curb is not removed........................................... 74
dowels......................................................................... 67
Figure 91. Synthetic fibers (1.5 in. to 2.25 in.)............................. 77
Figure 70. Detail of plate dowel for contraction joint................... 68
Figure 92. Geotextile separation layer........................................... 79
Figure 71. Plan view of roadway with plate dowels....................... 68
Figure 93. Light-colored geotextile fabric used as a separation
Figure 72. Mill and fill transition for concrete overlay of
layer for an unbonded overlay..................................... 79
concrete pavement....................................................... 69
Figure 94. Managing work zones effectively involves Figure 116. Removing overlay panels........................................... 107
balancing several priorities........................................... 81
Figure 117. Finish and cure of concrete overlay repair.................. 107
Figure 95. Stringline paver........................................................... 83
Figure 118. Typical concrete pavement milling operation............ 107
Figure 96. A three-track, zero-clearance paver placing concrete
along a median barrier................................................. 83 Figure 119. Typical concrete pavement milling operation............ 107
Figure 97. A typical four-track paver modified to three tracks, Figure 120. Typical concrete pavement millings from milling
providing zero clearance in a C/G situation operation................................................................... 108
in Oklahoma............................................................... 83
Figure 121. Recycled concrete aggregate....................................... 111
Figure 98. Controlling paving profile using a moveable stringline
on the adjacent lane.................................................... 84 Figure 122. Rubblized concrete pavement.................................... 111
Figure 99. Controlling paving profile using a paver ski on the Figure 123. Fibers in concrete mix............................................... 113
adjacent lane............................................................... 84
Figure 124. Fibers added at plant (left) and bags tossed into
Figure 100. Stringless paver............................................................ 84 ready-mix truck (right)............................................... 114
Figure 101. Zero clearance stringless paver..................................... 84 Figure 125. Finished concrete overlay with synthetic fibers.......... 115
Figure 102. Vertical traffic control panels may be used to mark Figure 126. Balling fibers............................................................. 115
pavement edge dropoff................................................ 86
Figure 127. Typical mobile scan project workflow........................ 117
Figure 103. Centerline safety edge fillets for overlays
Figure 128. Pavement DTM/detail.............................................. 117
3 in. (50 mm) or greater.............................................. 86
Figure 129. Pavement cross section detail..................................... 117
Figure 104. Overlay of two-lane roadway with paved shoulders
(conventional paver).................................................... 88 Figure 130. Static laser scanner.................................................... 118
Figure 105. Overlay of two-lane roadway with granular shoulders Figure 131. Mobile laser scanner.................................................. 118
(conventional paver).................................................... 90
Figure 132. Mobile scanner onboard quality control
Figure 106. Overlay of two-lane roadway with minimum operation area............................................................ 118
granular shoulders (zero-clearance paver)..................... 92
Figure 133. Paving machine control............................................. 127
Figure 107. Overlay of two-lane roadway widening to three
lanes with paved shoulder (conventional paver)........... 94 Figure 134. Survey existing surface to develop and build
database.................................................................... 128
Figure 108. Overlay of four-lane roadway with paved shoulders
(conventional paver).................................................... 96 Figure 135. ATV with GPS and laser profile................................ 128
Figure 109. Compare the surface texture of the nonshotblasted Figure 136. Total robotic station.................................................. 129
area (upper left half of image) to the roughened
surface texture on the shotblasted section of Figure 137. System 1—Stringless paving operation using total
pavement (under the pen)......................................... 102 stations and reference points...................................... 129
Figure 110. Overlap of nonwoven geotextile material section....... 103 Figure 138. Computer controls on paving machine..................... 129
Figure 111. Fastening nonwoven geotextile fabric to existing Figure 139. Rotating laser over reference points........................... 130
concrete pavement..................................................... 103
Figure 140. System 2 paving machine.......................................... 130
Figure 112. Paving on top of nonwoven geotextile materials......... 104
Figure 141. System 2—Stringless paving operation using GPS,
Figure 113. Paving on top of white geotextile fabric interlayer..... 104 a rotating laser, and reference points.......................... 130
Figure 114. Dowel basket anchor nails should be placed on Figure 142. GPS base station mobile or fixed............................... 131
the downstream side of the basket relative to the
direction of pavement................................................ 104 Figure 143. GPS paver control system.......................................... 131
Figure 115. Manually verifying dowel placement......................... 104 Figure 144. System 3—Stringless paving operation using GPS..... 131
Table 1. Recommended Optional Testing................................. 15 Table 14. Size and Spacing of Plate Dowels for Contraction
Joints........................................................................... 66
Table 2. Subgrade Soil Types and Approximate Support
Values.......................................................................... 17 Table 15. The Effect of Aggregate Gradation on Mixture
Properties.................................................................... 75
Table 3. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Asphalt
Pavement in Preparation for Bonded Overlay.............. 28 Table 16. Slab Thickness and Opening Strength......................... 77
Table 4. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Composite Table 17. Summary of Fiber Types.............................................. 78
Pavement in Preparation for Bonded Overlay.............. 32
Table 18. Michigan DOT Asphalt Separation Layer Gradation.. 78
Table 5. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Concrete
Pavement in Preparation for Bonded Overlay.............. 37 Table 19. Geotextile Separation Layer Material Properties.......... 79
Table 6. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Asphalt Table 20. Concrete Overlay Work Zone Management
Pavement in Preparation for Unbonded Overlay......... 40 Considerations............................................................ 81
Table 7. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Composite Table 21. Concrete Paving Construction Practices for
Pavement in Preparation for Unbonded Overlay......... 44 Overlays...................................................................... 99
Table 8. Typical Transverse Joint Spacing.................................. 48 Table 22. Distress Types and Severity Levels Recommended
for Assessing Concrete Pavement Structural
Table 9. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Concrete Adequacy.................................................................. 109
Pavement in Preparation for Unbonded Overlay......... 49
Table 23. Distress Types and Levels Recommended for Assessing
Table 10. Summary of Current Overlay Design Software ........... 54 Asphalt and Composite Pavement Structural
Adequacy.................................................................. 110
Table 11. Typical Weight and Thickness for Geotextile
Interlayer..................................................................... 60 Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction
under Traffic.............................................................. 119
Table 12. Typical Adjustment Factors for Estimating Overlay
Cubic Yard Plan Quantities......................................... 63 Table 25. Applicability, Pros, and Cons of Various Accelerated
Construction Methods.............................................. 138
Table 13. Size and Spacing of Plate Dowels for Construction
Joints........................................................................... 66
Chapter 1.
INTRODUCTION
The need has never been greater for engi- agencies and contractors have hesitated to ance that can supplement practitioners’ own
neered strategies to preserve and maintain design and construct them. One reason may professional experience and judgment.
the nation’s pavements. With shrinking be a lack of understanding of engineered con-
Another goal of this guide is to help owner
budgets, ever-increasing traffic volumes and crete overlays. The primary goal of the Guide
agencies understand and appreciate the versa-
loads, and the critical emerging focus on to Concrete Overlays series, therefore, is to
tility of concrete overlay solutions. A common
infrastructure sustainability and pavement fill the knowledge gap and answer pavement
misconception is that concrete overlays are
preservation, highway agencies are being owners’ questions so that they can confidently
limited to projects that require long-term
asked to do more with less in managing their include concrete overlays in their toolbox of
solutions (20 to 35 years) and that other
pavement networks. Concrete overlays can pavement solutions and make more informed
options may be better suited for short-term
serve as sustainable and cost-effective solu- decisions about designing and construct-
solutions (5 to 15 years). Another is that over-
tions for improved management of pavement ing them. The first (Harrington et al. 2007)
lays are expensive or difficult to build, or are
assets, including preservation, resurfacing, and and second (Harrington 2008) editions of
niche solutions with limited applicability. In
rehabilitation. In addition, they contribute this guide described concrete overlay types,
actuality, however, the following statements
to more sustainable construction practices by applications, and issues related to design and
are true:
preserving and extending pavement service for construction. This third, expanded edition
years beyond the original design life. Many enhances the original material with updated • Concrete overlays can be designed to cost
concrete overlays have been in service for information: effectively accommodate all combinations
decades, effectively extending the life of the of design life and traffic loading. Their
• Evaluating existing pavements to determine
original pavement structures for 30 years or thickness can vary from 2 to 10 inches
if they are good candidates for concrete
more. or greater, depending on the existing
overlays
pavement condition, anticipated traffic,
To ensure that concrete overlays provide
• Selecting the appropriate overlay system for available funding, and desired design life.
durable, long-lasting maintenance and
specific pavement conditions
rehabilitation solutions, good design and • Concrete overlay solutions exist for
construction practices must be followed. • Managing concrete overlay construction all pavement types (concrete, asphalt,
These include designing an overlay that is work zones under traffic and composite [asphalt surfacing over
appropriate for the situation, accomplishing concrete]).
appropriate pre-overlay repairs and prepara- • Accelerating construction of concrete over-
tion of the existing pavement, and using good lays when appropriate • Concrete overlay solutions exist for all
construction practices like proper jointing and pavement conditions; see Figure 1. Because
Like the first and second editions, however,
curing. With thorough planning, work zones concrete distributes traffic loads over a wide
this guide is not a complete step-by-step man-
can be managed to accommodate these activi- area, the underlying pavement does not
ual, nor does it provide prescriptive formulae
ties without sacrificing project safety, traffic experience highly concentrated stresses. As
or specifications for designing and construct-
flow, or cost effectiveness. a result, as long as the original pavement
ing concrete resurfacing projects. As the title
remains stable and uniform, a concrete
Despite a demonstrated history of hundreds suggests, this booklet provides expert guid-
overlay can be placed.
of successful concrete overlay projects, some
Figure 1. Typical concrete overlay (before [left] and after concrete overlay placement)
OVER ASPHALT
OVER COMPOSITE
OVER CONCRETE
Figure 4. Forty-six states where concrete overlays have been constructed (shaded in blue)
Pavement Preservation
Preventive
Maintenance
Good
Pavement Condition
Rehabilitation
Reconstruction
Minor
Rehabilitation
Major
Rehabilitation
Maintenance
Poor
Time
Figure 5. Appropriate preservation solutions at various stages of pavement service life
full spectrum of pavement needs. Figure 6 service life of an existing pavement and/or ties without sacrificing project safety, traffic
represents a typical pavement condition curve improve its load-carrying capability. Bonded flow, or cost effectiveness.
over the life of a pavement. The preventive concrete overlays up to 6 to 7 inches are not
Like its predecessors, this third edition of
maintenance, minor rehabilitation (together, uncommon, and unbonded overlays from 6
the Guide to Concrete Overlays is the result
the preservation window), and major reha- to 10 inches have been the norm.
of collaboration between state departments
bilitation zones are noted where bonded and
To show the significance of concrete overlays of transportation (DOTs), industry, and
unbonded overlays can be used to restore
as a rehabilitation strategy, the American academia to further enhance the state of the
pavement to the original or better condition.
Association of State Highway and practice for the design and construction of
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2007) concrete overlays. Many of the updates to this
Preventive Maintenance recently stated that “thin unbonded concrete edition are a result of the Concrete Overlay
Preventive maintenance is a major component overlays, 4–5 in. [100–125 mm] in depth, Field Application Program conducted by
of pavement preservation. Basically, it consists have proven to be a rehabilitation option for Iowa State University’s National Concrete
of extending the service life of structurally composite (asphalt over concrete) pavements Pavement Technology Center (CP Tech
sound pavements by applying cost-effective that exhibit significant deterioration. When Center) under a cooperative agreement with
treatments to the surface or near the surface. properly designed and constructed, unbonded the FHWA. Through this program, expert
Bonded concrete overlays of approximately 2 concrete overlays have been shown to increase teams visited 26 sites in 18 different states,
to 4 inches provide excellent preventive main- load-carrying capacity and extend pavement and concrete overlay projects were either con-
tenance strategies for all types of pavements. life.” structed or scheduled for construction in nine
states. Many lessons were learned while assist-
Minor Rehabilitation ing agencies with the design and construction
Minor rehabilitation is used when structural Lessons Learned of concrete overlays, which prompted the
development of this updated edition. A sum-
capacity needs to be restored to a pavement
but major rehabilitation is not required. One
from Recent mary of the key lessons learned is provided
below:
of the major advantages of concrete overlays Concrete Overlay
as a preservation solution is that they increase
the pavement’s structural capacity, even if that Projects Project Evaluation and
is not the primary objective of the preserva- To ensure that concrete overlays provide Selection
tion activity. Bonded and unbonded concrete durable, long-lasting maintenance and reha- Lessons learned regarding project evaluation
overlays of 4 in. (102 mm) provide excellent bilitation solutions, basic good design and and selection include the following:
minor rehabilitation solutions. construction practices must be followed.
These include designing an overlay that is • Utilize coring, falling weight deflectometers
Major Rehabilitation appropriate for the situation, accomplishing (FWDs), and “as built” plans to investigate
appropriate preoverlay repairs and preparation existing pavement layer conditions and
For pavements needing structural improve- thicknesses to determine what type of over-
ment, major rehabilitation is the approach of the existing pavement, and using good con-
struction practices like proper jointing and lay is appropriate for a given roadway.
typically used. Major rehabilitation calls for
structural enhancements that extend the curing. With thorough planning, work zones • If existing asphalt will be milled, take cores
can be managed to accommodate these activi- of asphalt to ensure that adequate (mini-
Existing pavement condition
Bonded Bonded
Preventive on on Asphalt
maintenance Concrete or
Composite
before treatment
Minor Unbonded
on
rehabilitation Concrete
Unbonded
on Asphalt
Major or
rehabilitation Composite
Reconstruction
Time
Figure 6. Typical bonded and unbonded concrete solutions at various stages of pavement service life
mum 3-inch) asphalt depth will remain • In designs for bonded overlays over asphalt, in conjunction with joint layout and design
after milling as a design minimum and to exercise care when milling the asphalt to for turn lanes and shoulder concrete work.
allow loaded concrete trucks to travel on prevent leaving a thin asphalt lift, which
the milled surface with minimal damage can cause delamination. • Develop staging plans that allow for the use
to it. of paving equipment between existing con-
• Consider two potential overlay quantity crete railings and temporary safety-related
• In freeze-thaw climates and/or areas with design options: barrier walls.
expansive soils, evaluate existing pave-
◦◦ For minimal preliminary work and cost • Design transitions and bridge-approach
ment in spring and summer to identify
critical pavement distresses that need to be ▪▪ Do no preliminary surveys other than pavement sections to minimize hand place-
accounted for in the overlay design. measuring wheel-rut depth and pave- ment and detailed jointing plans.
ment cross slope at 500-foot intervals. • Determine the type and amount of surface
• Identify all vertical constraints (bridges,
utilities, loop vehicle detectors, curbs, bar- ▪▪ Develop design profiles of centerline preparation required based on agency pri-
riers, ramps and driveways, guardrails, and and pavement edges. oritization of the following goals:
other structures) that may impact construc- ▪▪ Estimate the quantity of concrete ◦◦ Pavement smoothness
tion and develop a plan to mitigate them. required to meet the profiles and pro-
vide minimum thickness at centerline ◦◦ Concrete quantity
and edges of pavement. ◦◦ Matching existing surface features
Concrete Overlay Design
Lessons learned regarding design include the ▪▪ Add a reasonable percentage to the ◦◦ Maintaining minimum cross slopes
concrete quantity to account for place-
following: ◦◦ Removing unstable existing pavement
ment tolerance, construction losses,
• During the early phases of design, consider and surface/cross-section irregularities layers
all partial and full detour options and their and establish the “new theoretical” ◦◦ Vertical clearance site conditions
impact on construction. plan quantity. Some states use 15 to
20 percent, depending on the thick- ◦◦ Bond enhancement between existing and
• Choose the most appropriate overlay type ness of the overlay and the amount overlay pavement layers
(bonded or unbonded) to meet existing of pavement cross-slope correction
desired. The thinner the overlay and
pavement conditions and anticipated future
the higher the cross-slope correction, Plans and Specifications
traffic loadings.
the higher the percentage. Some states Lessons learned regarding plans and specifica-
• For unbonded overlays over concrete in add a maximum overrun of 2 to 3 tions include the following:
nonarid climates, provide a positive drain- percent to the “new theoretical” plan
quantity. • Reduce plan sets to necessary quanti-
age path for surface moisture to exit the
ties, design details, plan/profile data (not
interlayer bond breaker (separation layer) ◦◦ For optimization of concrete quantities sheets), and survey control information.
to prevent interlayer erosion under heavy
traffic loadings. ▪▪ Conduct nine-shot cross sections at • Require the use of vibrator frequency mon-
50-foot intervals to map the existing
surface. itor recorders on the paver.
• In designs for unbonded overlays over
concrete, compare asphalt or geotextile ▪▪ Develop a design centerline pro- • Utilize standard concrete mixes and matu-
interlayer (separation layer) costs, construc- file and cross slope that optimizes rity measurements to control opening
tion time, and performance. pavement smoothness, maintains of intersections and access points. Use
minimum overlay depth at centerline, accelerated concrete mixtures only when
• Determine transition lengths from the
and optimizes concrete quantities. necessary.
existing profile elevation to the top of the
concrete overlay profile elevation on exist- ▪▪ Limit the contractor to an additional • When existing surface milling is required,
ing profile constraints, final roadway design percent of the quantity identified by clearly define the purpose, vertical and
speeds, length and type of traffic control to the desired cross section and design cross-slope limits, and required existing
be used, and final open-to-traffic speeds. profile. Some states use 6 to 8 percent, surface survey accuracy.
depending on the thickness of the
• Utilize cubic yard and square yard payment overlay.
items. Square yard covers placement, and Sequence of Construction
• Evaluate the impacts of removing/replac-
cubic yard covers material, which reduces
ing medians or existing curbs versus their and Maintenance of Traffic
contractor risk and cost while paying for
retention in terms of construction time, Lessons learned regarding construction
concrete used to fill surface irregularities.
cost, and future performance. sequencing and traffic maintenance include
• Based on construction economics and the following:
• Carefully review the construction sequence
expected overlay performance in designs for
and maintenance of traffic in conjunction • Hold a public preconstruction meeting to
unbonded overlays over concrete, correct
with joint layout. In some cases, tied lon- communicate traffic control impacts and
irregularities in cross slope and profile by
gitudinal construction joints can interfere identify public concerns that should be
varying the thickness of concrete, not the
with the maintenance of both public and addressed by the contractor and highway
depth of the asphalt bond breaker (separa-
contractor traffic. agency during construction.
tor layer). Deeper transverse joint sawing
may be necessary to achieve T/3, but final • Develop the construction sequence to meet • Minimize the number of gaps for inter-
overlay performance will be enhanced. closed-road or through-traffic maintenance sections and driveways to provide for
uninterrupted paving.
• Consider paving plans that allow tempo- earthwork prior to staged surface prepa- front of the paver. Monitor dowels behind
rary access for adjacent property owners ration and paving operations. the paver for location, orientation, and
where possible and accommodate their ◦◦ Delete centerline safety wedge construc- depth.
daily needs. tion where pilot car operations are used • Utilize software such as HIPERPAV to
• Clearly state the criteria for lane closures 24/7 through the work area. anticipate paving or curing problems and
and allow for contractor alternative sugges- ◦◦ Allow for equipment work on shoulders mitigate their impact on operations.
tions to meet the criteria. and side ditches to proceed in the same
area as a lane closure employed for other • Minimize the temperature differential
• Provide for alternative detour routes to prepaving work. between the existing pavement surface
be used in the case of unforeseen circum- and the concrete overlay during placement
stances (crashes, wide loads, equipment ◦◦ Where bridge approaches and road inter- and curing. This is especially critical dur-
breakdowns, etc.). sections are immediately adjacent to each ing cool-weather paving for the following
other, encourage use of extended tem-
reasons:
• Jointly with the contractor, develop a traffic porary barrier-rail lengths and three-leg
control plan that allows sufficient room for traffic signal setups to reduce construc- ◦◦ When a bonded concrete overlay is
construction operations and keeps the trav- tion/traffic delays. placed in cooler weather, the day/night
eling public and pedestrians safe. temperature differential will cause move-
Concrete Overlay ment in the existing pavement; it will
• Anticipate and mitigate temporary drainage expand during the day and contract at
issues caused by milling operations. Construction night. To prevent cracking in the over-
Lessons learned regarding construction lay, the overlay must reach saw strength
• In the case of construction of single-lane before the underlying pavement’s night-
include the following:
overlays with 24-hour pilot car operations time contraction. Specifying a minimum
on a two-lane road, apply the following • Require contractor development of a overlay mix temperature of 65°F has
construction suggestions: comprehensive paving plan to address con- proven to be helpful in mitigating this
struction and public impacts. set-time issue.
◦◦ Allow multiple construction zones
separated by two miles between flag- • When necessary, accelerate all construction ◦◦ In addition, when a concrete overlay is
ger stations. The 2-mile work zone area placed in cooler weather, the concrete
processes to minimize public impact. Limit can set from the bottom up, delaying the
requirement is the distance between
contract stage work times to emphasize the sawing window. Temporarily covering
flagger stations versus the outermost
warning signs. need for accelerated work if that is the goal the overlay with plastic after paving helps
of the contract. the concrete to set properly, allowing for
◦◦ Consider using a 3.5-mile paving work timely sawing.
zone and allow the contractor to close • Where load transfer is called for in wheel
local crossings in the work zone only paths only, use separate partial dowel bas- This guide provides updated guidance for the
when those in the adjacent zone are kets for each wheel path and do NOT cut design, construction, and maintenance of
open. the basket shipping wires. concrete overlays, which should be adapted
◦◦ Allow the contractor to propose methods to fit local conditions and policies. Successful
• When anchoring dowel baskets, consider
and materials to construct temporary performance of any pavement rehabilitation
the use of uniform thicknesses of separa-
access ramps (in use for less than one method requires that design, materials, and
tion layer, adequate numbers of anchors,
month). construction be considered as complementary
and the relationship of anchor length and
processes.
◦◦ Encourage construction of bridge work, shot force to the separation layer depth and
transition sections, subdrains, pavement material; minimize the head of concrete in
patching, side ditch drainage work, and
Chapter 2.
• Petrography analysis
◦◦ Concrete material-related distress (MRD)
◦◦ Poor air-void system
Good Good • Asphalt stripping
• CTE
• FWD tests
◦◦ Subgrade/subbase support (k value)
Fair Fair
◦◦ Subgrade/subbase variability
◦◦ Pavement properties
◦◦ Load transfer efficiency
◦◦ Presence of voids
◦◦ Asphalt stiffness
◦◦ Concrete flexural strength
• Subgrade tests
◦◦ Freeze-thaw characteristics
◦◦ Shrink-swell characteristics
◦◦ Soil strength (dynamic cone penetration
Poor Poor or standard penetration test)
Deteriorated Deteriorated
Figure 7. Pavement evaluation process, with examples of existing pavement conditions (source: Snyder & Associates, Inc.)
Historical Data and Future Existing Support and Localized Drainage Surveys
Projections (Desk Review) Distress Poor drainage conditions are a major cause
One key to successful concrete overlays is of distress in pavement structures. Unless
The first step is to collect data from office files moisture-related problems are identified and
and other historical records associated with ensuring that the underlying pavement and
subgrade/subbase provide uniform support. corrected, the effectiveness of repairs and
the project. The goal is to collect as much overlays will be reduced. As part of a pave-
information about the existing pavement as Information gained from distress surveys
will have the greatest impact on identifying ment distress survey, the overall drainage
possible, such as original design data, con- conditions of the existing pavement should
struction information, subgrade/subbase data, necessary spot repairs and selecting appropri-
ate overlays. Pavement distress in the form be assessed. Excavation at the edge of the
materials testing data, traffic data, perfor- pavement may provide useful information
mance data, and so on. Possible data sources of visible defects or deterioration of the
pavement is the most basic indication of an regarding trapped water and other drainage
for this effort include the following: issues. Observations of moisture/drainage
existing pavement’s current performance and
• Design reports structural condition. The FHWA publication problems (e.g., pumping, corner breaks,
Distress Identification Manual for the Long- standing water, etc.) may indicate the need
• Construction plans/specifications (new and for a more intensive FWD test for the support
rehabilitation) Term Pavement Performance Program (2003a)
is useful when identifying pavement distresses value k or a more thorough survey of subsur-
• Materials and soils properties from previous and measuring their severity. Information face drainage conditions. The purposes of a
laboratory test programs and/or published obtained in this step will be used to determine drainage survey are the following:
reports the type and extent of field testing required. • Detect and identify moisture-related
• Past pavement condition surveys, non- Types of distress are determined primarily distress
destructive testing and/or destructive by occurrence and appearance and can indi- • Document prevailing drainage conditions
sampling investigations cate the underlying causes of deterioration. (e.g., cross slopes, cut/fill areas, depth and
Severity of distress represents the criticality condition of ditches)
• Maintenance/repair histories
of the distress in terms of progression; more
• Traffic measurements/forecasts severe distresses will require more extreme • Assess edge-drain conditions
rehabilitation measures. The extent of each If edge drains are present, their effectiveness
• Environmental/climate studies distress type and severity level must be mea- should be evaluated by observing their out-
• Pavement management system reports sured when an overlay is considered. flow after a rainfall or after water is released
For example, consideration should be given to from a water truck over pavement discon-
Discussions with local design and mainte-
any deterioration of an asphalt surface course tinuities. Another way to assess edge-drain
nance engineers may also be beneficial and
(existing asphalt or composite pavement), effectiveness is through video inspections
should be included as participants in the on-
because asphalt is a good reflector of underly- (Daleiden 1998; Christopher 2000). A video
site review process. The information gathered
ing problem areas. Examples include subbase/ camera attached to a pushrod cable and
in this step can be used to divide the pave-
subgrade problems due to poor drainage, inserted into the drainage system at outlets
ment into discrete sections with similar design
material-related distresses (MRDs) such as can locate blockages like rodents’ nests or
and performance characteristics.
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) or D-cracking in a areas of crushed pipe. Several states have
This step also includes determining future concrete layer, and other defects that result in adopted edge-drain video inspection in their
performance requirements, such as expected isolated expansion or loss of support. pavement evaluation/construction process.
traffic loadings and overlay design life. The visual examination should include the
Consideration should be made for potential Panel tenting (early stages of blowups) location and inspection of all under-drain
future traffic generators (i.e., special events, may indicate the presence of a void under outlets.
future development along the route, etc.) that a concrete panel in an existing concrete or
composite pavement. Sections with significant It is especially important to determine the
may impact the thickness design procedure.
tenting can be repaired to relieve the pres- subgrade soil’s freeze-thaw and shrink-swell
sure and provide uniform support. If, during characteristics. Soil strength-related tests
Visual Examination the desk review process, an open graded base using the dynamic cone penetrometer or the
(On-site Review) (OGB) is found to be part of the pavement standard penetration test provide useful infor-
With historical information in hand, the sec- structure, an FWD analysis is warranted (see mation about subgrade stability.
ond step is a visual site inspection to obtain Optional Analyses on page 15) because of the Possible drainage problems indicated by a
initial information about the pavement’s likelihood of secondary consolidation of the drainage survey may suggest the need for
performance and distress issues. Members of OGB, which results in nonuniform support in-depth analysis of the pavement structure’s
the design team should conduct the visual conditions. This FWD testing should be done drainability. DRIP (Drainage Requirements
examination. At a minimum, the following prior to the on-site review to assure that the In Pavements), an FHWA computer program,
items should be reviewed and recorded for design team has the information at hand to can assist in such an analysis (Mallela et al.
future reference: assist in evaluating the support conditions. 2002).
D-cracking Any mitigation strategy that reduces access Consideration should be given to the effects
D-cracking is damage incurred by the propen- of moisture will slow or prevent continued of grade change, particularly at bridge under-
sity for some limestone aggregates to absorb distress. While an overlay may provide some passes and approaches, shoulder areas, and
water when wet, but not release it under dry- degree of insulation, thus reducing the num- curb and gutter units. Design details for these
ing conditions because of the small size of ber of freeze-thaw cycles and slowing damage situations are included on pages 64, 69, and
the pores in the aggregate. The particles thus rates, the problem will not be eliminated. 70. The visual survey should include a com-
become saturated and, under freezing condi- For a potential bonded overlay in which the prehensive list of potential vertical constraints
tions, will crack and expand, causing damage existing pavement is to be brought to good such as the following:
in the mixture. The distress tends to begin at condition by spot repairs or milling, it is
• Bridge structures
the bottom of a slab and at joints, and it pro- important before a selecting an overlay to
gresses inward; see Figure 11. periodically check the air content of the exist- • Overhead clearance requirements
ing pavement in accordance with ASTM C
In extreme cases, all that will be left is rubble. 457. This check should be made at different • Guard rail, parapet wall, cable barrier, and
Evaluation of the risk varies from state to depths of the mid-panels of the existing pave- median barrier
state, and reference should be made to local ment as part of the evaluation process. For • Curb and gutter
DOT knowledge of whether or not an exist- example, if the air content is below 5 percent
ing layer is at risk. Typically, a D-cracking and the spacing factor is greater than 0.008 • Storm sewer inlets
pavement will need repair in approximately inch, the details of moisture access have to be
10 years, although some pavements have • Intersecting roadways and access drives
examined carefully before a bonded overlay
lasted as long as 40 years. If damage has already is considered. This is particularly true if this • Drainage conduits and culverts
started, then it is likely to continue, causing condition exists in the lower depths.
damage zones at the joints to grow wider • Foreshoulder slopes and ditches
over time, therefore reducing support for any For unbonded overlays, where partial- or full-
layer placed above it. Removing and replacing depth deterioration of the joint is present, Profile Grade
damaged sections may buy some time, but the the unsound concrete around the joints can A review of the existing profile grade line
distress will continue to grow in the at-risk be removed and replaced with low-strength should be conducted; areas of significant
concrete at the interfaces with the repairs. concrete (e.g., flowable mortar). No sawing or deviation will have to be investigated through
reestablishment of the joint is necessary, since analysis of core samples. Evidence of numer-
As with any MRD, the likely remaining life of the overlay will be unbonded and cracking in ous active panel movements in a concrete or
the damaged pavement must be accounted for the existing concrete will not affect the over- composite pavement may indicate potentially
when considering the design life of a concrete lay. This approach with an unbonded overlay unstable or nonuniform subgrade support
overlay. should be a practical and cost-effective solu- or MRD. These, too, will require detailed
Freezing and Thawing tion for pavements with freeze-thaw damage pavement analyses to determine the extent of
in poor or deteriorated condition. The desired distress and possible corrective action(s). For
Concrete that is saturated and subjected to
project life of the overlay must match the example, if movement is confined to isolated
freezing and thawing cycles will exhibit dam-
expected life of the existing pavement after areas, full-depth repairs in these areas may be
age, particularly at the joints. This is largely
repairs are made. considered. Irregularities in profile (signifi-
due to the expansion of water within the
system as it freezes and the lack of a proper cant dips/bumps) should be noted and the
air-void system (spacing and volume of
Vertical Constraints cause(s) should be determined. Typical cross
air). Typically with a poor air-void system, Constructing concrete overlays will raise the slope of the existing pavement and the limits
the deterioration occurs at the joints where roadway profile grade unless it is lowered of superelevated curves should be included in
moisture is most prevalent; see Figure 12. through mechanical measures such as milling. the visual survey.
The damage may continue to progress inward
from the joint as moisture finds its way
through the damaged zone.
Figure 12. Typical joint deterioration with HMA patch (source: Trinity
Figure 11. D-cracked pavement Construction Management Services, Inc.)
Alternative Means of
Determining Support Conditions
In some cases, a visual examination and core
analyses provide enough information to
determine if the pavement is a good candidate
for a concrete overlay. Sometimes, however,
particularly in borderline situations, further
analysis is required. One such analysis may
include determination of the subgrade/
subbase support conditions under the pave-
ment in terms of the California bearing ratio
(CBR). Figure 13. Dynamic cone penetrometer (source: David White,
Iowa State University)
NO
Figure 14. Selecting appropriate concrete overlay solution for asphalt pavements
Second, what is the desired pavement life of the overlay, Generally, existing pavements in relatively good or fair condition, or
given the condition of the existing pavement? Third, poor-condition pavements that can be cost-effectively brought to good
what type of overlay (bonded or unbonded) will achieve condition, are candidates for bonded concrete overlays. Existing asphalt
the first two objectives at the lowest life-cycle cost? pavements that cannot be cost effectively returned to good condition are
candidates for unbonded overlays as long as significant structural repairs to
Several factors should be considered when selecting the existing pavements are not needed. Significant asphalt deterioration can
either a bonded or unbonded concrete overlay for an be overlaid with concrete as long as unstable and soft spots are repaired.
existing asphalt pavement. Two predominant factors are Unless there are unrepairable subsurface issues requiring removal of the
the condition of the existing pavement and the extent of asphalt, it is rare that a unbonded concrete overlay cannot be utilized.
pre-overlay repairs required, if any.
Joint spacing
Good Condition
Pavement is structurally sound Spot Repairs
but needs increased structural Can spot surface repairs and/or spot
capacity, improved surface
structural repairs cost effectively solve YES
deficiencies, bring the pavement to
characteristics (smoothness, “Good Condition,” and meet other
friction and noise), corrected constraints (i.e., vertical clearance,
Asphalt surface
surface defects, and/or improved shoulders, safety rails, foreslopes, etc.)
albedo properties. to allow for a bonded overlay?
NO
unbonded) will achieve the first two objectives at Generally, bonded overlays are appropriate for any composite pavement that is
the lowest life-cycle cost? either in good condition or can be improved cost effectively from fair or poor
condition to good condition. Composite pavements that cannot be repaired
Several factors should be considered when cost effectively to good condition are most likely candidates for unbonded
selecting either a bonded or unbonded concrete overlays, provided that the existing pavement can serve as a subbase that
overlay of an existing composite pavement. Two provides relatively uniform support. Significant deterioration can be overlaid
predominant factors are the condition of the with concrete as long as unstable and soft spots are repaired prior to overlay
existing pavement and the extent of necessary construction.
pre-overlay repairs, if any.
A thorough pavement evaluation should be performed to determine the
condition of the existing pavement and assess the scope of required pre-over-
lay repairs. If material-related distress (MRD: ASR, D-cracking, and/or
freeze-thaw damage) is detected during the pavement evaluation, lab testing
should be performed to assess the extent of MRD (see page 13 for further
guidance on dealing with existing pavements with MRD).
Joint spacing
3 in. min. asphalt FAQ—What if the existing pavement is not a candidate for an
unbonded concrete overlay? While most pavements can be preserved
with an unbonded concrete overlay, there are situations where an
overlay is not appropriate. When this occurs, reconstruction is an
YES alternative. Reconstruction options are discussed in Appendix B.
In summary, they include the following:
NO
• Recommended: In-place recycling of the existing pavement to
serve as a base for new pavement or shoulder material.
• Permissible in specific situations: Rubblizing the existing
concrete pavement to serve as a base for new concrete
pavement.
• Not recommended: Crack-and-seat to serve as a base for new
pavement.
NO
Milling/Minor Spot Repairs
Can milling and minor spot repairs
Fair Condition cost effectively remove deficiencies,
Paement is structurally sound bring the pavement to “Good YES
but has minor surface distresses Condition,” and meet other
such as random cracking, constraints (i.e., vertical clearance,
periodic partial-depth joint shoulders, safety rails, foreslopes,
spalling, and shadowing. Check etc.) to allow for a bonded overlay?
for undulating profile grade to
determine if sub-drainage issues
or other foundation issues such NO
as secondary consolidation of an
open-graded base exist.
Milling and Patching
Can milling and/or structural repairs
(patching) cost effectively solve
deficiencies, bring the existing
Poor Condition pavement to a condition that will
Pavement has measurable provide uniform support as a YES
surface distresses beyond those subbase, meet other constraints (i.e.,
described as “Fair Condition.” vertical clearance, shoulders, safety
These include full-depth joint rails, foreslopes, etc.), and bring the
existing pavement to a condition that
deterioration, working cracks,
will provide a uniform subbase for
spot structural failures, faulting, an unbonded overlay?
and/or material-related distress-
es (MRD). If deterioration is also in the bottom
half of the pavement and is located at
the joints, the joints can be milled or
removed full depth and replaced
with lower quality concrete (lean
Deteriorated Condition concrete) with no sawing of the joint.
Pavement is in “Poor Condition” Cracking in the removed joint will
and exhibits significant surface not affect the performance of an
deterioration and structural unbonded overlay due to the
interlayer.
distresses. If severe or potentially
NO
severe joint deterioration from
freeze-thaw damage or MRD is
present and it exists 3 ft to 4 ft
beyond the joint at nearly every
joint, then the pavement is not
normally a good candidate for an
overlay unless the service life is
reduced.
Figure 16. Selecting appropriate concrete overlay solution for concrete pavements
22 Guide to Concrete Overlays
Ch 2. EVALUATION & SELECTION
overlay (bonded or unbonded) will achieve the first can be improved cost effectively from fair or poor condition to good condition.
two objectives at the lowest life-cycle cost? Concrete pavements that cannot be cost effectively repaired to a good condi-
tion are candidates for unbonded overlays, provided that the existing
Several factors should be considered when selecting pavement can serve as a subbase that provides relatively uniform support.
either a bonded or unbonded concrete overlay for an Significant deterioration can be overlaid with concrete as long as unstable and
existing concrete pavement. Two predominant factors soft spots are repaired prior to overlay construction.
are the condition of the existing pavement and the
extent of necessary pre-overlay repairs, if any. A thorough pavement evaluation should be performed to determine the
condition of the existing pavement and assess the scope of pre-overlay repairs
Generally, bonded overlays are appropriate for any that may be required. If material-related distress (MRD: ASR, D-cracking,
concrete pavement that is either in good condition or and/or freeze-thaw damage) is detected during the pavement evaluation, lab
testing should be performed to assess the extent of MRD (see page 13 for
further guidance on dealing with existing pavements with MRD).
Intermediate
Bonded Concrete Overlay joint spacing
Over Concrete Pavement
Joint spacing
Install full-depth
flowable mortar Install subdrains if needed
patches. No
sawing. Place separator layer
(geotextile or 1-in. min. asphalt)
Chapter 3.
As previously described, concrete resurfacing Bonded concrete overlay: Unbonded concrete overlay:
consists of two options: bonded overlays and
1. Bonded on asphalt 1. Unbonded on asphalt
unbonded overlays. Both options are appli-
cable to all existing pavement types—i.e., on 2. Bonded on composite 2. Unbonded on composite
asphalt, composite, and concrete pavements.
This chapter provides an overview of each of 3. Bonded on concrete 3. Unbonded on concrete
the two concrete overlay options on all exist-
ing pavement types.
Figure 17. Bonded concrete overlay of fair or better asphalt pavement with surface distresses
(previously called ultra-thin whitetopping)
Performance • Thinner overlays may shorten the sawing capacity provided by the underlying pave-
window; additional saws are likely to be ment. Additional overlay thickness may be
Bonded concrete overlays of asphalt pave-
required. required in transition sections to prevent
ments have been successfully used in many
movement of the overlay panels adjacent to
states to maintain and rehabilitate asphalt • Application of curing compound or other
the existing asphalt pavement and to reduce
pavements with surface defects; see Figures curing methods must be timely and thor-
the potential for cracking due to traffic impact
19 and 20. Numerous studies have shown ough, especially at the edges.
loadings.
bonded concrete overlays to offer a durable
surface course provided (1) there is a sufficient • Sealing joints improves performance.
The recommended thickness design pro-
bond between the asphalt surface and concrete cedures are those used by the American
overlay, and (2) the existing asphalt pavement Overlay Process Concrete Pavement Association’s Bonded
provides adequate structural support. The overlay project consists of pavement Concrete Overlay on Asphalt (BCOA)
evaluation, design, construction, and future Thickness Designer (2012) or the BCOA ME
Keys to Success repairs. (Vandenbossche 2013). For more informa-
tion on these procedures, see Table 10 in
• Milling of existing asphalt may be required
Pavement Evaluation Chapter 4.
to eliminate or reduce surface distortions of
2 in. (50 mm) or more and to help provide An evaluation of the existing asphalt pave- Mixture Design
a good bond. ment is necessary to
Conventional concrete mixtures have been
• Minimal spot repairs may be required. • Ensure it is structurally adequate to carry successfully used for bonded concrete overlays
the anticipated traffic loads of asphalt pavements. When accelerated open-
• A minimum of 3 in. (75 mm) of asphalt ing is desired, conventional concrete mixtures
should remain after milling. • Determine if milling is required and to
should be proportioned for rapid strength
what depths
• Asphalt surface should be sprinkled with gain without increasing shrinkage properties.
water when the surface temperature is • Establish the bonded overlay design For additional information on accelerated
greater than 120ºF (49ºC) during overlay thickness mixtures, see page 76.
placement. The use of high-modulus structural fibers
For information on pavement evaluation, see
• A clean surface is critical to achieving an Chapter 2. Asphalt pavements with significant can improve the toughness and postcracking
adequate bond between the overlay and the structural deterioration, inadequate or non- behavior of the concrete and help mitigate the
underlying asphalt. uniform base/subbase support, or stripping of effects of plastic shrinkage cracking, should
asphalt layers due to inadequate drainage are it occur. For more information,see discussion
• Appropriate panel size should be established not good bonded overlay candidates; in such beginning on page 77.
with respect to the thickness of the concrete cases, an unbonded concrete overlay should be
overlay and should preferably be sawed in considered. Joint Design
small square panels. The recommended joint pattern for bonded
• Transverse joints must be sawed T/3 (with Overlay Design overlays of asphalt is small square panels,
special attention to thickened overlay over Design elements include overlay thickness, typically in the range of 3–8 ft (0.9–2.4 m),
asphalt ruts and other nonuniform areas). mixture design, joints, and drainage. to reduce differential movement between the
concrete overlay and asphalt and to reduce
• When feasible, design the longitudinal Overlay Thickness curling and warping stresses. It is recom-
joints to be outside of the normal wheel mended that the length and width of joint
The design thickness for bonded concrete
paths. squares in feet be limited to 1.5 times the
overlays is typically 2–6 in. (50–150 mm),
depending on the desired load-carrying capac- overlay thickness in inches. In addition,
• No notable stripping or delamination at
ity and service life as well as the structural if possible, longitudinal joints should be
tack lines exists in asphalt pavement to
arranged so that they are not in the wheel
remain after milling.
Figure 19. SH-119 in 1991 prior to placement of an bonded concrete Figure 20. SH-119 in 2009 after 18 years of service (source: Ron
overlay (source: Ron Youngman, CO/WY chapter, ACPA) Youngman, CO/WY chapter, ACPA)
path; see Figure 21. The use of tiebars or the Minnesota DOT (MnDOT 2013) have resurfacing. If necessary, steps should be taken
dowels is not necessary because of the small shown improved performance when joints are to ensure adequate drainage in the future (i.e.,
panel size. sealed. Because the concrete overlay is bonded retrofit edge drains, free draining shoulder
to the underlying asphalt pavement, moisture materials, geotextiles, etc.).
Studies performed in Iowa on low-volume
that is allowed to infiltrate open joints has
roadways with bonded concrete overlays of When underdrains are present, they should
nowhere to drain, eventually weakening the
asphalt pavement have shown that, on aver- be cleaned, video inspected, and repaired as
bond and resulting in premature cracking of
age, only 5 percent of the contraction joints necessary.
the slabs.
were cracked after 10 years. These results
indicate that there are potential cost savings Drainage Construction
that could be realized on similar low-volume Stripping or delamination in the upper 3 Construction steps include preoverlay repairs,
roadways, either by increasing the slab inches of the remaining asphalt layer to be milling, surface cleaning, concrete placement,
dimensions or by reducing the concrete over- overlaid can lead to premature failure of the curing, joint sawing, and sealing.
lay thickness. bonded concrete overlay. During evaluation
and design of a bonded concrete overlay Preoverlay Repairs
In the past, bonded overlays less than or
equal to 6 inches thick have typically left project, existing subgrade drainage should Before the milling operation commences,
the joints unsealed. Studies performed by be evaluated, as would be done with asphalt areas with potholes; localized, moderate-
to-severe alligator cracking; or loss of base/
subgrade support will require partial or
full-depth spot repairs to provide uniform
wheel paths joint in wheel path bonding and to achieve the desired load-
carrying capacity and long-term durability; see
Table 3.
Outer Shoulder
Outer Shoulder
isolated pockets of deterioration that require
further repairs. For isolated areas that have
a high number of wide transverse thermal
cracks, a decision needs to be made whether
2 ft x 2 ft panels to bridge the cracks with the bonded overlay
or to clean and fill the cracks. Concrete can
4 ft x 4 ft panels span normal asphalt longitudinal and trans-
verse cracks. Filling old cracks with sand,
flowable fill, or other appropriate material is
Outer Shoulder
Outer Shoulder
Milling
3 ft x 3 ft panels Traffic 6 ft x 6 ft panels In general, milling should be minimized
direction
12 ft 12 ft because it results in loss of structural support.
There is no reason to mill off good asphalt
Figure 21. Longitudinal joints should be arranged to avoid wheel paths
that can contribute to composite action and
continue to help carry traffic loads.
Typically, milling all asphalt surfaces to
Table 3. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Asphalt Pavement in Preparation for Bonded
improve bonding is not required. The main
Overlay
objectives of milling prior to placing a bonded
Existing Pavement Distress Spot Repairs to Consider overlay are (1) to remove significant surface
Rutting ≥ 2 in. (50 mm) Mill distortions that contain soft asphaltic mate-
rial, which would result in an inadequate
Rutting < 2 in. (50 mm) None or mill bonding surface; (2) to reduce high spots
Shoving, slippage Mill to help ensure minimum overlay depth and
reduce the quantity of concrete needed to fill
Crack width ≥ maximum coarse aggregate Fill with flowable fill.
size used in the concrete overlay mixture low spots; and (3) to match curb or adjacent
structure elevations.
Crack width < maximum coarse aggregate None
size used in the concrete overlay mixture Matching existing features or minimizing the
vertical change in profile grade will often be
Low- to medium-severity pothole Remove loose material and fill integrally with the concrete
overlay. the primary criteria for determining the mill-
ing depth. When this is the case, a thorough
High-severity pothole and/or areas To prevent a single overlay panel from bonding to both evaluation of the thickness and condition of
needing full-depth repair asphalt and concrete, make full-depth repairs across a full
the existing asphalt pavement must be per-
lane width with concrete and adjust the transverse joint
spacing in the concrete overlay to match the location of formed to assure that the remaining asphalt to
the underlying patch. The full lane width prevents trying to be overlaid is sound and thick enough to pro-
match a longitudinal joint for a partial lane patch. vide structural support for carrying loads.
When milling the existing pavement to a Surface Cleaning lay, curing compound should be applied at
specific profile and/or cross slope is being Following repairs, the asphalt surface should twice the standard rate. The finished product
considered, assure that there is adequate pave- be cleaned to ensure adequate bonding should appear as a uniformly painted solid
ment depth to maintain a minimum 3 inches between the existing asphalt surface and the white surface, with the vertical faces along the
of sound asphalt for bonding after the milling new concrete overlay. Adequate bonding is edges of the overlay also thoroughly coated.
is completed. very important to the performance of this
Joint Sawing
Most surface distresses can be removed type of overlay. Cleaning may be accom-
plished by first sweeping the asphalt surface, Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent
through milling. Milling may be used where random cracking. Joint sawing should com-
surface distortions are 2 in. (50 mm) or then cleaning with compressed air. If material
is subsequently tracked onto the pavement mence as soon as the concrete has developed
greater. The amount of asphalt removed sufficient strength so that joints can be cut
depends on the types and severity of distresses surface, the surface must be re-cleaned.
Pressure washing should be considered only without significant raveling or chipping.
and the thickness of the asphalt. Milling can Lightweight early-entry saws may be used to
be used to remove gross irregularities that when dust control is mandated or when mud
has been tracked onto the milled surface. In allow the sawing crew to get on the pavement
would cause quantity overruns in the volume as soon as possible. With typical joint spacing
of concrete needed for the overlay; it is not no case should water or moisture be allowed
to stand on the asphalt pavement prior to of 3 to 6 feet, extra saws will likely be needed
necessary to obtain a perfect cross section to avoid random cracking. Transverse joints
or to completely remove ruts. If a stripped overlay placement. To prevent contamination,
it is important to avoid a lengthy lag time can be sawed with conventional saws set to a
(loose) layer of asphalt is encountered, it depth of T/3. Transverse joint saw-cut depths
must be completely removed to provide a between final surface cleaning and paving.
for early-entry sawing should not be less than
sound structural layer for bonding. The mini- 1.25 in. (31 mm). Longitudinal joints should
Concrete Placement
mum thickness of structurally sound asphalt be sawed to a depth of T/3.
required for bonding is 3 inches. When the surface temperature of the asphalt
is at or above 120°F (49°C), sprinkling the
Construction traffic—specifically, trucks Joint Sealing
surface with water can reduce the temperature
loaded with concrete—can cause significant and minimize the chance of early-age crack- Contraction and construction joints should
damage to the remaining asphalt pavement. ing. No standing water should remain on the be filled with a hot-poured joint sealant (the
An adequate layer of asphalt is required to surface at the time the overlay is placed. Water use of backer rod is not recommended).
prevent delamination, thus ensuring that trapped in the milled surface can be blown off
the asphalt will function as a load-carrying with compressed air. Future Repairs
portion of the composite section (not as Bonded concrete overlays on asphalt may be
a separation layer or shear plane, as in an Once the surface of the existing asphalt
easily repaired using full-panel replacement.
unbonded overlay). Some construction traf- pavement has been prepared, paving is accom-
Another option is simply to mill and inlay
fic, however, can be placed on the milled plished using either conventional fixed-form
with concrete. Do not patch with asphalt,
surface to identify any loose material (i.e., or slipform construction. Because of the non-
because the adjacent concrete panels will
partial lifts, deteriorated asphalt, isolated uniform thickness of concrete, the concrete
move and break the bond. If a panel is dis-
areas of stripping, etc.) remaining after the material is bid on a cubic-yard basis. Some
tressed but the ride quality of the pavement is
milling operation. All unsound areas should states also include a bid item for placement on
not compromised, the panel should be left in
be removed prior to performing any further a square-yard basis.
place. If a ride-quality problem develops, the
operations. Curing panel should be replaced before any pieces of
concrete become loose from the overlay.
While the milling machine is on site, it is Curing is especially critical on a bonded
important that the pavement surface be concrete overlay because its high surface
inspected to determine if additional milling is area-to-volume ratio makes the thin concrete Key Resources
required. overlay more susceptible to rapid moisture ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1999);
loss. Within 30 minutes of placing the over- MnDOT (2013); Rasmussen and Rozycki
(2004); Vandenbossche (2013)
Figure 22. Bonded concrete overlay of fair or better condition composite pavement with asphalt
surface distresses
Performance
FAQ—What if the existing concrete pavement has MRD below the asphalt surface?
Bonded concrete overlays have been success-
fully used in many states to maintain and Material-related distresses such as D-cracking, alkali-silica reaction, and freeze-thaw
rehabilitate composite pavements with surface joint deterioration can sometimes be difficult to detect in the underlying concrete pave-
defects; see Figures 24 and 25. The key to ment. These distresses can lead to a loss of support and premature failure of the bonded
long-term performance is ensuring the two concrete overlay. Caution should be used when considering a bonded overlay when these
structures—the existing composite pavement conditions are present. Improving the drainage of the subgrade/subbase below the exist-
and the overlay—move as one structure. ing concrete (i.e., retrofit edge drains) can slow the progression of MRDs and potentially
extend the life of a proposed bonded concrete overlay.
Keys to Success
The following actions will help ensure a suc- • Transverse joints must be sawed T/3 (with (3) to establish the bonded overlay design
cessful project: special attention to thickened overlay over thickness. For general information on pave-
asphalt ruts and other nonuniform areas). ment evaluation, see Chapter 2.
• An effective bond between the layers of the
composite pavement is necessary. • When feasible, design the longitudinal Composite pavements are not good candi-
joints to be outside of the normal wheel dates for bonded overlays of less than 6 in.
• A quality bond between the concrete over- paths. (125 mm) if they display any of the following
lay and the composite pavement system is problems:
beneficial. • Thinner overlays may shorten the sawing
window; additional saws are likely to be • Significant structural deterioration, inade-
• Milling of existing asphalt may be required required. quate or uneven subgrade/subbase support,
to eliminate or reduce surface distortions of poor drainage conditions, or stripping or
2 in. (50 mm) or more and to help provide • Application of curing compound or other
delamination of asphalt layers
a good bond. curing methods must be timely and thor-
ough, especially at edges. • Problems in the underlying concrete (pos-
• A minimum of 3 in. (75 mm) of asphalt sibly reflected in the asphalt layer) due to
should remain after milling. • Sealing joints may improve performance.
MRD
• Minimal spot repairs may be required. • No notable stripping or delamination at
• Indications of possible future durability
tack lines should exist in asphalt pavement
• The asphalt surface should be sprinkled problems
to remain after milling.
with water when the surface temperature is
greater than 120ºF (49ºC) during overlay Overlay Design
placement.
Overlay Process Design elements include overlay thickness,
The overlay project consists of pavement mixture design, joints, and drainage.
• A clean surface is critical to achieving an evaluation, design, construction, and future
adequate bond between the overlay and the repairs. Overlay Thickness
underlying asphalt. The design thickness for bonded concrete
• An appropriate panel size should be estab- Pavement Evaluation overlays is typically 2–6 in. (50–150 mm),
lished with respect to the thickness of the An evaluation of the existing asphalt pavement depending on the desired load-carrying
concrete overlay, and it should preferably be is necessary (1) to ensure it is structurally capacity and service life as well as the struc-
sawed in small square panels. adequate to carry the anticipated traffic loads, tural capacity provided by the underlying
(2) to determine required milling depths, and pavement.
Figure 24. Existing composite pavement (source: James Cable, Iowa Figure 25. Bonded on composite pavement (source: James Cable,
State University) Iowa State University)
The recommended thickness design pro- unsealed. Studies performed by the Minnesota The milled surface should be inspected for
cedures are those used by the American DOT (2013) have shown improved perfor- isolated pockets of deterioration that require
Concrete Pavement Association’s Bonded mance when joints are sealed. Because the further repairs. For isolated areas that have
Concrete Overlay on Asphalt (BCOA) concrete overlay is bonded to the underlying a high number of wide transverse thermal
Thickness Designer (2012) or the BCOA ME asphalt pavement, moisture that is allowed to cracks, a decision needs to be made whether
(Vandenbossche 2013). For more informa- infiltrate open joints has nowhere to drain, to bridge the cracks with the bonded over-
tion on these procedures, see Table 10 in eventually weakening the bond and resulting lay or to clean and fill the cracks. Concrete
Chapter 4. in premature cracking of the slabs. can span normal asphalt longitudinal and
transverse cracks. Filling old cracks with fly
Mixture Design Drainage ash slurry, concrete grout, flowable mortar,
Conventional concrete mixtures have been Stripping or delamination in the upper 3 or other appropriate material is necessary
successfully used for bonded concrete overlays inches of the remaining asphalt layers to be only for cracks that have an opening greater
of asphalt pavements. When accelerated open- overlaid can lead to premature failure of the than the maximum-size aggregate used in the
ing is desired, conventional concrete mixtures bonded concrete overlay. bonded overlay.
should be proportioned for rapid strength
During evaluation and design of a bonded Panel tenting (early stages of blowups) may be
gain without increasing shrinkage properties.
concrete overlay project, existing subgrade an indication that there is a void under exist-
For additional information on accelerated
drainage should be evaluated, as would be ing panels. Sections with significant tenting
mixtures, see page 76.
done with asphalt resurfacing. If necessary, should be repaired to relieve the pressure and
The use of high-modulus structural fibers steps should be taken to ensure adequate provide uniform support before construction
can improve the toughness and postcracking drainage in the future (i.e., retrofit edge of a bonded overlay.
behavior of the concrete and help mitigate the drains, free draining shoulder materials, geo-
effects of plastic shrinkage cracking, should it textiles, etc.). If there is vertical movement of the underlying
occur. For more information, see page 77 and concrete adjacent to a crack, the movement
When underdrains are present, they should can be stopped by replacing or retrofitting
Appendix C.
be cleaned, video inspected, and repaired as the joint. The crack can also be controlled
Joint Design necessary. without repairing the underlying pavement by
The recommended joint pattern for bonded adding fibers to the mixture or, in some cases,
overlays of asphalt is small square panels, typi- Construction by placing reinforcing steel over the joint in
cally in the range of 3–8 ft (0.9–2.4 m), to Construction steps include preoverlay repairs, the overlay. Typically, 36-in. (900-mm) long
reduce differential movements between the milling, surface cleaning, concrete placement, no. 4 bars are stapled to the existing pavement
concrete overlay and asphalt and to reduce curing, joint sawing, and sealing. at 30-in. (750-mm) spacings perpendicular to
curling and warping stresses. It is recom- the crack.
mended that the length and width of joint Preoverlay Repairs
Before the milling operation commences, Milling
squares in feet be limited to 1.5 times the
overlay thickness in inches. In addition, areas with potholes; localized, moderate- In general, milling should be minimized
if possible, longitudinal joints should be to-severe alligator cracking; or loss of base/ because it results in loss of structural support.
arranged so that they are not in the wheel subgrade support will require partial or full- There is no reason to mill off good asphalt
path. The use of tiebars or dowels is not neces- depth spot repairs with asphalt to provide that can contribute to composite action and
sary because of the small panel size. uniform bonding and to achieve the desired continue to help carry traffic loads.
load-carrying capacity and long-term durabil- Typically, milling all asphalt surfaces to
In the past, bonded overlays less than or equal ity; see Table 4.
to 6-inches thick have typically left the joints improve bonding is not required. The main
objectives of milling prior to placing a bonded
overlay are (1) to remove significant surface
distortions that contain soft asphaltic mate-
Table 4. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Composite Pavement in Preparation for rial, which would result in an inadequate
Bonded Overlay bonding surface; (2) to reduce high spots
Existing Pavement Distress Spot Repairs to Consider to help ensure minimum overlay depth and
reduce the quantity of concrete needed to fill
Rutting ≥ 2 in. (50 mm) Mill
low spots; and (3) to match curb or adjacent
Rutting < 2 in. (50 mm) None or mill structure elevations. Milling may also be
Shoving, slippage Mill considered to roughen the surface, which will
Crack width ≥ maximum coarse aggregate Fill with flowable fill. likely enhance bonding.
size used in the concrete overlay mixture Matching existing features or minimizing the
Crack width < maximum coarse aggregate None vertical change in profile grade will often be
size used in the concrete overlay mixture the primary criteria for determining the mill-
Low- to medium-severity pothole Remove loose material and fill integrally with the concrete ing depth. When this is the case, a thorough
overlay. evaluation of the thickness and condition of
High-severity pothole and/or areas needing To prevent a single overlay panel from bonding to both the existing asphalt pavement must be per-
full-depth repair asphalt and concrete, make full-depth repairs across a full formed to assure that the remaining asphalt to
lane width with concrete and adjust the transverse joint be overlaid is sound and thick enough to pro-
spacing in the concrete overlay to match the location of vide structural support for carrying loads.
the underlying patch. The full lane width prevents trying to
match a longitudinal joint for a partial lane patch.
When milling the existing pavement to a Surface Cleaning twice the standard rate. The finished product
specific profile and/or cross slope is being Following repairs, the asphalt surface should should appear as a uniformly painted solid
considered, assure that there is adequate pave- be cleaned to ensure adequate bonding white surface, with the vertical faces along the
ment depth to maintain a minimum 3 inches between the existing asphalt surface and the edges of the overlay also thoroughly coated.
of sound asphalt for bonding after the milling new concrete overlay. Adequate bonding is
is completed. very important to the performance of this Joint Sawing
type of overlay. Cleaning may be accom- Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent
Most surface distresses can be removed random cracking. Joint sawing should com-
through milling; see Table 4. Milling may plished by first sweeping the asphalt surface,
then cleaning with compressed air. Pressure mence as soon as the concrete has developed
be used where surface distortions are 2 in. sufficient strength so that joints can be cut
(50 mm) or greater. The amount of asphalt washing should be considered only when
dust control is mandated or when mud has without significant raveling or chipping.
removed depends on the types and severity Lightweight early-entry saws may be used to
of distresses and the thickness of the asphalt. been tracked onto the milled surface. In no
case should water or moisture be allowed to allow the sawing crew to get on the pavement
The objective of milling is to remove gross as soon as possible. With typical joint spacing
irregularities that would cause quantity over- stand on the asphalt pavement prior to over-
lay placement. To prevent contamination, of 3 to 6 feet, extra saws will likely be needed
runs in the volume of concrete needed for the to avoid random cracking. Transverse joints
overlay; it is not necessary to obtain a perfect it is important to avoid a lengthy lag time
between final surface cleaning and paving. can be sawed with conventional saws set to a
cross section or to completely remove ruts. If depth of T/3. Transverse joint saw-cut depths
a stripped (loose) layer of asphalt is encoun-
Concrete Placement for early-entry sawing should not be less than
tered, it must be completely removed to 1.25 in. (31 mm). Longitudinal joints should
provide a sound structural layer for bonding. When the surface temperature of the asphalt
is at or above 120°F (49°C), sprinkling the be sawed to a depth of T/3.
The minimum thickness of structurally sound
asphalt required for bonding is 3 inches. surface with water can reduce the temperature
and minimize the chance of early-age crack- Joint Sealing
Construction traffic—specifically, trucks ing. No standing water should remain on Contraction and construction joints should
loaded with concrete—can cause significant the surface at the time the overlay is placed. be filled with a hot-poured joint sealant (the
damage to the remaining asphalt pavement. Water trapped in the milled surface can be use of backer rod is not recommended).
An adequate layer of asphalt is required to blown off with compressed air.
prevent delamination, thus ensuring that Future Repairs
the asphalt will function as a load-carrying Once the surface of the existing asphalt
Bonded concrete overlays on composite pave-
portion of the composite section (not as pavement has been prepared, paving is
ments may be easily repaired using full-panel
a separation layer or shear plane, as in an accomplished using either conventional fixed-
replacement. Another option is simply to mill
unbonded overlay). When possible, however, form or slipform construction. Because of
and inlay with concrete. Do not patch with
some construction traffic should be placed the nonuniform thickness of concrete, the
asphalt, because the adjacent concrete panels
on the milled surface to identify any loose concrete material is bid on a cubic-yard basis.
will move and break the bond. If a panel is
material (i.e., partial lifts, deteriorated asphalt, Some states also include a bid item for place-
distressed but the ride quality of the pavement
isolated areas of stripping, etc.) remaining ment on a square-yard basis.
is not compromised, the panel should be left
after the milling operation. All unsound areas Curing in place. If a ride-quality problem develops,
should be removed prior to performing any the panel should be replaced before any pieces
further operations. Curing is especially critical on a bonded
of concrete become loose from the overlay.
concrete overlay because its high surface
While the milling machine is on site, it is area-to-volume ratio makes the thin concrete
important that the pavement surface be overlay more susceptible to rapid moisture Key Resources
inspected to determine if additional milling is loss. Within 30 minutes of placing the over- ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1999);
required. lay, curing compound should be applied at MnDOT (2013); Rasmussen and Rozycki
(2004); Vandenbossche (2013)
Prepared surface
Figure 26. Bonded concrete overlay of good condition concrete pavement with surface distresses
Performance
When properly considered, designed,
specified, and constructed, bonded concrete
overlays of concrete pavements have been suc-
cessfully used for many years as a means of
strengthening existing concrete pavements, Figure 27. Bonded concrete on concrete
providing a new smooth surface, and repairing • The thermal compatibility (assessed by and longitudinal joints must be sawed to a
surfaces with surface defects such as scaling, coefficient of thermal expansion, or CTE) depth of at least T/2.
high steel, plastic shrinkage cracks, etc.; see between the overlay and existing pavement
• Joints in the overlay must align with those
Figures 28 and 29. needs to be addressed. Differential aggre-
of existing pavement because the structure
gate movement between the overlay and
They do not, however, have as high a success must move monolithically.
existing pavement can lead to debonding of
rate as other types of concrete overlays, pri-
the overlay. • The width of transverse joints in the over-
marily because of the increased attention to
lay must be equal to or greater than the
detail required in all phases that is sometimes • Inadequate curing and/or using oversized
underlying crack width at the bottom of
overlooked in the execution of a project. The slab dimensions will induce higher curl-
the existing transverse joint (see the follow-
goal is to ensure the layers are bonded and ing and warping stresses that can stress
ing page).
react monolithically to loads. The design, the bond between the layers and lead to
specification, construction, and field supervi- debonding. • An application of a curing compound or
sion of any proposed bonded overlays over other curing methods must be timely and
concrete require a commitment to proper Keys to Success thorough, especially at the edges.
technique. For best results, projects should be
supervised by engineers and contractors expe- The following actions will help ensure a suc- • To minimize curling and warping stresses,
rienced with this technology. Special attention cessful project: some agencies have successfully created
needs to be given to the following items to smaller overlay panels by sawing additional
• Existing concrete pavement should either
prevent premature failure: transverse and longitudinal joints in the
be in good condition or be cost effectively
overlay between the matched joints.
• A proper assessment of whether or not an brought to good condition through repairs
existing concrete pavement is an appro- or milling.
priate candidate for the technique is
Overlay Process
• The existing pavement surface must be pre-
imperative. A majority of failures of bonded The overlay project consists of pavement
pared to enhance bonding to the overlay.
concrete overlays on concrete pavements evaluation, design, construction, and future
are the result of improper assessment of the • The overlay’s aggregate thermal properties repairs.
existing pavement. (CTE) must be similar to (or lower than)
those of the existing pavement to minimize Pavement Evaluation
• The existing concrete pavement must be in shear stress in bond. An evaluation of the existing concrete pave-
good condition or brought to good condi- ment is necessary to ensure that it is a good
tion and cleaned effectively in order for • Working cracks in the existing pavement
should be repaired (or the overlay should be candidate for a bonded overlay and that,
the overlay and existing pavement to bond once resurfaced, it will be structurally sound
monolithically. If debonding occurs, it leads sawed over the crack) to prevent the crack
from reflecting through the overlay. enough to carry anticipated traffic loads. For
to structural failure in the form of fatigue general information on pavement evaluation,
cracking. • Existing joints must be in fair condition or see Chapter 2.
• Proper specifications or supplemental speci- repaired.
If an existing concrete pavement exhibits
fications adapted for the specific project are • Thinner overlays may shorten the sawing cracking from expansion caused by MRD,
necessary. window. such as ASR or D-cracking, it is not a good
• Poor or improper surface preparation and • Transverse joints in the overlay must be candidate for a bonded concrete overlay
cleaning may also lead to debonding and sawed full depth plus 0.50 in. (12 mm), (see page 13 for a discussion of MRD). An
cracking. unbonded overlay may be considered.
Figure 28. Photo of concrete pavement with shotblast surface prior to Figure 29. Three-inch concrete bonded overlay (photo dated 2013)
concrete overlay in 1994 (source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT) (source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT)
Overlay Design • Aggregate with CTE similar to or lower Tiebars, dowel bars, or other embedded steel
Design elements include overlay thickness, than that of the existing concrete pave- products are not used in bonded concrete
mixture design, joints, and drainage. ment will help ensure the two layers move overlays to minimize restraint forces in the
together, thus reducing stresses at the bond bond.
Overlay Thickness interface.
Except for joint design, bonded overlays on
A bonded concrete overlay relies on the • Pore space in the aggregate should be existing continuously reinforced concrete
existing concrete pavement as an integral fully saturated before batching (moisture pavements (CRCP) are designed, prepared,
structural component to carry traffic loading. condition greater than saturated-surface- and constructed the same way as bonded
The overlay is bonded to the existing con- dry); otherwise, the aggregate will tend to concrete overlays on jointed plain concrete
crete pavement to form a monolithic section, pull water from the mixture at early ages, pavements (JPCP). Transverse joints are not
thereby reducing stresses and deflections. increasing the possibility of shrinkage, cut in bonded concrete overlays over CRCP
Under certain conditions, a mill and inlay which can lead to debonding. pavements. Acceptable cracking will occur
can be used if the existing pavement has in the bonded overlay, typically (but perhaps
Joint Design not immediately) over existing cracks in the
significant surface issues but is structurally
sound and the subbase/subgrade is stable The bonded overlay joint type, location, CRCP.
(Harrington et al. 2014). and width must precisely match those of the
existing concrete pavement in order to cre- Drainage
The design thickness for bonded concrete ate a monolithic structure. Matched joints During evaluation and design of a bonded
overlays is typically 2–5 in. (50–125 mm), eliminate reflective cracking and ensure that concrete overlay project, existing subgrade
depending on the desired load-carrying the two layers of the pavement structure drainage should be evaluated, as would be
capacity and service life as well as the struc- move together, helping maintain bonding. To done with asphalt resurfacing. If necessary,
tural capacity provided by the underlying minimize curling and warping stresses, some steps should be taken to ensure adequate
pavement. Some states, such as Colorado, agencies have successfully created smaller drainage in the future (i.e., retrofit edge
have used 6-in. (150-mm) bonded overlays overlay panels by sawing additional transverse drains, free draining shoulder materials, geo-
on high-traffic roads. and longitudinal joints in the overlay between textiles, etc.).
the matched joints.
Thickness is commonly determined using When underdrains are present, they should
an established design procedure such as the An important element in transverse joint be cleaned, video inspected, and repaired as
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement design is joint dimensions. The depth should necessary.
Structures (AASHTO 1993, 1998). Agencies be full depth plus 0.50 in. (13 mm). To pre-
are becoming increasingly familiar, however, vent debonding, the width of the transverse Construction
with the procedure in the Mechanistic- joint should be equal to or greater than the Construction steps include preoverlay repairs,
Empirical Pavement Design Guide (M-E PDG) width of the underlying joint or crack in the milling, surface cleaning, concrete placement,
(AASHTO 2008) as well. For more informa- existing pavement; see Figure 30. curing, and joint sawing.
tion, see Table 10 in Chapter 4.
The width of the existing underlying
Preoverlay Repairs
Mixture Design pavement crack may be determined by spot-
excavating along the pavement edge. (If the Preoverlay repairs of certain distresses may be
Conventional concrete mixtures have been necessary to achieve the desired load-carrying
successfully used for bonded concrete overlays pavement system experiences expansion and
the overlay pushes against itself because the capacity and long-term durability. The surface
of concrete pavements. When accelerated should be inspected for isolated pockets of
opening is desired, conventional concrete width of the transverse overlay joint is less
than the width of the underlying existing deterioration that require repairs; see Table 5.
mixtures should be proportioned for rapid
strength gain without increasing shrinkage pavement crack, debonding may occur.) For isolated areas that have wide random
properties. For additional information on Some agencies believe that T/2 is sufficient for cracks or working joints, full-depth repairs
accelerated mixtures, see page 76. longitudinal joint depth. Others recommend may be necessary. When cracks (particularly
sawing longitudinal joints full depth plus 0.50 working cracks) exist in the pavement to be
The use of high-modulus structural fibers resurfaced, reflective cracking will almost
can improve the toughness and postcracking in. (13 mm) to cut through the bond line.
behavior of the concrete and help mitigate the
effects of plastic shrinkage cracking, should it
occur. For more information, see page 77 and
Appendix C. Width of new Note: Overlay joint width shall be equal to or
Overlay joint overlay greater than crack in the existing slab.
Regarding concrete aggregate, several issues Concrete transverse joint
should be considered: overlay If “X” is 0.50 in. (13 mm) or greater, the underlying
crack width in the existing slab should be
measured. If crack is 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) or greater,
• A well graded aggregate will reduce the Saw cut in and existing pavement does not have dowel bars,
water and paste content of the mixture, existing slab (X) the joints should be evaluated to determine if load
thus reducing potential shrinkage and curl- transfer rehabilitation is required to eliminate
Underlying crack
faulting. If there are numerous joints of this type,
ing, as well as the related risk of debonding. in existing slab
the existing pavement may not be a good
candidate for a bonded overlay.
• The maximum aggregate size of the overlay
concrete should be one-third of the overlay Figure 30. Width of transverse joint in bonded concrete overlay on concrete pavement should
thickness. be equal to or greater than width of crack in existing pavement
always occur. Crack cages over existing non- The most commonly used and most effective concrete, care should be taken that they do
working cracks have been successfully used to surface preparation procedure is shotblasting. not drip oil or other contaminants that could
prevent reflective cracking; see Figure 31. Although milling will roughen the concrete compromise the bond.
pavement surface, milling should not be used
When voids are detected under existing slabs, Concrete Placement
solely for that purpose because of its potential
the slabs should be stabilized through grout Grade adjustments may be made to ensure
for causing surface microcracking and fractur-
injection or other methods. Asphalt patches the required thickness of the concrete.
ing the exposed aggregate. If milling is used
should be removed and replaced with con- Conventional concrete paving practices and
to lower the pavement elevation, any resulting
crete patches (or simply filled with concrete procedures are followed for bonded concrete
microcracking should be removed by shot-
at the time of overlay placement) to ensure overlays. A bonding grout or epoxy coating
blasting or high water-pressure blasting.
bonding of the concrete layers. of the existing surface to enhance bond is not
A consideration in performing repairs is Surface Cleaning required.
whether or not movement in the underlying Following surface preparation, the concrete
pavement will cause movement in the overlay. surface should be cleaned to ensure adequate Curing
Any movement in the overlay that does not bonding between the existing concrete surface Curing is especially critical on a bonded
occur at matched joints could contribute and the new concrete overlay. Cleaning may concrete overlay because its high surface-area-
to debonding and subsequent failure of the be accomplished by sweeping the concrete to-volume ratio makes the thin concrete
overlay. surface, followed by cleaning in front of the overlay more susceptible to rapid moisture
paver with compressed air. If material is sub- loss. Within 30 minutes of placing the overlay,
Surface Preparation sequently tracked onto the pavement surface, curing compound should be applied at twice
Surface preparation of the existing concrete the surface must be re-cleaned. Paving should the standard rate. The finished product should
pavement is accomplished to produce a commence soon after cleaning to minimize appear as a uniformly painted solid white sur-
roughened surface that will enhance bonding the chance of contamination. face, with the vertical faces along the edges of
between the two layers. A variety of surface the overlay also thoroughly coated.
Vehicles should be limited on the existing
preparation procedures may be used, includ-
surface after it is prepared. If it is absolutely Joint Sawing
ing shotblasting, milling, high water-pressure
necessary to have vehicles on the existing Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent
blasting, and sandblasting.
random cracking. Sawing should begin as
soon as the concrete is strong enough that
joints can be cut without significant raveling
or chipping.
Table 5. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Concrete Pavement in Preparation for
Bonded Overlay
If lightweight early entry saws are used for
transverse joints, it must be remembered that
Existing Pavement Distress Spot Repairs to Consider the depth of the saw cut must be the thickness
Random cracks Reflective cracking is likely if no repairs are made; use crack cages or of the overlay plus 0.5 inch and the width of
full-depth repairs for severe cracks the saw cut must be equal to or greater than
Faulting Slab stabilization the width of the underlying joint or crack
in the existing pavement. This may require
Pumping Slab stabilization resawing the transverse joint with a conven-
Asphalt patch Replace with concrete patch to ensure bonding tional saw to meet these requirements.
Joint spalling Partial-depth repair To help match transverse joint locations, place
Scaling Remove with cleaning guide nails on each edge of the existing pave-
ment at the joints; after the overlay is placed,
mark the joint with a chalk line connecting
the guide nails.
Future Repairs
The recommended repair option for bonded
concrete overlays on concrete is full-panel
replacement. Concrete panels are easily
removed and replaced. Another option is sim-
ply to mill and inlay with concrete. If a panel
is cracked or otherwise distressed but the ride
quality of the pavement is not compromised,
the panel may be left in place.
Key Resources
ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1990a);
Trevino et al. (2004)
Figure 31. Crack cage over concrete pavement crack (source: James Cable)
Existing deteriorated
asphalt pavement
Figure 32. Unbonded concrete overlay (previously called conventional whitetopping) of poor-to-deteriorated
condition asphalt pavement
Performance • Partial bonding between the overlay and base, and the overlay is designed essentially as
the asphalt layer of the existing composite a new concrete pavement. The design assumes
Unbonded overlays of asphalt pavements
pavement is acceptable and may improve an unbonded condition between the layers.
have been successfully used in many states,
load-carrying capacity. There are two approaches to assessing the
with more than 30 years of good-to-excellent
potential structural contribution of the exist-
performance in states such as California and • No notable asphalt stripping should exist in
ing asphalt pavement to the new pavement
Iowa. See Figures 34 and 35. Unbonded the asphalt after milling.
system. The approach in the AASHTO Guide
overlays over asphalt do not require extensive
for Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO
preoverlay repairs, but spot repairs of certain Overlay Process Design Guide) (1993, 1998) considers the
areas may be necessary to minimize local-
The overlay project consists of pavement modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value). The
ized failures. Though this overlay type does
evaluation, design, construction, and future M-E PDG (AASHTO 2008) considers both
not rely on bonding, some partial bonding
repairs. friction and k-value.
between the overlay and existing asphalt pave-
ment may occur and can contribute to better Overlay Thickness
performance of the pavement. Pavement Evaluation
An evaluation of the existing asphalt pave- Unbonded overlay thicknesses typically range
ment is necessary to ensure it is a good from 4 to 11 in. (100 to 280 mm). Unlike
Keys to Success candidate for an unbonded overlay. The objec- bonded overlays where there is a minimum
The following actions will help ensure a suc- tives of the evaluation are to (1) estimate the thickness of asphalt required for structural
cessful project: existing pavement’s structural contribution as support, the existing asphalt need only pro-
a subbase, (2) determine the type and extent vide a stable and uniform subbase for the
• Milling of existing asphalt may be required unbonded overlay. Regardless of whether the
to eliminate surface distortions of 2 in. (50 of preoverlay repairs, and (3) characterize key
inputs to the overlay design (e.g., the founda- asphalt will be milled because of vertical con-
mm) or more. straints or remain in its existing condition, the
tion support value should be determined to
• Full-depth repairs should be considered establish a thickness design that accounts for minimum thickness of asphalt to be overlaid
only at isolated spots where structural the contribution of the asphalt layer[s]). must be adequate to provide a stable working
integrity needs restoring. platform capable of withstanding all antici-
Asphalt pavements are good candidates for pated construction traffic (specifically, trucks
• Concrete patches in the existing asphalt unbonded overlays if the existing asphalt loaded with concrete); this would typically be
pavement surface should be separated from layer(s) can provide, or can be cost-effectively 3–4 inches of remaining asphalt or equivalent
the overlay with a thin layer of geotextile repaired to provide, a uniform, stable platform support from other underlying materials such
fabric or other bond breaker. for the overlay. as a chip seal surface(s).
• Shorter joint spacing in the overlay can For general information on pavement evalua- Portions of a project with significantly differ-
help reduce curling and warping stress. tion, see Chapter 2. ent existing pavement and subbase conditions
• Joints should be sawed in the overlay as can be broken into separate sections and
soon as possible because the sawing window Overlay Design designed to specifically address those given
may be shorter than it typically is for full- Design elements include using the existing conditions.
depth pavements. pavement as a base, overlay thickness, mixture The AASHTO Design Guide (1993, 1998)
design, joints, and drainage. and M-E PDG (AASHTO 2008) provide
• The asphalt surface should be sprinkled
with water when the surface temperature is design procedures. For more information, see
Existing Pavement as Base
greater than 120ºF (49ºC) during overlay Chapter 4.
In an unbonded overlay design, the existing
placement. asphalt pavement is considered as a stable
Figure 34. Poor to deteriorated asphalt pavement to be resurface Figure 35. Poor to deteriorated asphalt pavement resurfaced with
(source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT) unbonded concrete overlay (source: Kevin Merryman, Iowa DOT)
the concrete overlay. If bonding occurs, the Curing When there is evidence of some wheel rut-
overlay over the patch will be restrained differ- Good curing practices are especially critical ting on the existing asphalt pavement, adjust
ently than the rest of the overlay over asphalt, to thin unbonded overlays because of their the saw-cut depth to account for distortions
potentially resulting in cracking. To isolate high surface-area-to-volume ratio. This is in the underlying asphalt pavement, which
the patch, place a geotextile fabric or asphalt accomplished by applying a curing com- effectively increases the slab thickness; see
slurry seal to the patch surface after milling. pound immediately after surface texturing; Figure 36.
if the unbonded overlay is 6 in. (150 mm)
Surface Cleaning or thinner, use twice the usual rate of cur- Future Repairs
Before concrete placement, the asphalt surface ing compound. The finished product should The recommended repair option for
should simply be swept. Remaining small par- appear as a uniformly painted solid white sur- unbonded overlays is the same as for standard
ticles are not considered a problem. face, with the vertical faces along the edges of concrete pavements.
the overlay also thoroughly coated.
Concrete Placement
When the surface temperature of the asphalt Joint Sawing Key Resources
is at or above 120°F (49°C), sprinkling the Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1998);
surface with water can reduce the temperature random cracking. Transverse and longitudinal FHWA (2002a)
and minimize the chance of early-age crack- joints should be sawed to a depth of T/3.
ing. No standing water should remain on the
surface at the time of overlay placement.
Conventional concrete paving practices and
procedures are followed for placing, spreading,
consolidating, and finishing the unbonded
overlay. Because of the variation of the thick-
ness of concrete, the concrete material is bid
on a volume (cubic-yard) basis. Some states
also include a bid item for placement, mea-
sured on a square-yard basis. Figure 36. Consider asphalt rut depth when determining saw-cut depth (ACPA 1998)
Existing deteriorated
composite pavement
Performance • The asphalt surface should be sprinkled layers of the composite pavement; (2) deterio-
with water when the surface temperature is ration of the asphalt surface course (asphalt is
Unbonded overlays have the potential to
greater than 120ºF (49ºC) during overlay a good reflector of problems in the underlying
greatly extend the life of existing composite
placement. concrete); (3) existing profile grade line (pos-
pavements; see Figures 39 and 40. Uniform
sible evidence of active panel movements);
base support from the existing asphalt and • No notable asphalt stripping should exist in
(4) panel tenting, which may indicate the
concrete is an important factor affecting the asphalt after milling.
existence of a void under the panel, or joint
performance. Though this overlay type does
• If stripping is severe, the asphalt surface deterioration of the underlying concrete pave-
not rely on bonding, some partial bonding
may be milled off and a new interlayer ment; and (5) foundation support value.
between the resurfacing and existing asphalt
pavement can contribute to enhanced perfor- placed between the underlying concrete and
mance of the pavement. Unbonded overlays the new unbonded overlay (see unbonded Overlay Design
of composite pavements do not require exten- overlay over concrete, beginning on Design elements include using the existing
sive preoverlay repairs, but spot repairs may page 46). pavement as a base, overlay thickness, mixture
be necessary to minimize localized failures. • Partial bonding between the overlay and design, joints, and drainage.
the asphalt layer of the existing composite Existing Pavement as Base
Keys to Success pavement is acceptable and may improve
In an unbonded overlay design, the existing
The following actions will help ensure a suc- load-carrying capacity.
composite pavement is considered as a stable
cessful project: base and the overlay is designed essentially as
Overlay Process a new concrete pavement. The design assumes
• Milling of existing asphalt may be required
to eliminate surface distortions of 2 in. (50 The overlay project consists of pavement an unbonded condition between the layers.
mm) or more. evaluation, design, construction, and future
repairs. There are two approaches to assessing the
• If the existing pavement profile indicates potential structural contribution of the exist-
ing composite pavement to the new pavement
isolated areas of vertical distortion in the Pavement Evaluation
underlying concrete that could signal system. The approach in the AASHTO
An evaluation of the existing pavement is Design Guide (1993, 1998) considers the
movement from inadequate drainage or necessary to determine whether or not it can
MRDs, repairs may be necessary. k-value. The M-E PDG (AASHTO 2008)
provide a uniform platform for the unbonded considers both friction and k-value.
• Full-depth repairs should be considered overlay and, if not, what actions are necessary
only at isolated spots where structural to obtain that uniformity. In addition, the Overlay Thickness
integrity needs restoring. evaluation determines the existing pavement’s Unbonded overlay thicknesses typically range
structural contribution as a stable platform from 4 to 11 in. (100 to 280 mm). The
• Concrete patches in the existing asphalt and key inputs to the overlay design. For required overlay thickness is affected by the
pavement surface should be separated from general information on pavement evaluation, desired load-carrying capacity and service
the overlay with a thin layer of geotextile including specific information about MRDs, life, as well as the condition of the underlying
fabric or other bond breaker. see page 13. pavement.
• Shorter joint spacing in the overlay can Composite pavements are good candidates for Portions of a project with significantly differ-
help reduce curling and warping stress. unbonded overlays if the existing composite ent existing pavement and subbase conditions
• Joints should be sawed in the overlay as section can provide, or can be cost-effectively may be broken into separate sections and
soon as possible because the sawing win- repaired to provide, a uniform and stable designed to specifically address those given
dow may be shorter than it is typically for platform for the overlay. Special consideration conditions.
full-depth pavements. should be given to (1) the condition of both
Figure 39. Composite pavement prior to unbonded concrete overlay Figure 40. Unbonded concrete overlay over composite pavement
(source: Todd Hanson, Iowa DOT)
The AASHTO Design Guide (1993, 1998) The use of tiebars for unbonded overlays Preoverlay Repairs
and M-E PDG (AASHTO 2008) provide should follow conventional use for pavements Unbonded overlays generally require only
design procedures. See basic highlights of and 5 in. (125 mm) thick or more. Using lane minimal preoverlay repairs of the exist-
differences among the various procedures in tiebars may be appropriate in open-ditch (or ing composite pavement. If significantly
Table 10 in Chapter 4. shoulder) sections of unbonded overlays if the distressed areas are not shifting and the
overlay is 5 in. (125 mm) or greater. In this subgrade/subbase is stable, costly repairs
Mixture Design category, a no. 4 tiebar (0.50 in. [13 mm]) typically are not needed, particularly with an
Conventional concrete mixtures are typically may be appropriate. The use of tiebars in adequately designed overlay; see Table 7.
used in unbonded overlays of deteriorated confined curb-and-gutter sections should be
composite pavements. When accelerated considered if the overlay is 6 in. (150 mm) or Note that concrete overlays will bond with
opening is desired, conventional concrete greater. any concrete patches on the underlying pave-
mixtures should be proportioned for rapid ment. Therefore, isolate concrete patches with
strength gain without increasing shrink- Typical joint sealing practices should be a geotextile fabric or other bond-breaking
age properties. For additional information followed. material.
on accelerated mixtures, see page 76. Early Drainage Panel tenting (early stages of blowups) may be
opening can also be aided by use of maturity an indication that there is a void under exist-
During evaluation and design of an
measurements. ing panels. Sections with significant tenting
unbonded concrete overlay project, exist-
ing subgrade drainage should be evaluated, should be repaired to relieve the pressure and
Joint Design
as would be done with asphalt resurfacing. provide uniform support before construction
The load-transfer design is the same as for of an unbonded overlay.
new concrete pavements. Doweled joints are If necessary, steps should be taken to ensure
used for unbonded overlays of pavements that adequate drainage in the future (i.e., retrofit
edge drains, free draining shoulder materials, Milling
will experience significant truck traffic, typi- If surface distortions in the existing pavement
cally pavements 7 in. (175 mm) and thicker. geotextiles, etc.). When underdrains are pres-
ent, they should be cleaned, video inspected, are 2 in. (50 mm) or greater, milling may
For overlays less than or equal to 6 in. (150 and repaired as necessary. be considered prior to placing an unbonded
mm) thick, the maximum spacing in feet is overlay. Milling can (1) reduce high spots to
1.5 times the slab thickness in inches. Construction help ensure minimum overlay depth, and (2)
remove significant surface distortions that
For overlays greater than 6 in. (150 mm) Construction elements may include direct
contain fractured asphalt material.
thick, a maximum joint spacing in feet of placement, preoverlay repairs, milling, patch
2 times the slab thickness in inches is often preparation, surface cleaning, concrete place- Spot milling only significant distortions, typi-
recommended for unbonded overlays. A ment, curing, and joint sawing. cally 1–2 in. (25–50 mm), is often adequate.
7-in. (175 mm) overlay would thus receive a The objective of milling is not to obtain a
Direct Placement perfect cross section, and it is not neces-
maximum 14-ft (4.3-m) joint spacing. The
maximum recommended spacing is typically Direct placement without milling is recom- sary to completely remove ruts. There is no
15 ft (4.6 m). mended when rutting in the existing asphalt reason to mill off good asphalt that can help
pavement does not exceed 2 in. (5.0 cm) and carry traffic loads. If a stripped (loose) layer
For situations where the design requires there is no significant surface deterioration in of asphalt is encountered, it should be com-
mechanical load transfer across the joints and the asphalt. Any ruts in the existing pavement pletely removed. Matching existing features
the pavement is less than 7 inches in thick- are filled with concrete, resulting in a thicker or minimizing the vertical change in profile
ness, conventional dowels cause slipform overlay above the ruts; saw-cut depths must grade will often be the primary criteria for
paving clearance problems. Smaller diameter be adjusted to maintain a minimum of T/3 determining the milling depth. When this is
dowels do not significantly help the clear- where thickness is increased over the ruts. the case, a thorough evaluation of the thick-
ance issue and may not provide long-term
load transfer because of potential socketing in
concrete. One solution that should be con- Table 7. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Composite Pavement in Preparation for
sidered is the use of structural fibers to help Unbonded Overlay
hold cracks and joints together. Additionally,
the use of plate dowels provides clearance Existing Pavement Condition Possible Repairs to Consider
for the paver and allows for mechanical load Remove and replace with stable material (i.e., select
Area of subgrade/subbase failure
transfer. The performance of plate dowels borrow, granular subbase, etc.); correct water problems.
in transverse contraction joints is not well Remove and replace with asphalt material or concrete
Severe distress that results in variation in
understood in concrete overlay pavements patch with slurry seal or geotextile separation layer;
strength of asphalt
of 5 inches or less. They have, however, been correct water problems.
successfully used in industrial parking lots. Full-depth repair with concrete and use asphalt or
The effects of exposure of epoxy or galvanized Reflective faulting or panel tenting
geotextile separation layer as bond breaker.
coated plate dowels to deicing salts is also Potholes Fill with asphalt.
limited. It is recommended that a proven and
tested corrosion-resistant surface be required. Shoving Mill
Research on plate dowels in concrete overlays Rutting ≥ 2 in. (50 mm) Mill
is being conducted at the MnROAD facility Rutting < 2 in. (50 mm) None or mill
(Burnham and Izevbekhai 2012). See Chapter
4 for additional information on plate dowels. Crack width ≥ maximum coarse aggregate
Fill with asphalt or flowable fill.
size used in the overly mixture
ness and condition of the existing asphalt Concrete Placement face, with the vertical faces along the edges of
pavement must be performed to assure that When the surface temperature of the asphalt the overlay also thoroughly coated.
the remaining asphalt to be overlaid is sound is at or above 120°F (49°C), sprinkling the
and thick enough to serve as a subbase and surface with water can reduce the temperature Joint Sawing
construction platform. If the remaining old and minimize the chance of early-age crack- Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent
asphalt is too brittle or broken up to provide ing. No standing water should remain on the random cracking. Transverse joints can be
adequate separation, a new separation layer surface at the time of overlay placement. sawed with conventional saws to a depth of
should be constructed. Without an adequate between T/4 (minimum) and T/3 (maxi-
separation layer, working cracks from the Conventional concrete paving practices and mum). When there is evidence of some wheel
underlying concrete could cause reflective procedures are followed for placing, spreading, rutting on the existing asphalt pavement,
cracking of the unbonded overlay. consolidating, and finishing the concrete over- saw-cut depth is of particular concern for
lay. Because of the variation of the thickness unbonded overlays because the distortions in
An adequate layer of asphalt (3 in. [75 mm] of concrete, the concrete material is bid on a the underlying asphalt pavement can effec-
minimum) must remain to ensure that the volume (cubic-yard) basis. Some states also tively increase the slab thickness; see Figure
asphalt will function as a uniform subbase for include a bid item for placement, measured 41.
the unbonded overlay structure. Regardless on a square-yard basis.
of whether the asphalt will be milled because Longitudinal joints should be sawed to a
of vertical constraints or will remain in its Curing depth of T/3.
existing condition, the minimum thickness Good curing practices are especially criti-
of asphalt to be overlaid must be adequate to cal to thin unbonded overlays because of Future Repairs
provide a stable working platform capable of their high surface-area-to-volume ratio. This The recommended repair option for
withstanding all anticipated construction traf- is accomplished by applying a curing com- unbonded overlays is the same as for standard
fic (specifically trucks loaded with concrete). pound immediately after surface texturing; concrete pavements.
if the unbonded overlay is 6 in. (150 mm)
Patch Preparation or thinner, use twice the usual rate of cur-
If any full-depth concrete patches exist or are ing compound. The finished product should
Key Resources
placed as part of the project in the underly- appear as a uniformly painted solid white sur- ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1998);
ing pavement, each concrete patch should be FHWA (2002a)
isolated to prevent its bonding to the concrete
overlay. If bonding occurs, the overlay over
the patch will be restrained differently than
the rest of the overlay over asphalt, potentially
resulting in cracking. To isolate the patch, a
geotextile fabric or other bond breaking mate-
rial, such as an asphalt slurry seal, should be
applied to its surface.
Surface Cleaning
Before concrete placement, the asphalt surface
should simply be swept. Remaining small par-
ticles are not typically considered a problem. Figure 41. Consider asphalt rut depth when determining saw-cut depth (ACPA 1998)
Figure 44. Route D35 existing pavement in poor condition (source: Figure 45. Route D35 5-inch unbonded overlay (source: Todd
Todd LaTorella, MO/KS Chapter, ACPA) LaTorella, MO/KS Chapter, ACPA)
Separation Layer Design mixtures should be proportioned for rapid MnROAD facility (Burnham and Izevbakhai
The separation layer design is one of the pri- strength gain without increasing shrinkage 2012). See Chapter 4 for additional informa-
mary factors influencing the performance of properties. For additional information on tion on plate dowels.
unbonded overlays on concrete pavements. accelerated mixtures, see page 76.
The use of tiebars for unbonded overlays
The separation layer provides a shear plane should follow conventional use for pave-
that helps prevent cracks from reflecting up Joint Design
Load transfer can be better in unbonded over- ments 5 in. (125 mm) thick or more. Using
from the existing pavement into the new lane tiebars may be appropriate in open-ditch
overlay. In addition, the separation layer pre- lays of concrete pavements than in new JPCPs
because of the load transfer provided by the (or shoulder) sections of unbonded overlays
vents bonding of the new pavement with the if the overlay is 5 in. (125 mm) or greater.
existing pavement, so both are free to move underlying pavement. Doweled joints are
typically used for unbonded overlays of pave- In this category, a no. 4 tiebar (0.50 in. [13
independently. mm]) may be appropriate. The use of tiebars
ments that will experience significant truck
There are three properties that should be traffic, usually pavements 7 in. (175 mm) and in curb-and-gutter (C/G) sections should be
considered in the selection and design of the thicker. The load transfer design is the same as considered if the overlay is 6 in. (150 mm) or
separation layer: for new concrete pavements. greater.
1. Adequate isolation from the underlying Shorter joint spacing should be used to reduce Many states do not intentionally mismatch
pavement to prevent reflective cracking the risk of early cracking due to increased joints and have not experienced any adverse
curling caused by the stiff support provided effects. Some states, however, still intention-
2. Bedding—the separation layer provides ally mismatch joints, according to previous
a cushion for the unbonded overlay by the underlying pavement; see Table 8.
guidance, to maximize the benefits of load
pavement For situations where the design requires transfer.
3. Drainage—moisture should be able to mechanical load transfer across the joints and
the pavement is less than 7 inches in thick- Unbonded plain jointed concrete overlays
escape the separation layer over continuously reinforced concrete pave-
ness, conventional dowels cause slipform
The most common and successful separa- paving clearance problems. Smaller diameter ment (CRCP) are designed and constructed
tion layer is a conventional 1 in. (25 mm) dowels do not significantly help the clearance the same as unbonded overlays on jointed
well-drained asphalt surface mixture, which issue and may not provide long-term load plain concrete pavements (JPCP). Texas has
provides adequate coverage over irregulari- transfer due to potential socketing in con- completed many CRCP unbonded overlays
ties in the existing pavement. The thickness crete. One solution that should be considered over existing CRCP and plain jointed pave-
can be slightly increased when irregularities is the use of structural fibers to help hold ments, sometimes increasing the asphalt
are large enough to impact placement opera- cracks and joints together. Additionally, the separation layer thickness to greater than 1
tions. The separation layer does not provide use of plate dowels provides clearance for the inch.
significant structural enhancement. Thus, the paver and allows for mechanical load transfer. Drainage
placement of an excessively thick layer should The performance of plate dowels in transverse
be avoided. Without good drainage of the separation
contraction joints is not well understood in
layer, pore pressure builds up from heavy
Stripping of a dense graded asphalt separa- concrete overlay pavements of 5 inches or less.
truck traffic and can cause stripping of the
tion layer has led to premature failure of They have, however, been used successfully in
asphalt separation layer. Properly designed,
some unbonded overlays. In locations where industrial parking lots. The effects of exposure
constructed, and maintained edge drains
water and heavy truck traffic will be present, a of epoxy or galvanized coated plate dowels to
may help reduce pumping, asphalt stripping,
drainable asphalt mixture should be used. This deicing salts is also limited. It is recommended
faulting, and cracking. Deeper edge drains
can be achieved by reducing the sand content that a proven and tested corrosion-resistant
(subdrains) are used to help stabilize sub-
and increasing the volume of 3/8 in. (10 mm) surface be required. Research on plate dowels
grades/subbases. When geotextiles are used as
aggregate in the asphalt mixture. See Table 18 in concrete overlays is being conducted at the
an interlayer, they need to also drain into sub-
on page 78 for information on gradation for drains or be daylighted at the shoulder.
asphalt interlayers.
During evaluation and design of an unbonded
For the last five years, geotextile interlayers Table 8. Typical Transverse Joint Spacing concrete overlay project, existing subgrade
have substantially increased in use and geo- drainage should be evaluated, as would be
textiles have proven to be good separation Unbonded Maximum Transverse done with asphalt resurfacing. If necessary,
Resurfacing
layers. For more information, see Chapter 4, Joint Spacing steps should be taken to ensure adequate
Thickness
page 59. drainage in the future (i.e., retrofit edge
6 x 6 ft (1.8 x 1.8 m) panels (not
≤ 6 in. (125 mm) to exceed 1.5 times thickness drains, daylighting free draining subbase
Mixture Design in inches) materials, geotextiles, etc.).
Conventional concrete mixtures are typically
used for unbonded overlays of concrete pave- Spacing in feet = 2 times When underdrains are present, they should
> 6 in. thickness in inches, not to be cleaned, video inspected, and repaired as
ments in poor condition. When accelerated
exceed 15-foot joint spacing necessary.
opening is desired, conventional concrete
Construction swept clean of any loose material either Adequately anchoring dowel baskets to the
Construction elements may include preoverlay with a mechanical sweeper or an air blower. underlying concrete pavement is important.
repairs, separation layer, concrete placement, Conventional placement practices and pro- Alternatively, pavers equipped with dowel bar
curing, and joint sawing. cedures should be followed for placing the inserters can be used. Because of the varia-
separation layer (see Chapter 7, page 103). tion of the concrete thickness, the concrete
Preoverlay Repairs material is bid on a volume (cubic-yard) basis.
Concrete Placement Some states include a bid item for placement,
Typically, only distresses that cause a major
loss of structural integrity require repair. If When the surface temperature of the sepa- measured on a square-yard basis.
significantly distressed areas are not shifting ration layer is at or above 120°F (49°C),
sprinkling the surface with water can reduce Curing
or moving and the subgrade/subbase is stable,
costly repairs typically are not needed, partic- the temperature and minimize the chance of Good curing practices are especially critical
ularly with an adequately designed overlay; see early-age cracking. to thin unbonded overlays because of their
Table 9. As an alternative to numerous repairs, high surface-area-to-volume ratio. This is
When cooling a black-colored geotextile
some states increase the unbonded overlay accomplished by applying a curing com-
interlayer, it should be damp and not satu-
thickness to provide additional load-carrying pound immediately after surface texturing;
rated with water. A simple test is to touch the
capacity. if the unbonded overlay is 6 in. (150 mm)
fabric and no water should show on the fin-
or thinner, use twice the usual rate of cur-
gers. No standing water should remain on the
Separation Layer ing compound. The finished product should
surface at the time the overlay is placed.
Use of a sufficient separation layer can help appear as a uniformly painted solid white sur-
ensure good performance of the unbonded Conventional concrete paving procedures are face, with the vertical faces along the edges of
overlay. Before separation layer placement, followed for placing, spreading, consolidat- the overlay also thoroughly coated.
the existing pavement surface should be ing, and finishing the unbonded overlay.
Joint Sawing
Timely joint sawing is necessary to prevent
random cracking. Transverse and longitudinal
Table 9. Possible Preoverlay Repairs on Existing Concrete Pavement in Preparation for joints should be sawed with conventional saws
Unbonded Overlay to a depth of T/3. Transverse joint saw-cut
depths for early-entry sawing should not be
Existing Pavement Condition Possible Repairs to Consider
less than 1.25 in. (31 mm). Saw longitudinal
Faulting; ≤ 0.25 in. for geotextile interlayer; joints to a depth of T/3.
None
≤ 0.38 in. for 1-in. asphalt interlayer
Faulting; > 0.25 in. for geotextile interlayer; Grind pavement to remove faulting for geotextile or Future Repairs
> 0.38 in. for 1-in. asphalt interlayer thicker asphalt separation layer.
The recommended repair options for
Significant tenting Full-depth repair unbonded overlays are the same as for stan-
Badly shattered slabs Full-depth repair dard concrete pavements.
Significant pumping Full-depth spot repair and drainage improvements
Severe joint spalling Clean
Key Resources
ACI Committee 325 (2006); ACPA (1990b);
CRCP with punchouts or other severe damage Full-depth repair
FHWA (2002b)
Chapter 4.
in the overlay concrete mixture with the same Technology Center for current guidance concrete overlay designs: Federal Highway
mineralogy as that used in the underlying regarding comprehensive thickness design. Administration Pooled Fund TPF 5-269
concrete is sufficient. This document provides guidance for the fol- Development of an Improved Design Procedure
lowing design procedures: for Unbonded Concrete Overlays (under
Climatic Factors development). Future developments and
• Bonded Concrete Overlay on Asphalt (BCOA)
Overlay system performance depends on refinements of concrete overlay thickness
Thickness Designer (ACPA 2012) (http://
climatic factors, both during construction design methodologies can be found at www.
apps.acpa.org/apps/bcoa.aspx)
and during the service life of the overlay. cptechcenter.org/overlay.
Relatively thin bonded overlay sections are • Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, 4th
Table 10 provides a summary of the cur-
more susceptible to adverse weather con- edition (AASHTO 1993) (compatible soft-
rent design procedures, typical input values,
ditions that may affect the ability of the ware at www.acpa.org/WinPAS/) (https://
and pertinent information. Two of the most
concrete to retain moisture, prevent excessive www.google.com/#q=AASHTO.+1993.+G
important aspects in concrete overlay design
heat buildup, or prevent freezing. Materials uide+for+Design+of+Pavement+Structures)
are (1) how each method handles the bond
should be selected that are compatible with • AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design between the existing pavement and the con-
the anticipated climate and freeze/thaw condi- (AASHTO [no year]) (www.aashtoware. crete overlay, and (2) whether the method
tions. Joints and load-transfer systems should org) assumes the existing pavement will provide
be designed to accommodate the movements significant structural capacity or, alternatively,
of the joints due to seasonal changes in pave- Background of Design contribute to the quality of the pavement
ment temperature. For example, shorter joint foundation. With this type of information,
spacing may be appropriate. Methodologies
pavement designers are able to make an
Designing either bonded or unbonded con- informed decision about which method to
Curling and warping are also considerations crete overlays is a process that begins with
for pavement designers. Slab dimensions and apply when designing a certain type of con-
characterizing the existing pavement, defining crete overlay.
joint layout should be optimized to minimize critical design variables, and then calculating
curling and warping stresses. the required overlay thickness. This section Note: Table 10 is to be used for general ref-
presents a general overview of the most com- erence purposes only. For design purposes,
Distress Mode mon design methodologies: actual overlay thickness should be determined
Advancements in computing hardware based on specific design variables for the proj-
and the desire to better understand what is • Bonded Concrete Overlay on Asphalt (BCOA) ect, using the appropriate design procedure.
occurring as pavements fail has led to newer Thickness Designer (ACPA 2012) (http://
apps.acpa.org/apps/bcoa.aspx)
AASHTO and industry-developed methods ACPA BCOA Method
that, in essence, break apart the serviceabil- • BCOA ME (Vandenbossche 2013) (www. The American Concrete Pavement Association
ity model into its individual components. engineering.pitt.edu/Vandenbossche/ (ACPA 1998) developed a mechanistic
Pavement designs are evaluated for “multi- BCOA-ME_DesignGuide/) procedure to design thinner (2 to 4 inch)
modal” deterioration modes that consider one bonded concrete overlays of asphalt (BCOA)
or more of the parameters. Multimodal deteri- • Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. 4th
ed. (AASHTO 1993) (compatible software pavements with smaller slab sizes, which are
oration models carry a number of advantages. not captured by the two AASHTO meth-
They may aid in forecasting potential mainte- at www.acpa.org/WinPAS/) (https://www.
google.com/#q=AASHTO.+1993.+Guide+ ods described earlier. This BCOA method
nance, and they may assist in developing more consists of an iterative design process, where
effective and cost-efficient designs. for+Design+of+Pavement+Structures)
the designer evaluates the proposed overlay
• Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide—A thickness and joint spacing along with traf-
Thickness Design Selection Manual of Practice (AASHTO 2008) fic, concrete strength (modulus of rupture),
In most cases, the designer will have an idea (https://www.google.com/#q=4.%09AAS existing asphalt pavement thickness, and com-
of the likely feasible alternatives based on the HTO.+2008.+Mechanistic-Empirical+De posite subgrade/subbase stiffness (k-value).
initial survey of the project. In selecting the sign+Guide+%E2%80%93+A+Manual+of The procedure determines the allowable
final thickness design, however, it is important +Practice) trucks for the trial design.
for the engineer to anticipate the condition • StreetPave (ACPA 2012) (http://acpa.org/ The ACPA procedure is based on calculating
of the existing section at the time of actual streetpave/) the fatigue damage in the slab for a corner
construction of the new concrete surface. In loading condition, as well as limiting the
many cases, construction will not begin for • Optipave V2.0. (TCPavements 2010)
fatigue damage at the bottom of the exist-
at least 2 or 3 years. Some degradation of the (www.tcpavements.com/index.
ing asphalt pavement at the transverse joint
existing structure should be anticipated and php?op=0&lang=en)
location (ACPA 1998). Temperature curling
considered in the analysis. Allowing for this • Flowable Fibrous Concrete for Thin stresses are also considered in the critical pave-
continued degradation in the surface condi- Pavement Inlays (Bordelon and Roesler ment response. One limitation of this method
tion, the designer can begin the process of 2011) (http://ascelibrary.org/doi/ is that it is based on the PCA beam fatigue
considering feasible design alternatives using abs/10.1061/41167%28398%2984) (see model, which yields very conservative esti-
the procedures recommended in Table 10. Appendix C) mates. As a result, Riley developed a modified
There are several design procedures available ACPA method in 2006 that incorporated a
• Illiniois DOT’s spreadsheet for bonded new probabilistic concrete fatigue algorithm.
for determining the appropriate thickness concrete inlay/overlay of asphalt design
of bonded and unbonded concrete overlays. This modified method allows for inputting
(Roesler et al. 2008) (www.dot.state.il.us/ the existing asphalt pavement properties,
Designers should consult the Guide to the desenv/pdp.html)
Design of Concrete Overlays Using Existing accounts for the type and amount of struc-
Methodologies (Torres et al. 2012) pub- In addition, there is an ongoing effort to tural fibers, and checks for a potential bond
lished by the National Concrete Pavement develop a new methodology for unbonded plane failure.
Table 10. Summary of Current Overlay Design Software (developed by Dr. Jeffery R. Roesler, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Bonded
Concrete
Overlay of Up to 15 3–6 in. 1.5 times thickness (in.) Fair to Good Yes No No 1, 2, 8
Asphalt
Pavement
Bonded
Concrete
Bonded Overlays
Bonded
Concrete
Overlay of Up to 15 3–6 in. 1.5 times thickness (in.) Fair to Good Yes No No 1, 2, 8
Composite
Pavement
Thin Fibrous
Overlays
Up to 15 2–3 in. 4–6 ft Fair to Good Yes No No 7
of Asphalt
Pavements
Overlay of Up to 100 4–11 in. Slab 5–7 in.— use 2.0 Yes use agency 3, 4, 5
to Fair 7 in.
Concrete times thickness (in.) standards
Pavement Slab > 7 in.—use 15 ft
In January 2011, the ACPA released a BCOA this effective temperature gradient occurs 100 3. The equivalent temperature gradient is
thickness design web application, Bonded percent of the time to give the same fatigue defined based on local conditions.
Concrete Overlay on Asphalt (BCOA) Thickness damage as the full temperature differential
4. The prediction models have been cali-
Designer (i.e., ACPA BCOA) that incorpo- distribution.
brated with actual performance data.
rates the work by Riley (2006). The ACPA
BCOA is valid for a slab thickness of 3 to 6 BCOA-ME Method 5. The effects of fiber on the performance of
inches and a maximum panel size of 6 feet. In 2013, the University of Pittsburgh devel- the overlay are more accurately quantified.
Shorter joint spacings (both transverse and oped a new design procedure under the
longitudinal) are typically used for bonded 6. The effects of debonding are considered.
FHWA Pooled Fund Study TPF-5(165)
overlays over asphalt pavements, such as 4 (Vandenbossche 2013), the BCOA-ME. Since The BCOA-ME procedure provides an overlay
foot by 4 foot or 6 foot by 6 foot slabs for a substantial number of bonded overlays thickness after the following information is
a 12-foot wide lane. Note that the ACPA have been in service for an extended period entered into the design spreadsheet:
BCOA web application does not allow designs of time, the opportunity existed to reevaluate
outside these ranges and provides warnings • Traffic
the modes of failure for these overlays. This is
to indicate that the trial design needs to be critical since the pioneering procedures that • Design location
modified or that a bonded overlay of asphalt have been traditionally used for the design
pavement may not be the appropriate solu- ◦◦ Longitude, latitude, and elevation
of bonded concrete overlays are based on the
tion. Furthermore, when BCOA designs are limited amount of information available at ◦◦ Climatic zone
approaching 6 inches thick and 6 feet wide, the time of their development. The perfor-
the BCOA-ME procedure described below • Existing HMA pavements
mance review revealed the failure mode is
should be considered. dictated primarily by slab size and not overlay ◦◦ Remaining asphalt thickness
Updates in 2012 improved the fiber reinforce- thickness, as was previously assumed.
◦◦ Approximate percent fatigue cracking
ment input to the ACPA BCOA based on The BCOA-ME procedure incorporates the
work by Bordelon and Roesler (2012), which ◦◦ Temperature cracking (yes/no)
ACPA BCOA performance prediction model
used the residual strength ratio of the fiber- that addresses corner cracks for slab sizes • Composite subgrade/subbase k-value
reinforced concrete measured according to less than or equal to 4.5 feet by 4.5 feet, the
ASTM C1609-10. In 2012, the ACPA BCOA • Concrete overlay strength, modulus, fiber
Colorado DOT performance prediction
design tool was also upgraded to allow for residual strength ratio, and CTE
model that addresses transverse cracking for
structural designs in any climate zone in the slabs with a 12-foot width (Sheehan et al. • Proposed slab size
United States by including site-specific effec- 2004), and a newly developed performance
tive temperature gradients (Vandenbossche et prediction model that addresses longitu- Enhancements (1) thru (4) have been
al. 2012) for approximately 200 cities. dinal cracking in 6-foot by 6-foot slabs. It incorporated into the current version of the
should be noted that at times diagonal cracks procedure (Beta Version 1.3) and is available
The input requirements for the ACPA BCOA at www.engineering.pitt.edu/Vandenbossche/
thickness design tool follow: develop in the 6-foot by 6-foot slabs, but
these diagonal cracks initiate at the intersec- BCOA-ME/. The design procedure will be
• ESALs tion of the wheel path and the transverse joint finalized, including the incorporation of
in the same manner that the longitudinal enhancements 5 and 6, and available for use
• Percentage of allowable cracked slabs at the same website.
cracks develop. Instead of propagating to the
• Reliability adjacent transverse joint, as occurs with a
longitudinal crack, they veer off toward the 1993 AASHTO Guide Method
• Design location (to determine the site- The method found in the 1993 AASHTO
lane/shoulder joint and form a diagonal crack.
specific effective temperature gradient) Design Guide is based on mathematical
Therefore, the initiation stress for both the
• Existing asphalt pavement longitudinal and diagonal cracks are the same. models derived from empirical data collected
during the American Association of State
◦◦ Remaining asphalt thickness and The design process also includes a check, Highway Officials (AASHO) Road Test car-
modulus based on the work of Vandenbossche and ried out in the late 1950s. Even though no
Barman (2010), to determine whether or not overlay sections were evaluated during the
• Composite subgrade/subbase k-value
there is a potential for reflective cracking. This AASHO Road Test, experience has shown
• Concrete overlay check does not influence the design thickness that, when used properly, this procedure
but indicates whether or not preemptive mea- provides suitable but conservative bonded
◦◦ Strength, modulus, fiber residual strength
ratio, and CTE sures should be taken prior to replacing the and unbonded concrete overlay designs. The
overlay to prevent reflective cracking. AASHTO computer software for implement-
• Proposed slab size and preoverlay surface ing the 1993 AASHTO Design Guide is
preparation The six primary enhancements to current
methodologies provided by the BCOA-ME called DARWin. In addition, a number of
The recent implementation of the effective procedure include the following: agencies and state DOTs have developed cus-
temperature gradient for each city was deter- tom software and spreadsheets to apply this
mined as the equivalent negative temperature 1. The predominant failure modes are rede- procedure. The ACPA has also developed the
gradient that gives the same cumulative dam- fined as a function of slab size and, unlike WinPAS software package, which implements
age as the full distribution of temperature in the other procedures, all modes are the procedure.
differentials for that particular site and inputs addressed within this one procedure.
The 1993 AASHTO Design Guide uses the
(slab thickness, slab length, asphalt thickness, 2. The variability of the asphalt stiffness with concepts of structural deficiency and effective
and concrete strength). For all site locations, temperature is considered. structural capacity for evaluating and charac-
terizing the existing pavement to be overlaid. AASHTO Pavement ME Design ◦◦ Concrete properties (strength, mixture
The structural capacity (SC) of a pavement Guide Method proportions, CTE, etc.)
section decreases with traffic and time. In ◦◦ Drainage and surface properties
The AASHTO Pavement ME Design
this procedure, SC is expressed in terms of
Guide procedure was developed under Three input levels are available for pavement
the effective structural number for existing
NCHRP Project 1-37A, Development of design, depending on the quality of the input
asphalt pavements (SNeff), or the effective
the 2002 Guide for the Design of New and data. Level 1 inputs are used if project-specific
slab thickness for concrete pavements (Deff).
Rehabilitated Pavement Structures: Phase traffic data are available and if certain pave-
Figure 47, which is an adaptation of Figure
II (Transportation Research Board 2004), ment layer material properties have been
5.1 in Part III of the 1993 AASHTO Design
and the original guide and accompanying measured. Level 2 inputs are used if correla-
Guide, illustrates this concept. This figure
software were both called the Mechanistic- tions with standard tests are necessary to
shows how the structural capacity of an over-
Empirical Pavement Design Guide (M-E complete the design. Level 3 inputs assume
lay (SCoverlay) restores the structural capacity of
PDG). The procedure is implemented in national default values in the design process.
the existing pavement (SCeffective) to meet the
an AASHTO professional software package This document emphasizes Levels 2 and 3
requirements for carrying the predicted future
called AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design inputs as a recommended starting point for
traffic (SCfuture traffic).
(AASHTO [no year]) available at www.aash- using the AASHTO M-E PDG procedure.
The 1993 AASHTO Design Guide presents toware.org.
three evaluation methods for determining The AASHTO M-E PDG method predicts
The AASHTO M-E PDG procedure com- performance indicators, such as IRI, trans-
the effective structural capacity of existing
bines a mechanistic-based approach with field verse cracking, and mean joint faulting, over
pavements (SCeffective) when designing con-
performance data so that an engineer can the pavement’s design life for jointed plain
crete overlays: Visual Survey and Materials
confidently predict the performance of pave- concrete overlays. For continuously reinforced
Testing (Condition Survey), Nondestructive
ment systems not considered in the original concrete overlays, the procedure predicts the
Deflection Testing (NDT), and Fatigue
calibration. This method adopts an integrated mean crack spacing as well as crack width,
Damage from Traffic (Remaining Life).
pavement design approach that allows the IRI, and number of punch-outs over the
The designer should select the most feasible
designer to determine the overlay thickness design life. For all of the distress predictions,
method based on the available resources but
based on the interaction between the pave- the AASHTO M-E PDG method calculates
should recognize that each method yields dif-
ment geometry (slab size, shoulder type, load incremental damage over the life of the pave-
ferent estimates.
transfer, steel reinforcement), local climatic ment by employing transfer functions for the
Even though the Remaining Life method is factors, and concrete material and support specific distresses, which are linked with the
often used, it is important to note that the layer properties. The procedure is currently corresponding maximum pavement response
1993 AASHTO Design Guide cites major under evaluation and implementation by a (deflection or tensile stress).
deficiencies associated with this method and number of state DOTs.
explains that the method is mostly applicable ACPA StreetPave Method
Chapter 7 in Part 3 of the M-E PDG
when the existing pavement exhibits very
(NCHRP 2004), “PCC [Portland Cement In 2012, the ACPA released a new version
little deterioration. The 1993 AASHTO
Concrete] Rehabilitation Design of Existing of StreetPave that includes bonded and
Design Guide explains that the Remaining
Pavements,” contains detailed informa- unbonded overlay designs for existing con-
Life procedure is based on the AASHO Road
tion regarding the design of bonded and crete, asphalt, and composite pavements. This
Test equations, and estimating past traffic (in
unbonded concrete overlays. This procedure software utilizes new engineering analyses to
ESALs) may be subjective and/or uncertain.
is an iterative design process that involves produce optimized designs for city, munici-
In addition, this method does not account
analyzing a trial overlay design not only in pal, county, and state roadways. For existing
for preoverlay repairs. For these reasons, the
terms of thickness but also in terms of other concrete pavements and overlays, StreetPave
designer should use the Condition Survey
relevant design features, such as joint dimen- 12 may be used to estimate service life and/or
method or NDT when the structural capacity
sions and load transfer, steel reinforcement (if failure criteria.
estimates that result from the Remaining Life
applicable), and concrete material properties.
method are inconsistent with the observed StreetPave 12 also offers an asphalt cross sec-
The following list summarizes the AASHTO
existing pavement condition. tion design process (based on the Asphalt
M-E PDG inputs (NCHRP 2004):
Institute method) to create an equivalent to
• Rehabilitation type asphalt design for the load-carrying capacity
requirement. A “Life Cycle Cost Analysis”
• Design life
module allows you to perform a detailed cost/
• Pavement failure criteria (cracking, fault- benefit analysis and make informed deci-
ing, IRI) sions on your pavement design project. With
one pavement design tool, you can design
• Reliability equivalent concrete and asphalt sections and
• Traffic evaluate the best possible solution(s) for your
pavement needs.
• Local climate
Bonded concrete overlays on asphalt or
• Pavement cross section and layer properties composite are designed using the same equa-
• Pavement design features tions as the ACPA BCOA method. All other
concrete overlay design methods in StreetPave
◦◦ Slab geometry use the same overlay design equations as the
Figure 47. Illustration of structural capacity ◦◦ Joint and shoulder type 1993 AASHTO Design Guide method. This
loss over time and with traffic
FAQ—What happens if an unbonded FAQ—Why is it better to use concrete as the material for making grade corrections?
overlay bonds to the separation layer?
There are many reasons to use a nominal thickness asphalt separation layer while making
Beneficial bonding can occur when an grade corrections with concrete:
asphalt separation layer is used as part of
• The cost of the two materials on a volume basis is very similar.
an unbonded overlay design. Although
not factored in the thickness design pro- • When a cubic-yard pay item is used for the concrete overlay, the risk of yield loss to the
cedure, this beneficial bonding effectively contractor is nil; thus, the agency pays only for the actual quantity of material used.
increases the load-carrying capacity of
the unbonded overlay system. This is one • It is very difficult to place variable thickness asphalt layers to true grade because of
reason that rubblization or crack and seat variable roll down; there will still be significant thickness variation when this approach
methods are not recommended preoverlay is used.
activities. Leaving the existing pavement • With cost being nearly equivalent, an increased thickness of concrete will add
intact preserves the structural integrity significantly more life than a thicker asphalt separation layer.
of the existing pavement and maximizes
the value of the investment placed in the • When dowel baskets are used in the concrete overlay, securely anchoring them into a
original pavement. variable thickness asphalt separation layer has proven to be difficult.
Unbonded Overlays of When an entire concrete pavement has ments, Texas has sometimes increased the
deteriorated severely along the length of the asphalt separation layer thickness to greater
Concrete Pavements pavement due to movement, it is probably than 1 in. (25 mm).
In many cases, an existing concrete pave- time to reconstruct the entire pavement. A
ment—even one in poor condition—can It is important not to use the asphalt sepa-
good option is to recycle the pavement in
provide a cost-effective base for a new con- ration layer as a leveling course. All grade
place and use it as an unstabilized (granular)
crete overlay. corrections, including leveling, should be
subbase for a new, full-depth pavement if the
accomplished with the concrete overlay itself.
existing subgrade is adequate (see Appendix B
Suitability of Existing Pavement for a discussion of recycling options). The geotextile should be either daylighted
as a Base past the edge of the shoulders or tied into a
The existing pavement is suitable as a base Interlayer longitudinal underdrain system to provide
for an unbonded overlay if it can meet the All unbonded concrete overlays on concrete positive drainage. Laps should be a minimum
desired design life requirements for the base. must be separated from the existing concrete of 8 inches, and the geotextile should be
The existing pavement must be stable and pavement by a stress-relief layer, or interlayer, anchored securely using nails and washers at 6
uniform; that is, it must not experience signif- to prevent reflective cracking from movement feet c/c each direction. The structural condi-
icant differential movement and there should of the existing pavement. Interlayers serve tion of the existing concrete pavement must
not be large areas lacking adequate structural multiple purposes: be carefully assessed before selecting a geotex-
support. tile instead of an asphalt interlayer.
• The interlayer provides a shear plane that
When an entire concrete pavement has begun relieves stress and helps prevent cracks from There has been one documented case where
to break up, it is a good indicator of serious reflecting up from the existing pavement noise from concrete slabs rocking against each
subgrade/subbase problems that need to be into the new overlay. other was observed. This project was a 4-inch
addressed before other solutions are consid- thick unbonded overlay placed on a relatively
ered. If the subgrade is unstable, it may be • The interlayer may prevent bonding of the thick (3 mm+) geotextile. No formal studies
time to replace the pavement and correct the new pavement with the existing pavement, were performed on the project, but based on
subgrade/subbase. so both are free to move independently. informal observations, the general hypothesis
Isolated areas of full-depth structural distress • Drainage must channel infiltrating water
are generally not a problem if they can be along the cross slope to the pavement edge
repaired cost effectively before placing the and then be outletted.
overlay. On the other hand, areas of MRD • Bedding is a cushion for the overlay to pre-
that cause movement from expansion and/or vent keying from existing faulting.
contraction in the existing pavement require
careful evaluation. The design should consider the relative
importance of each purpose based on project-
If MRD-related movement is limited primar- specific conditions and the condition of the
ily to the joints (e.g., D-cracking movement), existing pavement.
and if full-depth joint repairs can be justified
from a cost perspective, a pavement may still Over the years, many stress-relief methods
be a good candidate for an unbonded con- have been used successfully. The most com-
crete overlay. Unbonded concrete overlays on mon stress relief is a thin layer of asphalt
concrete pavements with full-depth structural material. Thickness is not critical, but 1 in.
and/or joint repairs have proven performance (25 mm) is usually adequate to eliminate
records as effective bases for unbonded con- potential problems with “keying” of faulted Figure 49. Upper sketch shows concrete
crete overlays. Some agencies have even had slabs (see Figure 49), localized repairs, etc. overlay locking up with old pavement
success with infilling deteriorated joints with When constructing CRCP unbonded overlays (keying), and lower sketch shows interlayer
stable material such as flowable mortar. over both CRCP and plain jointed pave- separates overlay from existing pavement.
is that the compression of the fabric under For unbonded overlays of concrete pavements, All else being equal, improvements to pave-
traffic loading allowed deflection of the slabs, some agencies note the underlying pavement ment drainage can ultimately allow for a
which caused the noise. The noise was less joint locations and intentionally place the joints thinner overlay design. Such improvements
prevalent during warmer temperatures when in the new overlay away from those joints such have the additional benefit of facilitating the
the slabs were tight against each other and that they are mismatched. The rationale for this egress of water from the pavement system,
eventually subsided completely. In 2013, is that load transfer will be improved. Other which is often a key factor in the joint dete-
the Minnesota DOT started testing the dif- agencies discount this idea in favor of a more rioration being mitigated by the overlay.
ferent thicknesses of nonwoven geotextile construction-friendly approach. In this case,
For example, a change in profile and/or
fabric under 3 -inch thick (fiber-reinforced) joints are simply placed where they would nor-
cross slope can be designed in the overlay
unbonded concrete overlay over concrete. mally be according to the type of design being
so that water is more readily shed from
The test sections were at Minnesota DOT’s built. Both strategies have resulted in good
the pavement surface. Joints in the overlay
pavement test track, MnROAD, and the final performance. An exception to this is existing
can be designed to resist excessive ingress
results will be available in 2014. Early obser- expansion joints, which must be matched in the
of water. This can be done by constructing
vations indicate a difference in both physical unbonded overlay; see Figure 52.
them with a narrow (single) saw cut and/
and audible behavior of the overlays for the
or filling or sealing them appropriately.
different fabric thicknesses. Drainage of Interlayer Subdrainage can also be improved if mea-
Interlayer fabric is specified by weight and The presence of water within the interlayer sures are taken to retrofit edge drains.
thickness (mils) and color; see Figures 50 system will often accelerate the development
of distress in the overlay. Water can enter a For an unbonded overlay, either a nonwoven
and 51. Table 11 provides a general rule of
pavement system from the top down or from geotextile that meets certain transmissivity
thumb for weight and thickness. The weight
the bottom up due to any of the following requirements (see Table 11) or open-graded
per square yard and thickness should be given
situations: hot-mix asphalt (HMA) can be used as an
when specifying a geotextile separation layer.
interlayer that promotes drainage, provided
See Chapter 5, Separation Layer Materials, for • Longitudinal joint trapping there is an outlet. Nonwoven geotextile
additional details.
• Tight, clay subgrade that does not drain interlayers do promote drainage (wicks
If joint faulting in excess of 3/8 inch for water) but must also have a proper drainage
asphalt interlayer and 0.25 inch for geotex- • Densely graded subbase that does not drain outlet. See miscellaneous details for drainage
tile interlayer is present, the joints should be outlets beginning on page 72.
• High water table capillary action
milled to eliminate the vertical offset or an
asphalt separation layer should be used. • No subdrains, or subdrains are not working
Figure 50. Geotextile fabric separation layer (source: Missouri DOT) Figure 51. White geotextile fabric separation layer (source:
Larry Engbrecht, South Dakota ACPA)
Interlayer Fabric
200kPa—20–50 mils 200kPa—40–70 mils
Figure 52. Overlay blowup where expansion joint
should have been cut over existing concrete expansion
joint (source: Dan DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete Paving
Association)
Asphalt interlayers have served as separation Joint Design There are constructibility issues (mainly
layers on concrete for many years. Occasional Because of the high stiffness of the underlying paving machine clearance to the rounded
problems, however, have been noted with platform (the existing concrete pavement) in dowel) when using load-transfer dowels in
asphalt stripping within the interlayer under unbonded overlays on concrete, it is neces- thin overlays (< 7 inches) that necessitate
repetitive loading, causing a loss of support sary to shorten joint spacing in the overlay using smaller-diameter dowels (1 inch or less)
for the unbonded overlay; see Figure 53. This compared with normal designs. The shorter when dowels are needed. The use of smaller-
can occur occasionally with high truck-traffic joint spacing is necessary to reduce the risk diameter dowels has a reduced bearing area
volumes in the presence of water in the inter- of early cracking due to temperature curling that increases the bearing stress on the smaller
layer. Usually, the stripping takes several years and moisture warping stresses, combined with concrete area under the dowel bar, sometimes
to develop. The best preventive solutions are loading stresses. Note that existing AASHTO resulting in premature socketing (enlargement
the following: methods do not consider this in design. of the area around the dowel), which defeats
Rule-of-thumb guidance for joint spacing the purpose of using dowels. In response to
• Provide positive drainage for the asphalt
for unbonded overlays using these methods the need to accommodate thinner pavements
layer. Under heavy truck-traffic loading,
is based largely on experience (see Table 21, and yet meet design loading for longer joint
consider using a drainable asphalt mixture
beginning on page 99, for information about spacings, the concrete paving industry is
or the gradation used by the Michigan
maximum joint spacings). beginning to utilize plate dowels, particularly
DOT (see Chapter 5, page 78, Table 18).
in industrial parking lots; see Figure 54. The
The interlayer should be daylighted to the Transverse joints in the unbonded overlays plate dowels solve paving machine clearance
edge of the shoulders or a subdrain system can be plain, doweled or, in a continuous problems and provide the load transfer across
installed. reinforced concrete overlay, totally eliminated. the joint. Because of the larger horizontal sur-
• Incorporate antistrip additives such as lime Plain undoweled joints are the most common face area of plate dowels versus round dowels,
in the asphalt. Lime was found to be more for thicknesses less than 7 inches. There are the bearing pressure (psi) on the concrete is
effective than liquid antistripping additives. conditions, however, when mechanical load reduced. The reduced restraint and stresses of
transfer is required to meet load criteria with plate dowels also minimizes random cracking
• Seal joints in the concrete overlay and at certain thickness restrictions due to costs or in thinner sections. To date, there is a limited
the shoulders. vertical limits. Before dowels are used, con- number of plate dowels used in highway proj-
• Utilize a geotextile separation layer with sideration should be given to shorter joint ects. In cases where thin unbonded overlays
positive drainage. spacing using synthetic fibers that help hold are desired to meet vertical restrictions and
the joints tight. If that is not possible, then load demands, however, the use of synthetic
rounded or plate dowels can be considered. fibers for shorter contraction joints in com-
Thin unbonded concrete overlays (less than bination with plate dowels in construction
5 in. [125 mm] thick) have been built under joints does have merit.
appropriate loading conditions using short
joint spacing, usually 6 ft (1.8 m) or less, and Manufacturers offer various plate dowel geo-
do not have dowels. metrics and associated installation devices.
The shrinkage restraint is reduced by using
The purpose of the dowels in transverse joints a tapered shape or formed void or by having
is to help load transfer across the transverse compressible materials on the vertical faces
joint. Dowels are typically used when heavy with a thin bond breaker on the top and bot-
truck traffic is anticipated, which normally tom dowel surfaces, per ACI 360R-10. The
drives the design thickness to 7 in. (175 mm) tapered shape, along with a thin bond breaker
or greater. The depth of the dowels is at T/2 on all sides, allows a void space to develop
except in super transition areas (see miscel- along the vertical sides of the dowel, eliminat-
Figure 53. Asphalt stripping of interlayer laneous design details for further information ing restraint as the slab shrinks from the joint;
(source: Dan DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete in supers). The transverse saw cut depth over see Figure 55. Compared to round dowels,
Paving Association) dowels is T/3 or T/4. plate dowels allow adjacent panels to move
The decision of which technology to use is (GPS) to record its position on the earth Establishing Plan Quantity
up to the surveyor/engineer and the avail- surface at any time and the relative position
able technology. Conventional survey is more of the objects being scanned. An inertial mea- for Overlay Concrete
labor intense when compared to LiDAR tech- surement unit (IMU) is used to account for There are two options to consider:
nologies of static and mobile laser scanning. movement (pitch, roll, and yaw) in the survey 1. For minimal preliminary work and cost
vehicle. A distance measuring instrument
Laser Scanning (DMI) is used to compute wheel rotation • Do no preliminary survey other than
and measurements to aid the process. The measuring wheel rut depth and pave-
There has been a steady if not rapid pro- system is capable of repeatable 0.04- to 0.12- ment cross slope at 500-foot intervals.
gression of improvements in the surveying inch accuracy in measurements. Appendix D
industry over the last decade. The efficiency • Develop design profiles of centerline and
provides further information about static or
and accuracy of collecting elevation data has pavement edges.
mobile scanning surveying.
been improved drastically over the tried and
• Estimate the quantity of concrete
true rod and level method. The simplest
required to meet the profiles and provide
method of control is to perform minor mill-
ing that is controlled with a traveling ski and Measurement and minimum thickness at centerline and
edges of pavement.
cross-slope system. The advent of laser scan-
ning has opened a new avenue for mapping of
Payment Items for • Add a reasonable percentage to the
pavement surfaces before overlay construction Concrete Overlays concrete quantity to account for place-
to help eliminate excessive overruns. Laser ment tolerance, construction losses,
It is strongly suggested that concrete over-
scanning (Figure 56) can offer reduction in and surface/cross-section irregularities
lays be measured and paid for by the square
survey cost, savings in time, and less interfer- and establish the “new theoretical”
yard for placement and by the cubic yard for
ence to the traveling public. plan quantity. Some states use 15 to 20
furnishing concrete material. This method
percent, depending on the thickness of
This increased efficiency makes it cost effec- has been used successfully for many years by
the overlay and the amount of pave-
tive to perform in-depth surveys. Based on DOTs that routinely design and construct
ment cross-slope correction desired. The
data obtained from a project constructed on concrete overlays. The purpose of providing
thinner the overlay and the higher the
US-18 in Iowa in 2012 (Cable 2012), it was a cubic-yard pay item for concrete overlays is
cross-slope correction, the higher the
found that performing a nine-line survey at to minimize the risk to both the owner and
percentage; see Table 12.
50-foot intervals provided the engineer with the contractor. The basis for using a cubic-
the data necessary to confidently adjust the yard pay item is the fact that the underlying 2. For optimization of concrete quantities
profile of the concrete overlay and avoid a surface is more irregular than a well-prepared
potential 20 percent quantity overrun in the subgrade or subbase would be. • Conduct nine-shot cross sections at
cubic yards of concrete placed. 50-foot intervals to map the existing
Recognizing that DOTs are acting on behalf surface.
The latest development with laser scanning of the taxpayers and contractors are in the
is basically several existing technologies com- business of taking calculated risks, it does not • Develop a design centerline profile and
bined into one unit or process. At the heart seem inappropriate for DOTs to limit their cross slope that optimizes pavement
of the unit is the light detection and ranging risk to some degree. Assuming that the vol- smoothness, maintains minimum overlay
(LIDAR) scanner, which measures the flight ume of concrete has been correctly estimated depth across the width of the pavement,
time of a beam of light to calculate the range as recommended above, a cap on concrete and optimizes concrete quantities.
to objects at predetermined angular incre- overruns of 102 to 106 percent may be con- • Limit the contractor to an additional
ments, resulting in a very large-point data set sidered reasonable. The agency should make percent of the quantity identified by the
referred to as a “Point Cloud.” The LIDAR regular depth checks at the pavement edges, desired cross section and design profile.
or laser scanner conducts measurements to mid-lane, and centerline of the concrete Some states use 2 to 6 percent, depend-
targets and a 360-degree camera is used to overlay during construction to verify that the ing on the thickness of the overlay.
assist in identifying objects in the scan. The thickness of the concrete overlay is equal to or
unit also includes a global positioning system greater than the design thickness.
Table 12. Typical Adjustment Factors for Estimating Overlay Cubic Yard
Plan Quantities
* Gross surface irregularities are not affected by the overlay thickness; this is a constant that is
entirely dependent on the existing surface condition and any other desired changes such as cross-
slope correction and profile adjustment to obtain a smooth pavement. Table 12 reflects 5 percent
as an example only. An appropriate percentage for gross irregularities should be developed from
Figure 56. Digital terrain model acquired through laser scanning the measurements of wheel rut depth and pavement cross slope at 500-foot intervals.
Overlay Curb
It is possible to place a concrete overlay that
encases the existing curb; see Figures 60 and 61.
Figure 60. Detail of curb overlay (source: Snyder & Associates, Inc.)
Figure 58. Milling detail when leaving the existing curb in place (source:
Snyder & Associates, Inc.)
Figure 59. Milling detail when removing and replacing curb (source: Figure 61. Concrete curb overlay (source: Jim Amundsen, Grace
Snyder & Associates, Inc.) Construction Products)
It should be noted, though, that this option 30- to 35-degree recommendation from the lays with full-depth reconstruction to address
raises the profile grade of the existing curb FHWA. All safety edge requirements should extreme corrections in superelevation.
and may require adjustment of adjoining and follow state agency requirements.
Typically, the desired results are not achieved
adjacent roadway features.
See Chapter 6 for temporary centerline fillets. when an asphalt separation layer is utilized
for correcting cross slope and profile (smooth-
Vertical Grade Changes Cross Road Drainage Structures ness) deficiencies. This is because variable
Depending on the vertical change in profile When safety slopes are regraded to meet asphalt thickness, when compacted, creates
grade, there are numerous constraints that appropriate design criteria, it may be neces- variable roll down; the result is a nonuniform
need to be considered in the overlay design sary to extend drainage structures to match surface that still must be corrected with addi-
process. the new foreslopes. tional concrete thickness. The most effective
and economical way to make corrections is to
Overhead Clearance Cross Slope and Superelevation make cross slope and smoothness adjustments
Depending on the location of the project, in the concrete overlay; see Figure 63. There
Changes to cross slope and superelevation can
various regulations for minimum overhead are some considerations to make, however,
lead to thicker concrete overlay sections. For
clearance may apply. The final pavement when correcting cross slope and profile fea-
cost effectiveness, designers should consider
elevation and thickness may need to be tures through a variable thickness concrete
matching existing cross slopes whenever pos-
limited or measures taken to raise overhead overlay:
sible. When crown and/or superelevation
obstacles. Alternatively, it may be preferred to corrections are required, adequate informa- • The depth of saw cut for contraction joints
conduct full-depth reconstruction or build an tion on the depth of material to meet the final must be adjusted through the thicker areas
alternative section (i.e., mill down and place a grade is also required. The type of fill materi- of concrete placement.
thinner but higher-strength concrete overlay) als to use (concrete, asphalt, flowable fill,
at such locations. • Dowels should be placed (baskets or
cement-treated base, etc.) should be selected
mechanical inserters) so that a minimum
based on the depth of fill, installation and
Barriers and Rails cover of 2 inches is maintained around the
construction issues, initial costs, and future
dowel bar (see Snyder 2011 for additional
Safety barriers, guardrails, and cable barriers removal costs. Some projects combine over-
information).
may need to be raised/reconstructed depend-
ing on the change in profile grade and the
horizontal distance between the edge of pave-
ment and the safety feature.
(0.8–1.1 m)
Figure 65. Diamond-shaped plate dowels in fixed-formed construction joints (right side) and football-shaped
dowels by slipforms
Table 13. Size and Spacing of Plate Dowels for Construction Joints
Plate Dowel Thickness Plate Spacing for Heavy Traffic, Plate Dowel Spacing for Light
Pavement Depth
and Width at Joint Wide Joint Openings, or Both Traffic or Narrow Joint Opening
125 to 174 mm 6 mm x 160 mm 450 mm 600 mm
Table 14. Size and Spacing of Plate Dowels for Contraction Joints
Plate Dowel Thickness and Plate Spacing for Heavy Traffic, Plate Dowel Spacing for Light
Pavement Depth
Width at Center Line of Plate Wide Joint Openings, or Both Traffic or Narrow Joint Opening
Corrosion Resistance Dowel installation devices that remain in the should recognize that when new concrete
Where corrosion resistance for plate dowels pavement and transfer load to the concrete topping, with an inherent tendency to shrink,
is required, they are generally either galva- by bearing should be made of thin, rigid is tied to previously placed concrete topping
nized or electroplated with zinc, but other material to help minimize the vertical deflec- that has already gone through the shrinkage
methods such as epoxy coating may also be tion. Dowel installation devices that are loose process, stresses will develop that can cause
appropriate. fitting or made of soft material can result in cracking; see Figures 68 and 69.
significant initial vertical deflection that may
Load transfer between previously placed
Plate Dowel Installation for cause early joint deterioration (Walker and
sections and newly placed concrete can be
Holland 2007).
Construction Joints Formed obtained through the use of football-shaped
with a Bulkhead (Form) plate dowels. In this application, slots can be
Plate Dowel Installation in
cut into the existing slab to receive the plate
Alignment or installation devices should be Slipform or Full-depth Saw Cut dowels. An epoxy or similar material should
incorporated into the bulkhead (forms) to (Butt-type) Construction Joints be used to rigidly grout the plate into the slot
ensure that dowels are centered in the joint,
In slipform or full-depth saw cut construction to ensure a tight fit.
horizontal with the pavement’s surface, and
perpendicular to the joint; see Figures 66 joints (as would be encountered in a remove-
and 67. and-replacement area of topping), designers
Figure 66. Detail of construction joint plate dowel for fixed-form paving
6 in.
6 in. Min.
Min.
Transitions concrete sections, conventional reinforcement Figures 72 through 79 provide details for vari-
or wire mesh, and structural macro fibers. ous transitions used for overlay construction.
A concrete overlay design often requires tran-
Transitions must be designed and constructed In general, transition length should be based
sition details that link the concrete overlay
to connect the new overlay pavement with (1) upon the design speed—40:1 for roadways
with the pavement structure adjacent to the
existing pavement, (2) existing structures, and posted at 45 mph (miles per hour) or greater
project length. Since these locations are often
(3) driveways. and 25:1 for speeds less than 45 mph.
subject to additional stress, , including thicker
Temporary Transition
Constructed with Asphalt Transition
Concrete Overlay
Granular Material R.O.W.
Concrete Overlay
R.O.W.
Figure 78. Temporary granular transition to existing side road/ Figure 79. Asphalt wedge transition to existing side road/driveway
driveway
Temporary Transition
of pavement
Figure 83. Unbonded overlay of concrete,
Keep joint out of asphalt, or composite pavement with
wheel path widening unit
where possible
Ove
rlay
Unbonded
Exis
t
sep ing as
arat p
ion halt or
laye
r
Exis
ting
con
cret
e
Cold joint or
full-depth
Remove existing asphalt saw cut
widening to depth of existing -no tie bar
3-6 ft (0.9-1.8 m)
asphalt or to the depth of the concrete widening unit
new concrete widening unit,
whichever is greater, and Previously widened with asphalt or concrete
replace with concrete
widening unit
Rural Conditions
Figure 86. Interlayer outlet for concrete
overlay shoulder
Travel lane(s) New concrete overlay
shoulder
Daylight innerlayer/fabric
or install vertical subdrain
HMA innerlayer or
Geotextile fabric
Existing concrete or
asphalt shoulder
HMA innerlayer
Place 4 to 6 in.- thick
permeable
Existing concrete pavement
HMA shoulder
Interlayer
Figure 89. Drainage of separation layer (interlayer) into an existing underdrain system when existing curb is
removed and replaced (source: Dan DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete Association)
Existing Pavement
Single Open-Throat
Curb Intake
Chapter 5.
A majority of concrete overlay mixtures are crete. Typical replacement rates with SCMs well graded systems allow use of higher aggre-
designed and constructed using standard are 15 to 35 percent, depending on the gate and lower paste contents. Because paste
materials. These materials include cement, chemistry of the system. Commonly used is more permeable than aggregate, reducing
supplementary cementitious materials SCMs include Class C fly ash, Class F fly paste content while maintaining workability
(SCMs), aggregates, water, and admixtures. ash, and ground granulated blast furnace slag will lead to reduced permeability (Yurdakul
(GGBFS). 2010). Third, better workability will lead
Concrete mixtures can be either conventional to better consolidation of the mixture, also
or, in special circumstances, accelerated; Setting times for concrete may be retarded
improving (reducing) permeability (Tayabji et
both types of concrete mixtures can be fiber when SCMs are used, especially in cool
al. 2007) and reducing the risk of overvibra-
reinforced. Other materials associated with weather conditions, which can cause difficulty
tion and the attendant problems. Finally, the
concrete overlays include dowel bars, tiebars, in sawing joints before random cracking
improved workability of well graded concrete
curing compound, joint sealant, and separator occurs. Therefore, heating of the concrete
mixtures allows for more efficient placement,
layers. and/or the use of accelerating admixtures is
especially in handwork, which means that the
recommended during periods of extended
This guide classifies concrete mixtures as pavement is able to be finished earlier while
cool weather. Ensure that the strength gain
either conventional or accelerated. The pri- the mix is still fresh.
of the mixture is compatible with the sawing
mary difference is that accelerated mixtures plan (HIPERPAV can assist in assessing the The maximum coarse aggregate size used in
are designed for a faster rate of strength gain, risk of random cracking). More information concrete mixtures for overlays is a function of
allowing earlier opening of the concrete is available in the Integrated Materials and the overlay thickness. Some thinner concrete
overlay to construction and/or public traffic Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement overlays may require a reduction in size of the
(see page 105 for comprehensive guidance (Taylor 2006). standard aggregate used in concrete paving.
on accelerated construction techniques). It is recommended that the largest practical
Producing a durable concrete mixture should Since SCMs can retard set time in cold
maximum coarse aggregate size be used in
be the primary objective regardless of whether weather, some agencies restrict their use in
order to minimize paste requirements, reduce
the mix is conventional or accelerated. This colder seasons of the year. Supplementary
shrinkage, minimize costs, and improve
guide provides general recommendations for cementitious materials can, however, aid con-
mechanical interlock properties at joints and
developing durable concrete mixtures to be struction during hot weather by extending
cracks.
used in concrete overlays. The design and the placement time. They typically improve
production of concrete mixtures for concrete the workability of the mix and also increase Although maximum coarse aggregate sizes of
overlays should adhere to best practices for concrete durability; they also can increase the 0.75–1 in. (19–25 mm) have been common
local requirements (i.e., aggregate durability, long-term strength of the concrete, although in the last two decades, smaller maximum
air entrainment, etc.). the short-term strength may be lower. In coarse aggregate sizes may be required for
addition, fly ash and GGBFS are effective
in reducing ASR (ASR mitigation should be
Primary Concrete confirmed by ASTM 1567). Table 15. The Effect of Aggregate Gradation
on Mixture Properties
Materials Aggregates Well Graded Aggregates
The primary materials in concrete are Concrete mixtures produced with well graded,
Aggregates used in concrete mixtures range dense aggregate matrix tend to
cementitious materials, water, aggregate, and
from crushed stones to river gravels and gla-
admixtures. • Reduce the water demand
cial deposits. To help ensure the longevity of
the pavement, the aggregate should not only • Reduce the cementitious material demand
Cementitious Materials possess adequate strength but also be stable • Reduce the shrinkage potential
Type I and Type II cements are commonly physically and chemically within the con- • Improve workability
used in concrete mixtures for concrete over- crete mixture. Agencies generally require that • Require minimal finishing
lays. When high early strength is desired, aggregates conform to ASTM C 33 for physi- • Consolidate without segregation
higher amounts of Type I can be used. Since cal properties; a well graded mixture should • Enhance strength and long-term performance
conventional Types I and II cements are nor- be specified. Extensive laboratory testing Gap-graded Aggregates
mally adequate, the use of Type III cements or demonstrated field performance is often
required to ensure the selection of a durable Concrete mixtures produced with a gap-graded
with overlays is not recommended because of
aggregate combination may
increased thermal shrinkage and potential for aggregate.
thermal shock. As with conventional paving, • Segregate easily
The use of well graded aggregates helps to • Contain higher amounts of fines
SCMs normally improve durability and can
improve permeability in several ways; see • Require more water
enhance the ease of construction.
Table 15. First, mixtures made with well
• Require more cementitious material to meet
Replacement of some cement with SCMs graded systems tend to be more work- strength requirements
in well-cured concrete has multiple ben- able, which in turn means that less water • Increase susceptibility to shrinkage
efits ranging from improved workability to is required to achieve the same workability, • Limit long-term performance
reduced permeability of the hardened con- allowing use of a lower w/cm ratio. Second,
concrete resurfacing. For nonreinforced of the components used in a concrete mixture Adequate Air Void System
pavement structures, a maximum aggregate should be carefully selected so that the result-
Freeze-thaw durability is primarily affected
size of one-third of the slab thickness is ing mixture is dense, relatively impermeable,
by the environment (wet freezing conditions)
recommended. and resistant to both environmental effects
and the air void system of the concrete. An air
and deleterious chemical reactions over the
When selecting aggregate for a bonded void system consisting of many small, closely
length of its service life.
concrete overlay on an existing concrete spaced voids is a common means of providing
pavement, the CTE becomes a particularly There are numerous references for developing protection against freeze-thaw damage. An
important parameter. Because aggregate durable concrete mixtures; the following sec- adequate air void system in the as-placed con-
composes a majority of the concrete’s mass, tion is adapted from the Guide for Optimum crete is vital. Air void systems can be affected
its CTE is a good indicator of concrete Joint Performance of Concrete Pavements by varying the composition of concrete con-
movement due to thermal expansion and (Taylor et al. 2012), which provides recom- stituents, placing techniques, and finishing
contraction. Using an aggregate in the overlay mendations for designing and constructing activities. For concrete that is exposed to deic-
mixture with a CTE similar to that of the durable concrete pavements. ing chemicals or high water saturation (which
existing pavement helps ensure that the two is considered “severe exposure”), a spacing
The permeability of a concrete mixture factor equal to or below 0.008 in. (0.2 mm)
layers move together, thus minimizing stress
determines how easily moisture can infiltrate is recommended, along with a specific sur-
at the bond line due to differential movement
the paste structure of the concrete. A lower face area of air voids equal to or greater than
and helping to maintain the bond between
permeability is desirable to slow the rate at 600 in.²/in. (24 mm²/mm). PCA Bulletin
the layers. The CTE can be determined using
which concrete will become saturated. Recent EB001.15 recommends a minimum of 5 per-
AASHTO provisional test TP-60 (Coefficient
work led by the South Dakota DOT includes cent to 8 percent air content in the in-place
of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic Cement
recommendations to achieve durable, dense, concrete to prevent damage (Kosmatka and
Concrete).
and impermeable concretes that withstand the Wilson 2011). In addition, Sutter and Ley
If not similar to the CTE of the underlying deleterious effects of deicing chemicals (Sutter have reported that these values are still appro-
concrete pavement, the CTE of the overlay et al. 2008) and prevent or reduce joint dete- priate based on recent laboratory work (Ley et
should be less than that of the underlying rioration caused by water saturation at the al. 2012).
pavement. The overlay surface is exposed to joints. Recommendations include designing
greater temperature swings than the under- mixtures with low w/cm ratio, adequate air Test procedures to determine air content in
lying pavement. Therefore, the lower the void systems, appropriate use of SCMs, and fresh concrete include the pressure method
overlay’s CTE, the less the differential move- well graded aggregates. (ASTM C 231/AASHTO T 152), the volu-
ment between the overlay and underlying metric method (ASTM C 173/AASHTO T
Target permeability at 56 days should be less 196), and the gravimetric method (ASTM
pavement.
than 1,500 coulombs when tested in accor- C 138/AASHTO T 121). The air content
dance with the rapid chloride permeability should be checked in samples taken in front
Admixtures test (ASTM C 1202) or 25 kΩ-cm when of the paver, and periodically from behind the
Various admixtures and additives are com- tested using surface resistivity measured in paver, to quantify how much air content is
monly introduced into concrete mixtures. accordance with AASHTO TP 95. lost during placing. By periodically comparing
These include the following: air content difference between samples taken
• Air entrainment protects the hardened con- Low w/cm Ratio from the same hauling unit both before and
crete from freeze-thaw damage and deicer The permeability of a concrete mixture after the paver, the stability or quality of the
scaling. Air entrainment, however, also is primarily governed by the amount of air system can be estimated. When the differ-
helps increase the workability of fresh con- water in the concrete at the time of mixing. ence between the two test results is less than 2
crete, significantly reducing segregation and Permeability will decrease as less water is percent, the hardened air-determined spacing
bleeding. The typical entrained air content used. The w/cm ratio should not exceed 0.45; factor is usually acceptable. If the difference
of concrete for overlays is in the range of 5 ideally, the w/cm ratio should be between is greater than 2 percent, then admixture dos-
to 7 percent. 0.38 and 0.42 (especially for wet freeze-thaw age of the mixture should be adjusted and/or
environments). the placement processes modified to ensure
• Water reducers are added to concrete adequate protection of the in-place system.
mixtures in order to reduce the amount There are a number of ways to achieve uni- Concrete performance can be assessed in the
of water required to produce concrete of a formly lower w/cm ratios while retaining laboratory (during design stage) using ASTM
given consistency. This allows for a lower- satisfactory workability, including combina- C 666/AASHTO T 161.
ing of the w/cm (water-cementitious) ratio tions of the following:
while maintaining a desired slump and
• Using SCMs in appropriate dosages
thus has the beneficial effect of increasing
strength and reducing permeability. • Using water-reducing admixtures Accelerated
• Using aggregate systems with combined Mixtures
gradation, which promotes reduced paste Although the use of accelerated mixtures and
Conventional volume and improved workability expedited paving practices has become more
Concrete Mixtures • Controlling concrete temperature
common in concrete overlay projects, there
has been some concern regarding potential
Conventional concrete paving mixtures are • Not adding water to a ready-mix truck at detrimental effects of faster-setting concrete
typically used in the construction of concrete the point of delivery, which exceeds the mixtures and reduced construction times on
overlays. As with conventional concrete pave- design w/cm the long-term durability of concrete due to
ments, an effective mixture design is essential excessive shrinkage, heat generation, and poor
to the performance of a concrete overlay. Each microstructure.
FAQ—How do I determine the appro- FAQ—What are the concerns when using accelerated mixtures?
priate opening strength?
Mixtures that gain strength quickly and generate high heat of hydration have had long-term
Opening strength should be determined performance issues. There is a trade-off between early opening and long-term durability
based on the anticipated early loading that needs to be evaluated when deciding whether or not to use an accelerated mixture.
traffic, concrete overlay thickness, and Accelerated opening can often be achieved through good construction scheduling and
ability to mitigate early edge loading coordination, which negates the need for accelerated concrete mixtures. Thus, durability
using traffic control devices. Table 16 and speed of construction are factors that should be considered together during the design
provides general guidance regarding phase. In general, emphasis should be given to using conventional mixes whenever possible.
opening strength and concrete thickness.
Other Materials
Other materials that may be introduced to
the mixture or used as part of the construc-
tion process include fibers, separation layers,
dowels and tiebars, joint sealant, and curing
compound.
and resistance to rust damage. Structural Separation Layer Materials Asphalt Separation Layer
macro synthetic fibers (ASTM C-116 Type Until 2010, the most common and success-
A separation layer (or interlayer) is an impor-
III, Section 4.1.3) are commonly used at 3 to ful separation layer used in the United States
tant feature of unbonded concrete overlays on
4 lb/yd3. was a conventional asphalt mixture. On most
existing concrete pavements. The performance
For current design technology, the dosage of these overlays depends largely upon using projects, a nominal 1-in. (25-mm) thick layer
of fiber, whether synthetic, steel, or some a separation layer to isolate the two concrete provides adequate coverage over irregularities
blend, is specified to produce certain behav- layers. All unbonded concrete overlays on in the existing pavement. The thickness can
ior characteristics in the hardened concrete. concrete must be separated from the existing be slightly increased when irregularities are
These characteristics correlate with forecasts concrete pavement by a stress-relief layer, or large enough to impact placement operations.
of increased performance such as flexural separation layer, to prevent reflective cracking Asphalt mixtures that contain higher percent-
strength, and hence fatigue capacity is from movement of the existing pavement. The ages of oil combined with smaller maximum
enhanced. It should be noted that the actual separation layer provides a shear plane that nominal aggregate size have contributed to
strength of the concrete given the current relieves stress and helps prevent cracks from movement of dowel baskets during the paving
technology increases only slightly, if at all. reflecting up from the existing pavement into operation because of concrete sliding on top
Concrete will still crack if the load exceeds the new overlay. of the asphalt separation layer. Typical base
that which can be borne mechanically at its mixtures with lower oil content that do not
Separation layers may serve three purposes: seal up completely provide additional friction
upper strength limit, given the geometric
properties of the section, but it will carry a 1. Isolation from movement of the underly- during the concrete placement operation,
much greater number of lesser loads up to ing pavement—a shear plane that relieves which may alleviate this condition.
that point and will continue to carry loads stress, mitigates reflective cracking, and The separation layer does not provide signifi-
beyond that point. A simple analogy is to may prevent bonding with the existing cant structural enhancement; therefore, the
think of the concrete as being effectively pavement placement of an excessively thick layer should
stronger than that measured in a beam test; be avoided.
this effect varies as a function of dosage, not 2. Drainage—the separation layer either must
on weight, but by volume of fibers in the con- be impervious so that it prevents water When an unbonded concrete overlay pave-
crete mixture. from penetrating below the overlay or must ment is poorly drained and experiences heavy
channel infiltrating water along the cross truck traffic, scouring (stripping) of the
Table 17 provides a summary of current slope to the pavement edge asphalt separation layer with a conventional
categories of fibers, with general descriptions asphalt mix may occur. In an effort to reduce
and application rates. For a more detailed 3. Bedding—a cushion for the overlay to
reduce bearing stresses and the effects of the scour pore pressure and increase stability,
discussion of fibers, see Appendix C, Fiber some states modify the asphalt mixture to
Reinforcement. dynamic traffic loads and to prevent keying
from existing faulting make it more porous. In particular, the sand
content is reduced and the volume of 0.38
in. (10 mm) chip aggregate is increased. This
modified mixture has a lower unit weight and
Table 17. Summary of Fiber Types lower asphalt content, and it is comparable in
cost to typical surface mixtures. The Michigan
Size Years Typical Fiber
Fiber DOT has designed an asphalt mixture with
(D = dia.) Used in Volume Comments
Type modified aggregate gradations to address strip-
(L = length) U.S. (lb/yd3)
D< To reduce plastic shrinkage cracking and
ping of separation layers; see Table 18.
Micro
0.012 in. (0.3 mm) settlement cracking; limited effect on Other materials have been utilized for separa-
Synthetic 35 1.0 to 3.0
concrete overlay overall performance; more
Fibers tion layers; however, the performance of these
L 0.50 to 2.25 in. workability issues when using higher rates
materials has been inconsistent (for details on
D> Increases post-crack flexural performance, other separation layers, see Smith et al. (2002)
Macro 0.012 in. fatigue-impact endurance; thinner concrete
and Rasmussen and Garber (2009).
Synthetic (0.3 mm) 15 thickness; longer joint spacing; tighter
3.0 to 7.5
Fibers joints, cracks; better handling properties,
L 1.50 to 2.25 in. dispersion characteristics than steel fibers;
not subject to corrosion Table 18. Michigan DOT Asphalt Separation
Increases strain strength, impact Layer Gradation
Macro
resistance, postcrack flexural performance,
Steel Fibers L 0.75 to 2.50 in. 40 33 to 100 Sieve Size Percent Passing
fatigue endurance, crack width control per
(carbon)
ACI 544.4R ½ inch 100
Blend of small dosage of micro synthetic inch 85–100
Blended 15 Varies fibers and larger dosage of either macro
synthetic fibers or macro steel fibers No. 4 22–38
Nonwoven Geotextile the concrete slabs, hence reducing stresses due when the fabric reaches 110°F or greater.
Separation Layer to temperature and moisture gradient. They Cooling the fabric with a water mist is then
also reduce pumping processes and prevent required under this condition. To prevent
An alternative to an asphalt interlayer is a
origination of reflected cracks from bonded heat absorption, white-colored fabric has
nonwoven geotextile interlayer; see Figure 92
base courses without notching them. been developed recently to help reflect ultra-
(see also design details in Figures 88–90 on
violet energy in hot and sunny weather; see
pages 73–74). The use of nonwoven geotex- Leykauf and Birmann (2006) also state that
Figure 93. In the fall or spring, however,
tile fabric as an interlayer has been on the “concrete roads with a separation layer of
white fabric is not the best choice to prevent
increase since 2010. The structural condition geotextiles are especially recommended for
heat transfer from the concrete overlay to the
of the existing concrete pavement must be concrete overlays on old concrete pavements,
fabric.
carefully assessed before selecting thin geo- in tunnels and on rigid base courses.”
textile instead of a thicker asphalt interlayer, Material specifications for a geotextile used
In colder weather (spring and fall) black-
particularly when heavy faulting exists in the as a separation layer for unbonded overlays
colored interlayer helps maintain a warmer
pavement to be overlaid. are shown in Table 19. The weight/yd2 and
temperature for the placement of the overlays
thickness should be given when specifying
According to Leykauf and Birmann (2006) of because it has carbon molecules that absorb
a geotextile interlayer. Following are two
the Munich University of Technology, geotex- ultraviolet energy. This is not, however, desir-
examples:
tiles have provided uniform, elastic support of able in hot weather conditions, particularly
Figure 92. Geotextile separation layer (The Transtec Group [no date]) Figure 93. Light-colored geotextile fabric used as a separation layer
for an unbonded overlay
Table 19. Geotextile Separation Layer Material Properties (Modified from Material Specifications (The Transtec Group [no date]))
*Added to Material Specifications (The Transtec Group [no date]) for overlays
†Calendering is a process that passes the geotextile through one or more heated rollers during the manufacturing process. The surface of the geotextile is modified during
this process. Calendering may reduce the absorption properties of the geotextile on the calendered side.
• ≤ 4 in. overlay—13.0 oz/yd2 @ 130 mils transfer efficiency is adequate with a mini- D2628, AASHTO M220, or a governing
(3.3 mm) mum of a 2-inch cover). Specify a single state specification. The need for seals depends
height basket for each nominal overlay on whether or not the design allows water to
• ≥ 5-in. overlay—15 oz/yd2 @ 170 mils (4.3
thickness that will provide adequate cover. leave the pavement jointing system.
mm)
• In some cases, because of the underlying
Each highway agency is encouraged to
support of the old pavement, dowels are Curing Compound
develop their own weight and thickness cri-
not used in the overlay, or their size or White-pigmented liquid membrane-
teria for geotextile interlayer based on their
numbers are reduced. forming curing compounds (ASTM C309
experiences and environmental conditions.
or AASHTO M148) are recommended.
• Tiebars are typically billet steel, grade-40
Coverage should be at double the manu-
Dowel Bars and Tiebars bars that meet ASTM A615 or AASHTO
facturer’s recommendations for all concrete
M31 specifications. No. 4 or No. 5 (used
When needed for heavy traffic (typically pave- overlays with a thickness of 6 in. or less.
for slab thickness ≥ 10 inches) deformed
ment thickness of 7 inches or greater), dowel tiebars are typically spaced at 30 in. (76.20 Some agencies have implemented the use of
bars are usually billet steel, grade-60 bars cm) apart, but greater spacing may be used curing compounds containing poly-alpha-
that conform to ASTM A615 or AASHTO in some cases. methylstyrene (AMS) resin. Their use has
M31. The dowel bar size, layout, and coatings
been based on studies that have shown better
should be selected for the specific project loca-
tion and traffic levels. Joint Sealant moisture retention properties. Application
methods and coverage rates are similar to nor-
Joint sealant materials, if used, are either hot-
• Dowels should be nominally positioned mal white-pigmented curing compounds. A
poured rubberized materials conforming to
in the middle third of the depth of the typical material specification for AMS curing
ASTM D6690, AASHTO M301, or per nor-
slab. Because of the variable thickness of compound can be found at www.dot.state.
mal design; silicone materials conforming to
concrete overlays, dowel placement at mn.us/products/concrete/pdf/curing_com-
a governing state specification; or preformed
mid-depth is not always possible (guidance pound_specifications_3753_3754_3755.pdf.
compression seals conforming to ASTM
provided by Snyder [2011] states that load
Chapter 6.
Concrete Pavement 1. Accelerated construction—planning, concrete materials, 7. Prepaving and paving restrictions
Construction construction requirements, curing, jointing 8. Special contract provisions needed
Requirements 2. Opening to traffic—maturity, pulse velocity, strength 9. Short-duration closures anticipated
requirements, cure time
10. Temporary drainage
3. Rehabilitation considerations
11. Lights for night work
4. Off-peak traffic hours for increased production
12. Temporary roadway lighting
5. Phasing of work—length of work zone, project limits
6. Special conditions such as dropoffs, sign bridge installation,
etc.
Public Information 1. Public information—public hearings, media, motorist service agencies, residents, local businesses, motor carriers
Coordination 2. Local officials—police, fire, hospitals, schools, environmental agencies, utilities, toll facilities, ferries, railroads, airports
3. Special events
4. Intra-agency coordination—maintenance crews, permits section, adjacent project
5. Transit
Work Zone Space Reducing Clearances stringless paving technology can reduce the
clearance required for paving equipment to
In some situations—narrow roadways,
Considerations minimum or no shoulders, traffic in adjacent 3 ft (0.9 m). It also allows the traffic cones to
lanes, obstacles like retaining walls or safety be placed at the edge of the new lane directly
Constructing any overlay requires occupy-
barriers—paving equipment clearances may behind the texture/cure operations, which
ing some part of the traveled portion of the
need to be reduced. These situations are fairly maximizes the width of the existing lane for
roadway to accommodate work activities
common with all maintenance and rehabilita- pilot car operations.
and provide traffic control and other safety
provisions for workers and motorists. This tion projects. With adequate planning, zero Paving machine manufacturers have devel-
will affect traffic capacity through the work paving equipment clearance can be achieved oped special paving machines designed to
zone for the duration of the work activities. to accommodate specific project needs, execute minimum clearance projects. In
In some cases, safety considerations may such as paving next to a median barrier; see addition, many contractors around the
require partial or even complete closure of the Figure 96. (As with asphalt paving, zero pav- country have made various modifications to
roadway. ing equipment clearance in concrete paving standard pavers to achieve zero clearances; see
does not include the 6–8 in. [150–200 mm] Figure 97.
When overlay projects are constructed under for the paving machine edge form.)
traffic, space and traffic capacity consider- Instead of specifying a certain manufacturer’s
ations impact three primary elements of a Two-lane roads with wide (8–10 ft [2.4–3.1 machine, owner-agencies are advised to define
work zone management strategy: construction m]) shoulders of granular or stabilized base the maximum allowable clearance zone and
clearances, traffic control, and project staging. will allow room for pilot car traffic and let the contractor select or modify the equip-
two lanes of construction traffic. The use of ment and operation to meet project needs.
Conventional Paving
Equipment Clearances
When work zones are set up under traf-
fic, adequate clearance must be provided to
accommodate the paving machine’s tracks
and frame, as well as the paving stringline.
For a standard concrete paver operation, the
typical paving equipment clearance is 4 ft
(1.2 m) on each side of the paving machine
(3 ft [0.9 m] for the paver track and 1 ft
[0.3 m] for the paver control stringline); see
Figure 95. Paving equipment clearances do
not include space for traffic control devices or
workers or space for highway users (vehicles,
pedestrians, bicycles, etc.). Additional clear-
ances needed should be determined on a
project-by-project basis.
Figure 96. A three-track, zero-clearance paver placing concrete along
a median barrier (source: Kevin Klein, Gomaco)
Figure 95. Stringline paver Figure 97. A typical four-track paver modified to three tracks,
providing zero clearance in a C/G situation in Oklahoma (source:
Jim Duit, Duit Construction Co., Inc.)
Mechanical Methods (e.g., reduced survey costs, fewer construction paving reference hubs or pins at 12- to
Alternative paving control options may be hours) while still meeting smoothness require- 50-foot intervals. Surface surveys are now
used to reduce clearance as long as smooth- ments. Details regarding various stringless conducted by one- to two-person crews
ness criteria are met. For example, an average paving systems are provided in Appendix F. versus three to four persons. Typically,
profiler, a movable stringline, or a ski can these persons are replaced by one surface
Stringless paving is a technology that elimi-
be used in tight areas, each relying on the modeler and two persons to establish laser,
nates the installation and maintenance of
smoothness of an existing lane to ensure a total station, or GPS base stations on the
stringlines and has the potential to decrease
smooth profile on the new pavement; see project.
the need for surveying and increase the
Figures 98 and 99. smoothness of the pavement profile; see • Reduced time and manpower. Surface and
Figures 100 and 101. Any technology prob- reference point surveys are now conducted
Stringless Methods
lems can arise, however, and lessons learned in much less time and with reduced man-
Several companies have developed stringless can take time and may cause delays. Field power. Many highway agencies do not have
equipment control and guidance systems research on stringless paving was first started the manpower or time to conduct string-
using technologies such as GPS, robotic total in 2003 by the National Concrete Pavement line operations, but they can prepare for
stations, and laser positioning. Stringless tech- Technology Center at Iowa State University the stringless control operation.
nology replaces the traditional stringlines with (Cable et al. 2004).
an electronic tracking process that controls • Construction access. Removal of the
the horizontal and vertical operation of the The benefits that can result from stringless stringlines opens up the site to both the
slipform paver. The construction industry has paving include the following: contractor and/or adjacent public. No
been using stringless technology for eleva- longer must the contractor worry about
• Reduced construction costs. The stringless
tion and steering control of equipment for a damage to the stringline during construc-
systems eliminate the need for stringline
number of years. Stringless paving, however, tion or the workers tripping over the
crews to place, maintain, and remove
is now an emerging technology for concrete stringline. Construction vehicles can enter
stringlines. The stringless system requires
paving because it can allow contractors and and leave the site at any location without
the survey crew to establish the project ref-
owner/agencies to receive production benefits fear of stringline damage.
erence points but removes the need to place
Figure 98. Controlling paving profile using a moveable stringline on the adjacent Figure 100. Stringless paver (source: Jim Cable, Iowa
lane (source; Kevin Klein, Gomaco) State University)
Figure 99. Controlling paving profile using a paver ski on the Figure 101. Zero clearance stringless paver (source: GOMACO)
adjacent lane (source: Wouter Gulden, southeast chapter, ACPA)
• Public access. Those living along the con- Such an analysis answers specific questions: Two-Lane Highway under
struction site can enter and leave their
residence or business at all times except
• Is the capacity of the existing roadway Traffic
adequate for existing traffic levels? When construction will be completed
during the actual pavement placement and
curing time without concern for stringline • How will capacity be affected if some lanes under traffic and certain lanes need to carry
interference. are shut down and other lanes kept open? additional traffic, various options regarding
preoverlay spot repairs should be considered.
• Urban and rural application. No longer • Comparing existing traffic levels to the For example, if spot repairs can be made
must the contractor and highway agency under-construction capacity, are there any quickly (and, if appropriate, a separation
be concerned about narrow roadway tops, capacity deficiencies? layer can be placed immediately after the
ground-level vegetation, or earthwork that repairs), then it is normally acceptable to
limits the location of the stringline or opera- The analysis should consider both the lat-
eral clearance (availability and need) and put temporary additional vehicle traffic on
tion of both it and the paver. the existing pavement until the overlay is
the length of roadway needed to provide
efficient, cost-effective paving production. It constructed. Another option is to wait and
Other Clearances must also factor in peak and off-peak traffic make final spot repairs after the temporary
In addition to paving equipment clearances flows. additional traffic is moved off the existing
on all construction operations, clearance must pavement. This approach should be used only
be allowed for traffic control devices and con- If deficiencies will occur, the work zone man- when the extent of additional repairs needed,
struction workers. The width of this clearance agement plan must address them to prevent the additional thickness of overlay required,
zone varies depending on adjacent traffic vol- congestion and increased project costs. For and related costs are clearly understood.
ume, traffic speed, and agency requirements. example, the plan might include variable Alternatively, it is possible to temporarily
In addition, the location of workers with work times (e.g., off-peak hours, nighttime) close the roadway (preferably during off-peak
long-handled floats should be restricted to the or construction sequencing to meet produc- hours), make the critical repairs and complete
nontraffic side of the pavement. tion and safety demands. the overlay at least on one lane, and open it
to traffic as soon as possible.
An increasingly popular alternative is to com-
pletely close the facility briefly to complete When staging a two-lane concrete overlay
Construction Traffic the project or a critical phase of the project. project under traffic, the widths of the vehicle
In some cases, this alternative has reduced lane and the construction lane must be con-
Control the overall project duration significantly. sidered. Typically, the minimum desirable
All work zone traffic control, including width for the vehicle lane is 11 ft (3.4 m).
speed restrictions, should follow jurisdic- Some jurisdictions may allow as little as 10
tional requirements and the latest Manual on Concrete Overlay ft (3.1 m) under certain circumstances—for
example, in very short segments (less than
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (FHWA 2009).
The fundamental principles of work zone traf- Staging 100 ft [30.5 m]).
fic control are given in Part 6. In addition, Many easy-to-use approaches exist for stag- The width of the construction lane depends
the Traffic Management Handbook for Concrete ing concrete overlay projects in almost any on several factors, including thickness of over-
Pavements Reconstruction and Rehabilitation situation. A system approach that considers lay, maximum allowable centerline dropoff
(ACPA 2000) is a good reference on traffic work zone safety, traffic requirements, and or edge fillet, slope of fillet, type of traffic
control strategies for common roadway reha- key elements of construction should be used control device, type of paving machine, and
bilitation categories, including overlays. See, in in staging concrete overlay plans for fast, automobile and truck traffic.
particular, Chapter 4 on traffic control strate- cost-effective construction projects. When
gies for concrete pavement. construction acceleration is desired, it should Concrete overlays can be successfully con-
begin in the design phase with an analysis of structed under traffic with conventional
The ACPA handbook explains that “as traffic paving machines; in some cases, where
volumes increase, the ‘window’ of time where alternative maintenance of traffic schemes,
advance planning, and tailoring of project minimum clearances are required, minor
the traffic demand is below the capacity of the adjustments may be necessary.
work zone will become smaller. When the time details to facilitate shortened construction
is too short to allow for daytime work, the durations. The plans and specifications The length of the temporary traffic control
work is usually moved to nighttime. In some should provide the contractor with clear cri- zone is another important factor. Typically,
cases even the nighttime hours are restricted.” teria for maintenance of traffic requirements when the length of traffic control zones is
(e.g., two lanes open in each direction at all less than 0.25 mi (0.40 km), a pilot car is not
For situations such as recreational routes, times, pilot car queues shall not exceed 10 used. In rural areas, however, it may be more
the peak traffic hours may be on Friday and minutes, etc.). Given the requirements for feasible to pave longer sections. In such situ-
Sunday afternoons. The allowable window of maintenance of traffic, the contractor should ations, a pilot car and flaggers are often used
time for road construction in this case may be be given the responsibility to plan and pros- and the maximum length of the traffic con-
noon Monday to 6:00 p.m. Thursday. ecute the project to meet the objectives for trol zone is established by the jurisdiction.
accelerated construction and maintenance
For roadways under high traffic demands, a Other traffic control measures, including
of traffic. This approach of allowing the con-
traffic analysis should be conducted to identify flaggers and traffic control signals, may
tractor to innovate and plan the project to
which parts of the roadway can be occupied be warranted according to jurisdictional
meet their resources results in more efficient
by construction and public traffic at any point requirements.
workflow, shorter durations, and less impact
during the construction time period. The goal
on the road users. When granular shoulders of adequate widths
is to identify congestion points that could
affect traffic capacity and safety as well as con- Some common staging scenarios are are available to accommodate a conventional
struction production levels. described below. paver, it is recommended that the shoulders
be treated with calcium chloride (3 ft [0.9 m]
wide) before opening the road to vehicular The third stage includes opening the newly Pilot Cars for Continuous
traffic. The calcium chloride treatment is a placed overlay to traffic and shifting traffic Production
successful way of stabilizing the shoulder in control for work on the opposite lane. The
Pilot cars can be used to keep one lane of
case errant vehicles leave the pavement. Also, final stage includes placing pavement mark-
traffic adjacent to the paving operation open
vertical traffic control panels or a permanent ings, rumble strips if shoulders are paved, and
at all times. To minimize traveler delays,
safety edge may be used to designate the pave- final shouldering.
many jurisdictions limit the length of such
ment edge; see Figure 102.
work zones. Contractors must balance those
Temporary Safety Fillet
If shoulder paving is part of the project, the limitations with their need for continuous
trenching of paved shoulder base widening If two-way traffic is desired on the roadway production so that crews do not stand idle at
should be completed in the first stage along after the first lane is cured, and agency- any time.
with surface preparation of the initial lane to established dropoff criteria require a dropoff
mitigation, construction of temporary cen- The following are some considerations
be overlaid. Once this is completed, this lane
terline and outside safety fillets may be an for staging a project using pilot cars cost
can be opened to traffic and the adjacent lane
option; see Figure 103. An outside safety edge effectively:
can be prepared for paving.
fillet should be considered if shouldering will • Typically, a contractor can prepare and pave
During the second stage, the second lane not be completed before opening the roadway 2,500 yd3 (1,911 cm) in one lane per work-
is paved. A thickened edge may be paved if to traffic. ing day. For thinner overlays, the rate of the
pavement widening is part of the project.
sawing operation may be the limiting factor
on production.
• Constructing an edge fillet may make it
possible to open the lane to traffic before
the shoulder backfill is completed.
• A new overlay can be opened in 24 hours
or less.
• Leaving gaps in or staggering construction
areas (that is, leapfrogging over a section of
pavement) can allow the contractor to stage
work in ways that use crews and machinery
more efficiently.
• Using multiple paving machines may make
it possible to stagger work zones more
Vertical traffic efficiently.
control panel • The direction of the initial pour is impor-
tant to make sure the paver ends each pour
in the optimum position to begin the next.
Calcium chloride treatment
Examples of Staging
Figure 102. Vertical traffic control panels may be used to mark pavement edge dropoff
Sequences
(source: Dan DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete Paving Association) Figures 104–108 on pages 88–97 illustrate a
variety of potential staging sequences. Note
that each half of a four-lane divided highway
is treated like a two-lane section.
Traffic control device
staging example. The existing shoulder is Four-Lane Divided Highway is increased. The existing shoulders usually
trimmed and properly compacted. The first provide adequate room for the paver track,
concrete overlay section is then placed with without Crossovers and stringline, and workers between the paver and
a thickened edge. The other half of the over- under Traffic traffic.
lay can be placed directly on top of the base Staging a concrete overlay on a four-lane A possible staging sequence for this type of
shoulder constructed first. divided highway is similar to that on a two- construction is shown in Figure 108. Because
A possible staging sequence for this type lane highway. Both two-lane sides may be each half of the four-lane divided highway is
of construction management is shown in under construction at the same time, and treated like a two-lane section, any of the stag-
Figure 107. crossovers are eliminated. By eliminating ing sequences from Figures 104–107 may be
crossovers, project costs are reduced and safety used on either half of the section.
Applied to:
Bonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of composite pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of composite pavements
STAGE 1. Repair surface, prepare for overlay, and construct base shoulder
widening and separation layer
• Install traffic control and close the left lane. Follow • Prepare for shoulder widening by trenching the
jurisdictional requirements for traffic control. Check existing shoulder and trimming to the specified
with jurisdiction regarding allowable lane closure width. The trench should be rolled and compacted
length. If surface repair and preparation for the as necessary to obtain a firm and stable platform as Typically
specified in the contract documents. A continuous less than
overlay are minimal, then slow-moving traffic control 0.25 mi
may be appropriate. Closing the lane may require progression approach with the shoulder trencher (0.40 km)
additional traffic control (e.g., signals, flaggers, and/or and placement of the base shoulder widening without
pilot cars). material is encouraged. pilot car
• Repair the surface as appropriate. Prepare the surface • Construct separation layer (only for unbonded
for the overlay (or, in the case of concrete overlay on overlay on concrete).
concrete, the separation layer) as described in the
contract document.
• Shift the traffic control to the left lane and close the typical machine adjustment. Speeds should be
right lane to traffic. The length of the closure will additionally restricted adjacent to paver when
depend on the jurisdiction’s maximum closure length clearance between the paver and vehicle traffic is
with pilot car. Traffic controls and traffic control tight.
signals will be based on jurisdictional requirements. • Construct concrete overlay on the existing
• Repair and prepare the surface for the overlay or the pavement. Complete right PCC shoulder widening
separation layer and subsequent overlay as described with the overlay. Bull float work shall operate from
in the contract documents. Construct separation layer the outside shoulder only.
(for unbonded overlay). • The “X” dimension between the roadway centerline
• Normal space for the paver stringline is 1–1.50 ft (0.30– and vertical panel is for the paving machine track
0.46 m) and the paver track is a minimum of 2.50–3 ft and stringline.
(0.76–0.91 m). 1 ft (0.3 m) incremental encroachment
reduction (up to 2 ft (0.6 m) total) is common through
• Close the opposite lane to traffic and place the • If the outside edge dropoffs at the shoulder exceeds
concrete overlay according to contract documents, the jurisdictional allowance for a 1:1 fillet, then
using the same procedures as described in stage construct the granular shoulders in this stage.
2. Note that stringline may not be necessary for the • Complete shouldering. Install (mill) rumble strips
right edge of the paving when the paved overlay in the paved shoulders and complete pavement
constructed in stage 2 is used as the paver control in marking and regulatory signing in accordance with
this stage. If the right stringline is not used, the “X” contract documents.
dimension could possibly be reduced to 3 ft (0.9 m).
Figure 104. Overlay of two-lane roadway with paved shoulders (conventional paver)
LEGEND
Remaining Paved Paved Remaining
shoulder shoulder shoulder shoulder
12 ft (3.7 m) lane 12 ft (3.7 m) lane Stage work area
Pavement (Typical) (Typical)
marking Pavement Concrete
Rumble strip marking
Finished Base shoulder widening materials
shoulder (e.g., cement-treated base, porous
concrete, roller compacted con-
Saw joint crete (RCC), asphalt, or concrete)
12 ft (3.7 m) existing lane with tied steel Granular material
Existing pavement
Concrete overlay
Separation layer Existing subbase
(only for unbonded overlay on concrete)
COMPLETED OVERLAY
NOTES:
Overlay of
Two-Lane Roadway
Separation layer Existing pavement
(only for unbonded
overlay on concrete)
Varies Varies with Paved Shoulders
STAGE 3
(Conventional Paver)
Applied to:
Bonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of composite pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of composite pavements
STAGE 1. Repair surface, prepare for overlay, and construct left shoulder
and separation layer
• Install traffic control and close the left lane. Follow trench should be rolled and compacted as
jurisdictional requirements for traffic control. Check necessary to obtain a firm and stable platform.
with jurisdiction regarding allowable lane closure Compact shoulder material as specified in the
length. If surface repair and preparation for the overlay contract documents. A continuous progression Typically
are minimal, then slow-moving traffic control may be approach with the shoulder trencher and less than
appropriate. Closing the lane may require additional placement of the base shoulder widening is 0.25 mi
(0.40 km)
traffic control (e.g., signals, flaggers, and/or pilot cars). encouraged. without
pilot car
• Repair the surface as appropriate. Prepare the surface • Construct calcium chloride treated granular
for the overlay (or, in the case of concrete overlay on shoulder as outlined in contract documents. The
concrete, the separation layer) as described in the treated shoulder shall be firm and stable to support
contract document. vehicular traffic at low speeds.
• Prepare shoulder widening by trenching the existing • Construct separation layer (only for unbonded
shoulder and trimming to the specified width. The overlay on concrete).
• Close the opposite lane to traffic and place the • If the outside edge dropoffs at the shoulder
concrete overlay according to contract documents, exceeds the jurisdictional allowance for a 1:1 fillet,
using the same procedures as described in stage 2. then construct the granular shoulders in this stage.
Stringline may not be necessary for the right edge of • Complete shouldering. Complete pavement marking
the paving when the paved overlay constructed in and regulatory signing in accordance with contract
stage 2 is used as the paver control in this stage. If the documents.
right stringline is not used, the “X” dimension could
possibly be reduced to 3 ft (0.9 m).
Figure 105. Overlay of two-lane roadway with granular shoulders (conventional paver)
NOTES:
COMPLETED OVERLAY (Two-Lane Roadway with Minimum Granular Shoulders, Zero-Clearance Paver)
Applied to:
Bonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of composite pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of composite pavements
STAGE 1. Repair surface, prepare for overlay, and construct left shoulder
• In order to construct an overlay on a roadway with with jurisdiction regarding allowable lane closure
a minimum of 2 ft (0.6 m) wide existing shoulders, length. If surface repair and preparation for the
adjustments to typical slipform pavers are necessary overlay are minimal, then slow-moving traffic
in order to meet existing clearances adjacent to the control may be appropriate. Closing the lane may
paver. The width of the clearance zone is dependent require additional traffic control (e.g., signals, Typically
on traffic control, paver track, and paver control flaggers, and/or pilot cars). less than
0.25 mi
(stringline). When there is not enough clearance for the
• Repair the surface as appropriate. Prepare the (0.40 km)
paver track, paving molds may be installed on typical without
surface for the overlay (or, in the case of concrete
two-track pavers to provide zero clearances. The pilot car
overlay on concrete, the separation layer) as
outside edges of the mold are brought out behind the
described in the contract document.
rear tracks and then the material from the front of the
paver is moved to the back by an auger to be spread • Construct calcium chloride treated granular
and paved. shoulder as outlined in contract documents. The
treated shoulder shall be firm and stable to support
• Install traffic control and close the left lane. Follow
vehicular traffic at low speeds.
jurisdictional requirements for traffic control. Check
• Construct separation layer (only for unbonded
overlay on concrete).
Figure 106. Overlay of two-lane roadway with minimum granular shoulders (zero-clearance paver)
24 ft (7.3 m) LEGEND
Granular
Granular shoulder
shoulder Stage work area
12 ft (3.7 m) lane 12 ft (3.7 m) lane
(Typical) (Typical) Concrete
Pavement Pavement
marking marking
Granular material
Finished
shoulder
Existing pavement
Concrete overlay Existing subbase
Separation layer
(only for unbonded overlay on concrete)
COMPLETED OVERLAY
NOTES:
Applied to:
Bonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of asphalt pavements
Bonded concrete overlay of composite pavements Unbonded concrete overlay of composite pavements
STAGE 1. Repair surface, prepare for overlay, and construct base shoulder
widening and separation layer
• Install traffic control and close the left lane. Follow to obtain a firm and stable platform. Compact
jurisdictional requirements for traffic control. Check shoulder material as specified in the contract
with jurisdiction regarding allowable lane closure documents. A continuous progression
length. If surface repair and preparation for the overlay approach with the shoulder trencher and
Typically
are minimal, then slow-moving traffic control may be placement of the base shoulder widening is less than
appropriate. Closing the lane may require additional encouraged. 0.25 mi
traffic control (e.g., signals, flaggers, and/or pilot cars). (0.40 km)
• Pave the existing shoulder a minimum of 6 ft without
• Repair the surface as appropriate. Prepare the surface (1.8 m) with concrete. pilot car
for the overlay (or, in the case of concrete overlay on
• Use excavated granular material to widen
concrete, the separation layer) as described in the
existing shoulder. Treat 3 ft (0.9 m) area of
contract document.
shoulder with calcium chloride.
• Prepare shoulder widening by trenching the existing
• Construct separation layer (only for unbonded
shoulder and trimming to the specified width. The
overlay on concrete).
trench should be rolled and compacted as necessary
• Shift the traffic control to the left lane and close the • Construct concrete overlay on the existing
right lane to traffic. The length of the closure will pavement. Complete right PCC shoulder
depend on the jurisdiction’s maximum closure length widening with the overlay.
with pilot car. Traffic controls and traffic control signals
• The “X” dimension between the roadway
will be based on jurisdictional requirements.
centerline and vertical panel is for the paving
• Repair and prepare the surface for the overlay or the machine track and stringline.
separation layer and subsequent overlay as described
in the contract documents. Construct separation layer
(for unbonded overlay).
• Close the opposite lane to traffic and place the • If the outside edge dropoffs at the shoulder
concrete overlay according to contract documents, exceeds the jurisdictional allowance for a 1:1
using the same procedures as described in stage 2. fillet, then construct the granular shoulders in
Stringline may not be necessary for the right edge of this stage.
the paving when the paved overlay constructed in
• Complete shoulders. Install (mill) rumble strips
stage 2 is used as the paver control in this stage.
in the paved shoulders and complete pavement
marking and regulatory signing in accordance
with contract documents.
Figure 107. Overlay of two-lane roadway widening to three lanes with paved shoulder (conventional paver)
Remaining LEGEND
Remaining shoulder
shoulder 4 ft (1.2 m) 12 ft (3.7 m) 12 ft (3.7 m) 12 ft (3.7 m) 4 ft (1.2 m)
(Typical) (Typical) (Typical) (Typical) (Typical) Stage work area
Pavement Concrete
marking Pavement Rumble
marking strip Base shoulder widening
Rumble materials
strip (e.g., cement-treated
base, porous concrete,
roller compacted con-
Tiebars optional crete (RCC), asphalt, or
Finished shoulder concrete)
Overlay
6 ft (1.8 m) min. placement Granular material
Separation layer
(only for unbonded overlay on concrete) Surface repair
Existing pavement
Existing subbase COMPLETED OVERLAY
NOTES:
Traffic
1 Follow jurisdictional
Construction area control requirements for traffic
device control devices.
Existing shoulder Vehicle traffic Existing shoulder 2 Use excavated granular
10 ft (3 m) 11 ft (3.4 m) material to widen existing
(Typical) (Typical) shoulder. Treat 3 ft (0.9
m) area of shoulder with
calcium chloride.
3 Minimum lane width
next to the paver may
Surface repair Existing pavement be reduced for short-
Subbase 6 ft (1.8 m) min. and overlay surface Existing subbase term, stationary work on
widening preparation low-volume, low-speed
Separation layer roadways when vehicular
(only for unbonded overlay on concrete) traffic does not include
longer and wider heavy
STAGE 1 commercial vehicles.
4 If the completed overlay in
Construction area this stage opens to traffic
and the final shoulder
4 ft (1.2 m) back fill is delayed,
4 ft Vehicle traffic 4 ft shoulder
(1.2 m) 11 ft (3.4 m) (1.2 m) 11 ft (3.4 m) 6 ft (1.8 m)
place fillet as shown. If
(Typical)
overlay creates a dropoff
(Typical) (Typical) (Typical) (Typical) (Typical) greater than jurisdictional
Traffic
allowance, place second
control lift before opening overlay
device to traffic.
5 See centerline fillet
illustration and
Concrete
Subbase subsequent removal on
Subbase widening
widening overlay placement figure 103.
Existing pavement Surface repair 6 Mark edgelines and
Separation layer centerlines per MUTCD
(only for unbonded overlay on concrete) (FHWA 2009) section 6F.77
STAGE 2
(mark both lanes).
Construction area
Remaining Remaining
shoulder shoulder
4 ft 6 ft 4 ft Vehicle traffic Paved shoulder
(1.2 m) (1.8 m) (1.2 m) 11 ft (3.4 m) 4 ft (1.2 m)
(Typical) (Typical)
12 ft (3.7 m)
(Typical) (Typical) (Typical)
Overlay of Two-
6
Traffic 6 Lane Roadway
control device
Widened to Three
Lanes with Paved
Separation layer
(only for unbonded
Concrete
overlay placement
Shoulders
Subbase
widening
overlay on concrete )
Existing pavement
Surface repair (Conventional
STAGE 3
Paver)
Applied to:
• Install traffic control and close the • Repair the surface as appropriate.
inside lanes. Follow jurisdictional Prepare the surface for the overlay
requirements for traffic control. Check (or, in the case of concrete overlay
with jurisdiction regarding allowable on concrete, the separation layer) as Typically Typically
lane closure length. If surface repair described in the contract document. less than less than
0.25 mi 0.25 mi
and preparation for the overlay are
• Evaluate the structural condition of (0.40 km) (0.40 km)
minimal, then slow-moving traffic without without
the existing shoulder. Mill existing
control may be appropriate. Closing pilot car pilot car
shoulder or reconstruct shoulder to
the lanes may require additional traffic
carry traffic load if necessary.
control (e.g., signals and flaggers).
• Construct separation layer (only for
unbonded overlay on concrete).
• Shift the traffic control to the inside • Construct temporary shoulder for
lanes and close the outside lanes paver track.
to traffic. Traffic controls and traffic
• Construct concrete overlay on the
control signals will be based on
existing pavement. Bull float work
jurisdictional requirements.
shall operate from the outside
• Repair and prepare the surface for shoulder only.
the overlay or the separation layer
and subsequent overlay as described
in the contract documents. Construct
separation layer (for unbonded
overlay).
• Shift the traffic control to the outside If the right stringline is not used,
lane and close the inside lane to the “X” dimension could possibly
traffic. Place the concrete overlay be reduced to 3 ft (0.9 m).
according to contract documents,
• Complete shoulder finish
using the same procedures as
grading. Install (mill) rumble
described in stage 2. Stringline may
strips in the paved shoulders and
not be necessary for the right edge
complete pavement marking and
of the paving when the paved overlay
regulatory signing in accordance
constructed in stage 2 is used as the
with contract documents.
paver control in this stage.
Figure 108. Overlay of four-lane roadway with paved shoulders (conventional paver)
LEGEND
10 ft (3 m)
Paved 12 ft (3.7 m) lane 12 ft (3.7 m) lane paved shoulder
shoulder varies Stage work area
(Typical) (Typical) (Typical)
Pavement Concrete
Pavement marking
marking
Rumble strip
Rumble Existing shoulder
strip
(Reconstructed
if necessary)
Chapter 7.
Concrete Overlay • When possible, reduce the quantity of supplementary cementitious materials in the mixture.
Construction
Normal concrete paving construction prac- HIPERPAV is a software tool available to Payment is typically based on two items:
tices can be used to complete concrete overlay predict stresses in concrete. It is especially square yards and cubic yards. The surface
projects as quickly and efficiently as any useful when there is a need for more infor- is measured to account for the square-yard
other paving method. Resurfaced streets and mation in less-than-desirable conditions, surface area, and batch tickets are collected to
highways can be opened to traffic within a such as inclement weather conditions, when account for the cubic-yard concrete volume,
short period of time with adequate planning, an overlay is particularly thin, or when a including variable depths.
expedited staging, and efficient operations. project does not have much flexibility in
See Table 21. scheduling.
Bonded Unbonded
Bonded Unbonded
Overlays of Overlays of
Construction Consideration Overlays of Overlays of
Asphalt or Asphalt or
Concrete Concrete
Composite Composite
1. Mixture Design
Aggregate:
Physically and chemically stable and durable X X X X
Well-graded mix X X X X
Match aggregate thermal properties with existing pavement X
Maximum aggregate size should be D/2.5 in relation to the new overlay thickness X X X X
Use conventional mixtures with Type I or II cement. X X X X
Use fly ash and slag to reduce permeability with w/cm ratio not to exceed 0.42. X X X X
Use water reducer to help maintain w/cm ratio and desired slump, as well as to increase strength. X X X X
If accelerated construction is desired, accomplish this through careful scheduling and diligent
execution; accelerated concrete mixtures should only be used in limited areas where early opening
X X X X
cannot be achieved through other means.
Fibers may be used to increase the “toughness” of concrete (measure of its energy-absorbing
capacity), improve resistance to deformation, hold concrete together in case of cracking, and serve as X X
an insurance policy that protects the surface from unseen base conditions.
Verification testing in the laboratory of nonstandard mixes (trial batches) and specifications of testing at
X X X X
temperatures representative of site conditions is encouraged to flag any mix problems.
Bonded Unbonded
Bonded Unbonded
Overlays of Overlays of
Construction Consideration Overlays of Overlays of
Asphalt or Asphalt or
Concrete Concrete
Composite Composite
2. Grade Control
Mill and
Centerline profile only (as-built) with uniform finished cross section X concrete
overlay
Little or no
Three-line profile (edges and centerline) when cross slope varies or surface distortions exist X Inlays only Inlays only
milling
Measure off existing pavement or top of milled surface to set stringline or form. Adjust individual points
X X X X
up to produce a smooth line.
Survey 100–500 ft (30.5–152 m) cross sections when shouldering, foreslopes, and backslopes need
adjusting. If the existing profile grade is irregular, additional centerline elevations may be necessary for X X
grade corrections in certain locations for smoothness.
Survey bridge tie-ins or bridge clearance conditions and extreme superelevations. X X X X
To prevent thicker asphalt separation layer and thus compaction, stability, and grade control issues, use
concrete to make up any 3 in. (75 mm) or greater variances in grade and a nominal 1 in. (25 mm) asphalt X
separation layer.
3. Preoverlay Repairs for Uniform Support
Minimal minor repairs of surface defects. Remove deteriorated area and replace with overlay. X
An engineer should observe final condition of subbase pavement prior to overlay construction. For
minimal isolated distress that causes some loss of structural integrity that cannot be overcome with X
milling, thicken the overlay in this area.
Replace isolated areas of subbase pavement when there is evidence of active movement. X X
Joint deterioration with little or no faulting can be bridged with the overlay. X
To widen the roadway, excavate the shoulder to allow for the widened thicker section to be placed with
X X X X
the overlay.
Fill cracks in the HMA with sand or flowable mortar when the crack width exceeds the maximum coarse
X X
aggregate size used in the concrete overlay mixture.
4. Surface Preparation
Surface roughness for bonding:
Shotblasting (even after milling) X
Milling to remove significant distortions or reduce high spots X X
Surface cleaning:
Sweeping followed by high-pressure airblasting
X X
(waterblasting may be needed to remove dirt tracked onto surface)
Surface sweeping only X X
Maintain a clean and dry surface. X X
Sprinkle (mist) the existing pavement when the surface temperature exceeds 120°F; use
X X X X
compressed air to remove any standing water directly ahead of the concrete-placing operation
Place nominal 1 in. (25 mm) asphalt layer to separate concrete layers and prevent bonding.
When heavy truck traffic is anticipated, it is advisable to consider a drainable asphalt layer and X
drainage system.
If the existing asphalt surface of a composite pavement section remains intact, it can serve as a
X
separation layer.
5. Concrete Placement
When the surface temperature of the asphalt is at or above 120°F (49°C), surface watering can be used
to reduce the temperature and minimize the potential for shrinkage cracking. No standing water should X X X
remain at the time the overlay is placed.
The bonding of the overlay can be affected by the climatic conditions at the time of placement.
Significant stresses that develop due to rapid changes in temperature, humidity, and wind speed may
X X
reduce the bond strength under severe conditions. HIPERPAV can predict interface bond stress based
on numerous factors.
Feeding concrete consistently into the paver requires an adequate number of batch delivery trucks.
The number of trucks will often dictate the slipform or placement speed. The entire cycle of mixing,
discharging, traveling, and depositing concrete must be coordinated for the mixing plan capacity, X X X X
hauling distance, and spreader and paving machine capabilities. Extra trucks may be needed as the haul
time increases.
Do not track paste or dirt onto the existing surface ahead of the paver because it can cause bond
X X
failure.
Bonded Unbonded
Bonded Unbonded
Overlays of Overlays of
Construction Consideration Overlays of Overlays of
Asphalt or Asphalt or
Concrete Concrete
Composite Composite
The manner in which the crew deposits concrete in front of the paving operation is an important factor
for creating a smooth pavement surface in overlay projects. Placement in front of slipform paver should X X X X
be done in small overlapping piles so as to minimize lateral movements.
Properly established, secure, and maintained stringline is very important for smoothness; constant and
X X X X
continuous paving prevents interruptions that lead to bumps.
Tiebars may be appropriate in an open-ditch situation when constructing 3- to 6-ft (0.9- to 1.8-m)
widening units and overlay thickness is 5 in. (125 mm) or greater. Normally, tiebars are not used for lane X X
widening to prevent cracking from stresses due to differential expansion and contraction between lanes.
Dowel bar use should follow full-depth pavement requirements. Pavements less than 7 inches thick
should not use load transfer dowels. When used for thicker pavements, they should be located
X X X
approximately in the mid-third of the overlay thickness. Isolated thicker sections should not dictate a
change in basket height or dowel bar insertion depth.
Texturing needs to be performed at the right time so as not to disturb setting of the concrete. Shallow
longitudinal tining or burlap/turf are two effective textures. Burlap/turf drag has shown adequate friction X X X X
with a quiet surface when hard sands are used in the mix.
6. Curing to Prevent Rapid Loss of Water from Concrete
Proper curing of bonded and thin unbonded overlays is particularly important because they are thin
with a large surface compared with the volume of concrete. The curing rate may be increased from the 1.5–2 times 1.5–2 times 1.5–2 times
2 times normal
normal rate to provide additional protection. Standard curing compound rates may be used for thicker normal normal normal
unbonded overlays.
During hot weather, steps should be taken to reduce the evaporation rate from the concrete. For
significant evaporation, provide a more effective curing application, such as fog spraying, or apply an X X X X
approved evaporation retarder.
Adequate curing of overlays on a stiff support system (especially on underlying concrete pavement) is
X X X X
important to minimize curling and warping stresses.
7. Joints
Joint spacing for concrete overlays requires special consideration for each type:
Joints are to be matched with underlying concrete to prevent reflective cracking. X
When feasible, it is a good policy to mismatch joints and/or cracks to maximize load transfer from
the underlying pavement. Some states that have not intentionally mismatched joints, however, X X
have not experienced any adverse effects.
Slab dimensions match the underlying pavement. X
The recommended joint pattern for bonded overlays of asphalt should not exceed 1.5 times the
X
overlay thickness in inches.
For overlays less than or equal to 6 inches thick, the slab dimensions (in feet) should not exceed
X X
1.5 times the overlay thickness in inches (e.g., 4 in. x 1.5 ft/in. = 6 ft).
For overlays greater than 6 inches, the slab dimensions (in feet) should not exceed 2.0 times the
X X
overlay thickness in inches, not to exceed 15 ft.
Because of the potential for higher curling and warping stress from a rigid underlying pavement,
X X
shorter than normal spacing is typical (see pages 40, 44, and 48).
Joint sawing:
The timing of sawing is critical. Sawing joints too early can cause excess raveling. HIPERPAV
may be useful in helping to predict the appropriate time window for joint sawing, based on the X X X X
concrete mix design, construction times, and environmental conditions.
Sawing must be completed before stresses exceed the strength developed. Sawing too late can
X X X X
lead to uncontrolled cracking.
Full depth +
Transverse joint saw-cut depth for conventional saws T/3 T/4 min.-T/3 max.
0.50 in. (13 mm)
Full depth + Not < 1.25 in.
Transverse joint saw-cut depth for early-entry saws Not < 1.25 in. (32 mm)
0.50 in. (13 mm) (32 mm)
Longitudinal joint saw-cut depth T/2 (at least) T/4 – T/3 T/4 – T/3
Transverse joint width must be equal to or greater than the underlying crack width at the bottom of
X
the existing transverse joint.
Sealing:
Bonded Overlays: FAQ—If the mean texture depth of the existing pavement is in the recommended
Ensuring Proper range or higher, do I have to shotblast or mill the pavement?
Bond Yes; although the mean texture depth is a consideration, the shotblasting or milling is
necessary to remove laitance buildup from rubber, grease, and oil over many years of use.
When bonding a concrete overlay to an exist-
ing concrete surface, the necessity for a sound
bond cannot be overstated. Both theory and
with a thermal coefficient lower than that of loose material to ensure adequate bonding.
practice show that without this bond, the
the aggregates in the existing pavement. Cleaning may be accomplished by sweeping
overlay will develop secondary distress quickly,
the concrete surface, followed by cleaning
thus significantly compromising the life of Surface preparation of the existing concrete
in front of the paver with compressed air.
the pavement system. Research has attempted pavement is accomplished to produce a
Airblasting and waterblasting should be used
to measure and characterize bond strength roughened surface that will promote bond-
only as supplementary cleaning procedures to
during early ages of the concrete overlay. To ing between the two layers; see Figure 109. A
remove loose material from the surface after
date, however, no simple and reliable test has variety of surface preparation procedures may
shotblasting or milling. No visible moisture
been developed. As a result, bond strength is be used, including shotblasting and milling.
should remain on the pavement surface when
typically characterized using a surrogate test, A bonding grout or epoxy is not required.
the overlay is placed. Paving should com-
namely strength (compressive or flexural) of The most commonly used and most effective
mence soon after cleaning to minimize the
the overlay. The strength of the bond between surface preparation procedure is shotblasting.
chance of contamination.
the overlay and the existing concrete pave- Although milling will roughen the concrete
ment can be correlated with the flexural/ pavement surface, milling should not be used Vehicles should be limited on the existing
compressive strength of the overlay. If the solely for that purpose because of its poten- surface after it is prepared. If it is absolutely
recommended construction procedures have tial for causing surface microcracking and necessary to have vehicles on the existing
been performed correctly, and the early open- fracturing the exposed aggregate. If milling concrete, care should be taken that they do
ing strength criteria have been met, then the is used to lower the pavement elevation, any not drip oil or other contaminants that could
bond strength should also be adequate to resulting microcracking should be removed compromise the bond. When the surface
allow the pavement to be open without bond by shotblasting. temperature of the concrete is at or above
failure, provided that care has been taken to 120°F (49°C), water misting can be used to
prepare the existing pavement surface properly In some cases, a surface roughness or mean
reduce the temperature and minimize the
and the overlay has been adequately cured. texture depth is specified. The sand patch test
chance of shrinkage cracking. Water stand-
(ASTM C 965) is often used to measure and
ing on the surface should be blown off with
Several elements (beyond those common to verify the mean texture depth. Typically, a
compressed air.
a typical concrete pavement) are particularly mean texture depth in the range of 0.04–0.08
important in ensuring a good bond between in. (0.9–2.0 mm) is deemed adequate for Curing also can have a pronounced impact
the concrete overlay and the underlying con- proper bond development. on concrete overlay bond. The diligent and
crete pavement. There are issues related to thorough application of a curing compound
the concrete mixture, joint spacing, surface Following surface preparation, the surface
(sometimes at twice the normal applica-
preparation and cleaning, curing, sawing, should be thoroughly cleaned to remove all
tion rate) is an effective method to control
and strength measurement. While several of
these factors are currently considered in con-
ventional concrete paving, specific emphasis
should be placed on certain key factors of
these elements, since bonded concrete over-
lays are particularly sensitive to volumetric
changes.
Concrete mixtures used in bonded concrete
overlays should shrink as little as possible and
have similar thermal properties, or CTE (see
page 52 for more information). This typi-
cally means optimizing the cement content
to minimize shrinkage while maintaining an
adequate strength. Another mixture-related
consideration is aggregate gradation (which
helps in reducing cement factors without
sacrificing strength), as well as aggregate
type. To help minimize the thermal strains
and stresses experienced at the bond line of
bonded overlays over concrete, the overlay
should have aggregate thermal properties simi-
lar to the aggregate in the underlying concrete
pavement. If local aggregate sources make Figure 109. Compare the surface texture of the nonshotblasted area (upper left half
matching the thermal coefficient difficult, an of image) to the roughened surface texture on the shotblasted section of pavement
effort should be made to use only aggregates (under the pen) (source: Leif Wathne, ACPA)
moisture loss and thus lower shrinkage and Both pervious (geotextile fabric or open- • Roll the material onto the base or other sur-
early-age cracking potentials. This is particu- graded asphalt) and impervious (densely face, keeping the nonwoven geotextile tight
larly true for thin bonded overlays. More graded HMA) types of separation layers must with no wrinkles or folds.
“extreme” measures, such as wet or blanket drain at the pavement edges or risk trapping
• Roll out sections of the material in a
curing, can help to minimize the risks of poor water, which can be very damaging. The layer
sequence that will facilitate good over-
performance when proper curing compound can either be daylighted at the edges (allowing
lapping, prevent folding or tearing by
application is either difficult or doubtful. the egress of water) or terminate in a subdrain
construction traffic, and minimize the
These types of more “extreme” curing regimes or other layer (allowing the water to flow
potential that the material will be disturbed
are typically only applicable for short paving away from the pavement structure).
by the paver.
sections such as intersection rehabilitation.
In general, the following construction prac-
• Overlap sections of the nonwoven geotex-
Good construction sawing practices can also tices have resulted in successful installations of
tile material a minimum of 6 inches and a
greatly reduce early pavement stresses and geotextile separation layers:
maximum of 10 inches, and ensure that no
help accommodate early opening to traffic.
• Place the material as shortly before paving more than three layers overlap at any point;
As mentioned elsewhere in this document,
as possible (ideally no longer than 2 to 3 see Figure 110.
sawing the transverse joints in the new over-
days) to reduce the potential for it to be
lay full depth plus 0.5 inch, exactly over the • Ensure that the edge of the material along
damaged.
joints in the existing pavement, is absolutely drainage areas extends at least 4 inches
critical for proper bonding. There have been • Before placing the nonwoven geotextile beyond the pavement edge and terminates
examples of early bonded concrete overlay material, these actions should be taken: above, within, or adjacent to the pavement
failures due to debonding as a result of not drainage system.
◦◦ Repair the existing pavement to correct
sawing the joints completely through the any significant cracking.
depth of the overlay or failing to match the • Secure the material with pins (nails)
location of the underlying joint. The width ◦◦ When faulting greater than 0.25 inch (or punched through 2.0- to 2.75-inch diam-
of the initial saw cut in the overlay should as specified by the engineer) is present, it eter galvanized discs placed 6 feet apart or
be equal to or greater than the width of the may be reduced by milling. less, depending on conditions; see Figure
cracks under transverse joints in the existing 111.
◦◦ Sweep the pavement surface clean.
pavement; see Figure 48 on page 58.
When all of these factors have been properly
considered and executed during construction,
the overlay strength can be used to character- Figure 110. Overlap
ize the bond with some confidence. Strength of nonwoven
monitoring of the overlay concrete can be geotextile material
done in a fashion similar to that of conven- section
tional concrete paving. Maturity methods
for early-age strength prediction (ASTM C
1074) can be particularly helpful. If all recom-
mended construction procedures are followed,
and knowing that bond strength correlates
reasonably well with concrete strength, early
opening decisions can be made relatively reli-
ably, in-place, and in a timely fashion.
Unbonded Overlays:
Installation Figure 111.
of Geotextile Fastening
nonwoven
Interlayer Fabric geotextile fabric to
existing concrete
If an unbonded overlay is being constructed, pavement
an asphalt or geotextile fabric separation layer
must be placed before the overlay is placed.
Geotextile separation layers require some spe-
cial installation practices.
Before placing the geotextile, the surface of
the existing pavement should be swept clean
of loose material with either a mechanical
sweeper or an air blower. Then conventional
placement practices and procedures should be
followed for placing the separation layer.
Paving Direction
Figure 114. Dowel basket anchor nails should be placed on the downstream side of the
basket relative to the direction of pavement
Opening Overlay to FAQ—When can I open a bonded overlay to traffic so that the loading will not com-
Traffic promise the bond?
Guidance on concrete strength require- The answer is related to minimum concrete strength and not an arbitrarily selected time
ments for opening concrete roadways to from placement. Concrete opening strength (compressive or flexural) directly relates to
traffic is readily available. For example, concrete’s load-carrying capacity and provides an indication of the bond strength.
the Flexural Strength Criteria for Opening
Concrete Roadways to Traffic, as published
by the Transportation Research Board (Cole
and Okamoto 1995), bases its opening flex- of fatigue damage. Many states use flexural Bonded on Asphalt
ural strengths on thickness, k-values, and strength (modulus of rupture) for concrete
estimated ESALs, whereas the FHWA and Bonded concrete overlays on asphalt have one
opening strength criteria, and others use distinct advantage over bonded concrete over-
ACPA’s Traffic Management Handbook (2000) compressive strength. The following equation
is based on thickness, foundation support, lays on concrete. The concrete panels can be
is sometimes used to convert compressive cut into small squares or rectangles in order
and the number of ESALs between the time strength to third-point flexural strength,
of opening and the time concrete reaches to reduce the curling and warping stresses and
although it is widely recognized that this rela- the expansion and contraction of concrete at
strength. Other methods are available (FHWA tionship is mixture dependent:
1994) and depend on the type of traffic, early the bond interface because there are no joints
loading locations on the slab, pavement thick- that need to be matched in the underlying
MR = ( )0.667 psi pavement. The result is a reduction in shear
ness, and subbase support.
where at the bond interface. This technique has
been successfully used for a number of years.
Minimizing Early Loading MR = flexural strength Overlays over asphalt, however, are typically
Fatigue Damage (modulus of rupture), psi relatively thin and are therefore susceptible
The fatigue life of concrete pavement is to excessive temperature-related stresses,
f'c = concrete compressive strength, psi
sensitive to early wheel loading. A fatigue- particularly when the existing asphalt is hot
consumption approach (Okamoto, et al. from solar heating. If accelerated methods are
Note: This empirical equation was developed used, extreme care must be taken to mini-
1994) theorizes that concrete pavement has a
using data from four different studies, con- mize shrinkage cracking through diligent
finite life and can withstand some maximum
ducted between 1928 and 1965 (Raphael and thorough curing (sometimes at double
number of load repetitions, N, of a given traf-
1984). Also, the equation is contained in the ordinary rate of curing compound, or,
fic loading before fracture. Every individual
reports from ACI Committee 330 (2008). in short sections, wet curing and/or blankets
traffic loading applied decreases the life of the
pavement by an amount proportional to the Since early-age strength can change rapidly may be necessary). Some states have incorpo-
load. This damage value provides the percent- in a short time, and since some agencies use rated fibers to increase the toughness of the
age of life that is consumed by the actual a variation of the above referenced equation, concrete as well as to improve its resistance to
number of traffic loads up to a given point it is recommended that each agency develop cracking.
in time. It is important to avoid decreases its own relationship between the compressive Determining a reasonable value for opening
in fatigue life caused by heavy early loadings strength and flexural strength (modulus of bond strengths for these types of overlays may
until the concrete has reached 3,000 psi. rupture) for the mixture they intend to use. prove difficult, as described above. Typically,
Certain techniques can be employed to con- As described earlier, nondestructive tests such a value for opening strength of the concrete
trol early loading that reduces fatigue damage as maturity can be used to determine opening of 420 psi (2.9 MPa) flexural (2,500 psi [17.2
until the concrete strength can accommodate strength since it provides real-time results. MPa] compressive) to 480 psi (3.3 MPa) flex-
normal traffic loadings. ural (3,000 psi [20.7 MPa] compressive) has
One of the most important techniques is Strength Criteria for proven adequate. An additional consideration
for accelerated construction is to encour-
restricting wheel loads to no closer than 3–4 Opening Bonded Overlay age bond via milling of the existing asphalt
ft (0.9–1.2 m) from the edge of the pavement
(and ideally 6 ft [1.8 m]) to minimize stress.
Systems surface. If shear failures do occur, they will
Research has shown that allowing only inte- Strength criteria for bonded overlay systems likely occur in the asphalt since concrete shear
rior early slab loadings greatly reduces fatigue depend on whether an overlay is placed on strength is greater than asphalt shear strength.
damage (FHWA 1994). Traffic cones are an concrete or on asphalt.
effective way of restricting construction traffic Strength Criteria for
along the pavement edges until the pavement Bonded on Concrete
reaches the desired full opening strength. In
Opening Unbonded
If proper surface treatment, curing, and
addition to restricting early edge loadings, the sawing are employed in the construction of Overlay Systems
use of higher modulus of subgrade reaction, k, concrete overlays, the bond strength at the Because unbonded overlays are essentially a
can help minimize early-age stress. With con- time of opening should be adequate if 540 psi concrete pavement on a high-quality subbase,
crete unbonded overlays, this is a particular (3.7 MPa) flexural or 3,600 psi (24.8 MPa) it is appropriate and somewhat conserva-
plus, since the underlying pavement provides compressive strength is achieved. As a rule tive to use opening strength criteria that are
a high level of base support. of thumb for bonded concrete overlays, the commonly used for conventional paving. For
bond tensile strength may be on the order of example, a minimum flexural strength (3rd
Strength Conversions 2 to 10 percent of the compressive strength, point) of approximately 340 psi (2.3 MPa) or
and the bond shear strength approximately 4 1,800 psi (12.4 MPa) compressive strength
The modulus of rupture, or flexural strength,
to 20 percent of the compressive strength. can be used for noninterstate traffic. The state
is an important parameter in the estimate
of Georgia for example, uses a concrete open-
ing compressive strength criteria of 1,400 psi Repairs of Bonded or placed in a separate layer or poured mono-
(9.7 MPa) compressive strength, anticipating lithically with the overlay. Asphalt should not
that the approved mixture reaches 2,500 psi Thin Unbonded Concrete be used as a patching material because con-
(17.2 MPa) in 24 hours and 3,500 psi (24.1 Overlays crete does not bond well with new asphalt.
MPa) in 3 days. Full-depth panel replacement rather than Replacing an overlay panel(s) is easily accom-
partial-depth panel replacement is typical for plished using typical overlay procedures and
bonded and thin unbonded overlays, because materials; see Figure 117.
Repairs of Concrete the panels are small and relatively thin. After Thin concrete overlays at the end of their
full-depth sawing of the panel perimeter, the
Overlays panel can be removed easily by jack hammers
service life can be milled and refilled easily;
see Figures 118 and 119. Removal by mill-
Concrete overlays can be expected to provide or a backhoe; see Figure 116. ing (also referred to as carbide milling, cold
excellent performance and long life. Their per- When the overlay has been removed, the planning, and rotomilling) is a good option
formance is directly related to the uniformity existing base should be examined. If the old for concrete overlays, because they rely on
and quality of the existing pavement base. existing pavement is determined to be defi- the existing pavement base for load transfer
Isolated weak or thin spots in the existing cient, it should be removed and replaced with and therefore do not typically require steel
pavement may not be discovered during the concrete; the pavement replacement may be reinforcement.
pavement evaluation, overlay design, or over-
lay construction phases, and, like all pavement
systems, some repairs may be necessary during
its service life. If a bonded or unbonded over-
lay panel becomes distressed, overlay repairs
are relatively straightforward and, in many
cases, easier to perform than repairs of con-
ventional concrete pavements.
Figure 117. Finish and cure of concrete overlay repair (source: Dan Figure 119. Typical concrete pavement milling operation (source: Dan
DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete Paving Association) DeGraaf, Michigan Concrete Paving Association)
Generally, the productivity of milling concrete Milling can be performed under wet or dry Repairs of Full-Depth
is very good, depending on aggregate hard- conditions. The milling depth can be feath-
ness, bit configuration, and removal depth. For ered into adjacent pavements. Milling can Unbonded Concrete
example, removal of a concrete overlay at a 2-in. be completed on specific selected sections. Overlays
(50-mm) depth has been reported as high as The coarseness of the surface after milling Full-depth unbonded overlays typically are
8,000 ft2/hr (720 m2/hr) and for a 4-in. (100- and the fineness of the millings can vary constructed with dowel basket and lane ties,
mm) depth, as low as 2,700 ft2/hr (243 m2/hr). based on the type and spacing of milling so common concrete pavement repair tech-
teeth on the drum; see Figure 120. niques are used. These include partial- or
The method of removal is similar to that used
for asphalt layers, particularly when there are no full-depth repairs, diamond grinding, and
steel tiebars in the overlay. joint resealing. With thicker overlays (8 in.
[200 mm]) subject to heavy traffic, load trans-
fer restoration can also be applied to restore
load transfer and mitigate joint problems.
When a uniform separation course is used,
overlay thickness will likely vary, especially
where superelevation changes are encountered;
repairs made in these areas may require provi-
sions to account for additional saw-cut depth.
Standard full-depth concrete removal tech-
niques are used on thicker overlays. Eight- to
nine-inch (200- to 250-mm) concrete overlays
have been successfully removed by milling.
Figure 120. Typical concrete pavement millings from milling operation (source: Dan DeGraaf,
Michigan Concrete Paving Association)
APPENDIX A.
Tables 22 and 23 are tools for evaluating the conditions of concrete pavements and asphalt/composite pavements, respectively.
Table 22. Distress Types and Severity Levels Recommended for Assessing Concrete Pavement Structural Adequacy
Table 23. Distress Types and Levels Recommended for Assessing Asphalt and Composite Pavement Structural Adequacy
Longitudinal cracking in wheel path (ft/mi) Primary < 530 (100.4 m/km) 530–2650 (100.4–501.9 m/km) > 2650 (501.9 m/km)
Mean depth of rutting in both wheel paths (in.) Primary < 0.35 (8.9 mm) 0.35–0.60 (8.9–15.2 mm) > 0.60 (15.2 mm)
APPENDIX B.
Should the existing asphalt or concrete of a quality material for unbound or stabilized from the fines and CH, clogging pipes, and
composite pavement section or plain concrete applications such as bases when compared other elements of the drainage system.
pavement have major deficiencies that cannot to conventional new aggregate. An RCA has
Effluent from drainable bases containing RCA
be overcome with preservation techniques rougher surface texture, higher shear strength,
can have pH values greater than 7.0 due to
(i.e., concrete overlays), the existing pavement higher rutting resistance, and higher resilient
the leaching of CH. This has not been found
can be recycled in place to serve as a granu- modulus (Van Dam et al. 2012). These excep-
to be problematic in ecosystems. Although
lar base. The two acceptable methods are as tional qualities allow for unrestricted use of an
effluent from an RCA drainable base can have
follows: RCA as a base material up to and including
increased pH, especially during the first flush-
100 percent substitution of new aggregate.
1. Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as base ing cycle of water, it has no buffering capacity
material (preferred option) It is generally accepted that after unbound and is equivalent to adding lime to stabilize
RCA base is compacted, its strength and the effect of acid rain on a lawn. In stagnant
2. Rubblization of concrete pavement (only
stiffness increase. A misinterpretation of this flow conditions, the leachate could reach a
used under certain conditions if severe
phenomenon is that this is due to hydration pH as high as 12.4; however, this will quickly
MRD [ASR or D-cracking] exists or the
of unhydrated concrete contained within dissipate as the leachate encounters soils and
concrete pavement has failure due to unsta-
the paste portion of the RCA. Instead, the organic materials commonly present in soils
bilized open graded base)
increased stiffness is credited to the carbon- (Van Dam et al. 2012).
ation of very soluble calcium hydroxide
Pavements with an MRD such as ASR,
(CH) released by the RCA in the presence of
In-place Recycled moisture, which is constantly available in the
D-cracking, or freeze-thaw distress have been
effectively used as unbound base material.
Concrete as a subsurface base.
Before using these materials, however, it is
When using RCA as a drainable base, cer- recommended that testing be performed
Processed Base tain contained design conditions must be to determine the severity of the ASR in
Material considered. The mortar fraction of the RCA
contains CH as a by-product of concrete
accordance with the FHWA’s Report on
the Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Mitigation of
Recycling concrete pavements into an RCA is hydration, which, when in the presence of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) in Transportation
a viable alternative for unbound base course water, goes into solution. This solution can Structures (FHWA 2010).
construction. To be successfully utilized, recy- react with atmospheric carbon dioxide and
cled concrete must be viewed as a source of form a solid material called tufa (leachate),
aggregate with characteristics and value equiv-
alent to the aggregate material it replaces ton
which, in the presence of fines, can reduce the
flow in improperly designed drainage systems
Rubblization of
for ton; see Figure 121. The quality of RCA
concrete depends on the amount of mortar
using RCA. Conditions that lead to this are Concrete Pavement
easily prevented in drainable bases (Wade et
that remains attached to the original aggre- Rubblization is a technique that was devel-
al. 1995). A proper design places all RCA
gate. If processing is such that little mortar oped to minimize reflective cracking in HMA
above the water table, below the elevation of
remains and no fines smaller than #4 sieve are overlays. The intent of this technique is to
the inlet of the drainage system, and, if geo-
used, the properties of the RCA will be simi- reduce the existing concrete pavement into
textiles are used, the flow must be parallel to
lar to the properties of the original aggregate. small sections to prevent reflecting into the
the geotextile and not through it. Improper
An RCA, as a rule, is considered a high- HMA overlay; see Figure 122.
design will result in the formation of tufa
Figure 121. Recycled concrete aggregate (source: Jonathan Gene Pitre, Figure 122. Rubblized concrete pavement (source: Todd Hanson,
University of New Hampshire) Iowa DOT)
Rubblization effectively destroys the existing when the existing pavement is sitting on a concrete. Some of the reinforcement may
pavement structural condition and reduces stable subgrade. The rubblization operation surface during the rubblization opera-
the support for the overlay to the least com- must not be allowed to destroy the integrity tion, and steps should be taken to remove
mon denominator. It results in the loss of the of the support layers below the pavement. exposed reinforcement.
existing pavement’s structural carrying capac- When base is soft, the rubblization process
• An aggregate choke stone layer is required
ity, and thus requires a thicker, more costly under certain conditions can drive concrete
to fill voids and minimize the potential for
overlay. pieces into the subgrade, forcing water
pavement quantity overruns.
upward and reducing subgrade stability.
Rubblization may serve as a base for an
Soft and yielding subgrade conditions result
unbonded concrete overlay when the exist-
in incomplete and nonuniform rubbliza-
ing concrete slab exhibits fast-acting material
distress problems such as ASR, D-cracking, or
tion. Moisture/water present under the Crack and Seat (Not
freeze-thaw damage. These material problems
existing pavement may create a condition
that prevents the rubblized concrete par-
Recommended)
cause the concrete pavement to deteriorate Crack and seat should be limited to isolated
ticles from seating and locking together.
and lose structural integrity. Before these locations like tented panels. It results in a
The ability of a particular pavement to
pavements are rubblized, however, they nonuniform support condition when applied
withstand rubblization and retain its drain-
should be tested in accordance with the refer- over large areas, and this can be problematic
age and support functions is typically
enced FHWA criteria. for both HMA and concrete overlays.
not known until the pavement is actually
The conditions for rubblization to be consid- rubblized.
Crack and seat concrete does not serve well
ered for a base for an unbonded overlay are as a subbase for either concrete or asphalt
• Prior to rubblization, all HMA surfacing
concrete pavements that have failed due to because it has no gradation or density con-
and joint filler material must be removed.
unstabilized open graded bases. Many of these trol. During the crack and seat operation, the
pavements have migration of the subgrade • Underdrains should be installed prior to wire mesh must be severed or the crack that
material into the open graded base layer, rubblizing the pavement. is tied by mesh may cause reflecting cracking
creating voids and differential support condi- into the concrete overlay. The choke stone
• Care must be taken not to damage utilities
tions. This differential settlement of the open and crack and seat material must be drained
or underdrains with minimal cover.
graded layer results in failed support condi- to prevent trapped water. Subgrade support
tions and ultimately mid-panel cracks, corner • Rubblization must shatter the existing con- influences the size of the cracked pieces.
cracks, and significant faulting. crete for the full depth of the pavement. A Presence of water in the subgrade will cause
testing protocol should be established to loss of subgrade support, which leads to rock-
Rubblizing a concrete pavement successfully
determine the quality and completeness of ing of the slabs and subsequent distress in the
is predicated on a number of conditions, and
the rubblization operation as well as actual overlay. The quality of the subsurface materi-
there are several cautions to consider as well
gradation. als is highly suspect in the same areas that
when contemplating this technique:
• Steel reinforcement in the existing pave- the slabs in the concrete were in very poor
• First and foremost, a complete and uniform condition.
ment should be debonded from the
rubblization can only be accomplished
APPENDIX C.
FIBER REINFORCEMENT
price of synthetic fibers can increase materi- that manages to find its way up through • Do not place or finish if rain is eminent
als costs +/- $0.08/ft2 ($0.70/yd2) per inch the surface. If this dosage rate is reduced because surface water will make the fibers
based on a 4.0-lb dosage/yd3. The increase back down to maybe 0.2 to 0.4 percent, more prominent.
in cost is, however, significantly driven by the FRC can be easier to finish. Over time,
• Limit the use of older types of high-range
the size of the project and the volume of the fiber itself will wear away and disap-
water reducers (HRWRs) (naphthalenes
fibers being used; large projects can cost less pear, but the small roughness immediately
and melamines) to reduce the water-cement
and small projects can be more than this around the fiber may be evident. This is
ratio, as they tend to bleed and exacerbate
amount based on 2012 prices. not something that is noticed at highway
spotty concrete setting, thereby possibly
speeds, but for pedestrians walking across
• Macro fibers can negatively affect the finish causing fibers to be more prominent. The
commercial applications, it can be evident.
appearance compared to concrete without newer HRWR (polycarboxylates) are gener-
If it is objectionable, it can be removed
fibers, if care is not taken with the fiber ally better and reduce segregation effects
using a simple pan flame torch.
type, mix design, and texturing technique; in the mixture (both fiber and aggregate
however, with proper care, the finish • Often skid-resistant or higher-friction sur- related).
appearance will be acceptable. Owners need faces are specified for paving applications.
• Some solvent-based curing compounds will
to be made aware up front that the concrete Some fibers can create unsightly finishes
make the fibers more prominent.
surface will appear slightly different than depending on which fiber and dosage
the clean smooth surface usually expected amount are chosen. With the addition • Finally, know the product you are using.
of concrete paving. Some contractors will of fibers, it is more difficult to get a good The use of fibers is an excellent tool for
pan finish the surface to embed the fibers broom finish. Generally, an acceptable enhancing concrete overlays, but the
prior to texturing. This is not recom- broom finish can be achieved with a proper products are rapidly evolving and many
mended since the humidity, wind, sun, mix design, suitable fiber, appropriate owners, contractors, and producers are still
shade, temperature, and rain can all affect broom kept relatively clean, one-directional learning how to best apply the technol-
this operation; furthermore, if the panning broom passes, and no “jiggling” of the ogy. When using macro synthetic fibers, a
is not properly done, a significant amount broom. trial mix should be batched and placed at
of the entrained air can be removed, the ready-mix producer’s facility or placed
• Unless care is taken to prevent them, macro
thereby reducing the concrete freeze-thaw elsewhere using the ingredients and propor-
fibers may occasionally ball up and create
durability. The “hairy” surface can occur tions approved for the project so that all
a surface defect even if added to the ready-
with fiber volume rates near 0.5 percent or know and understand what is expected.
mix discharge load under the utmost care;
more if the care noted above is not taken; Communication with the owner, general
see Figure 126.
see Figure 125. contractor, and inspectors is important to
• Some contractors drill out the “hair balls” let them know what to expect during and
• Heavy doses of macro fiber can make the
with a 4-inch core drill to a depth of an after construction. It is important to under-
surface more difficult to keep clean because
inch or so. This allows for the hair ball to stand the fiber product being used.
of the slight roughness created by each fiber
be removed and replaced with a grout or
concrete mixture.
Figure 125. Finished concrete overlay with synthetic fibers Figure 126. Balling fibers
APPENDIX D.
APPENDIX E.
Grade Control Grade control for the project should be considered early. In If payment is based on the plan area, then the contractor
the planning of the project, the type of overlay and existing may want a more detailed survey and additional cross
pavement conditions will often dictate the level of survey sections to ensure proper thickness and yield. If the
required for the design and stakeout of the project. Resurfacing payment is based on the volume of concrete supplied and
projects historically have required little in the way of surveying. the area paved, less survey is required.
A vast number of them are even constructed without detailed
When milling machines are used to remove existing
construction plans; they are referred to in many states as log
pavement, it is advisable to have them either follow the
jobs. When concrete is used as the resurfacing material, there is
same control as the concrete paver or wait to establish
no need to increase the level of surveying required on a project.
the paving control until the milling has been completed.
With all resurfacing projects, it is advisable to visit the project
One point of caution for multi-lane construction is that
site during a rain event and verify that there is no drainage issue.
on many pavements, the cross-slope of each existing
A drive through the project at the posted speed limit will alert
lane may differ, and the paver should have crowning
you to adverse cross-slope issues. For rural areas, surveying
adjustment capability located at the intermediate lane
is only required when you determine that there is some type
lines or actively remove any cross-slope differences
of a drainage, cross-slope, or profile issue that needs to be
between the lanes with the milling operation.
corrected.
The elevation of the concrete paver can be controlled by either a
traveling ski or by a stringline that is referenced from the existing
pavement. When stringline control is used, establish grades
at each stringline pin by projecting the existing cross-slope,
sight the string longitudinally, and adjust individual grades up to
produce a smooth profile.
Materials/Mixtures
Reliability of Material Supply All materials that are required on the project need to be available Materials that are prone to delivery delays need to be
or scheduled or properly stored for use prior to constructing the stockpiled.
overlay project.
Material Schedule Under an accelerated schedule, there is little time for deviation Contingency plans need to be developed to address
from the intended plan. As such, representative samples from all potential changes in critical material properties.
material supplies should be made with proper certification.
Concrete Mixture Normal concrete paving mixtures are typically used for concrete The mixture needs to match the opening requirements and
overlay projects. Rapid strength gain to meet accelerated construction methods to obtain opening requirements.
construction schedules does not require special blended However, the mixture should not be accelerated to a point
cements or sophisticated material. It is possible to proportion where there is a high probability of early-age cracking
a mixture using locally available aggregates, type I and from shrinkage and curling and warping. Each crew
type II cements, SCMs, and certain admixtures. Some initial member will have to be accustomed to the accelerated
adjustments will probably be required by the paving crew as they duties that accompany expedited construction.
become accustomed to the mixture characteristics.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Type I/II Cements Type I/II cements can reach opening strength without increasing More cement does not necessarily mean higher strength
the risk of shrinkage cracks. but it does increase shrinkage, as well as curling and
warping.
Slag Cement Slag cement can reduce ASR expansion, increase long-term Slag cement may reduce rate of strength gain and
strength, reduce permeability, reduce concrete temperature, and hydration rate.
slow hydration.
Fly ash Fly ash will increase long-term strength, reduce permeability, In the past, some states impose restrictions on the use
and reduce set temperature. Some fly ash can slow hydration on of fly ash in cold weather and may restrict the use of fly
accelerated construction projects. ash to 10% on accelerated construction projects even in
warm weather months. Mixtures should be tested in the
lab to determine the appropriate replacement rates and
temperature restrictions.
Type C Type C fly ash will increase long-term strength and reduce water Type C fly ash can affect strength gain. Mixtures must be
demand and permeability. This may or may not slow hydration or tested to determine how much class C fly ash is required
reduce ASR expansion. to reduce ASR-related expansion. Too high a dosage may
increase the risk of rapid stiffening and/or damage due to
salt scaling.
Type F Type F fly ash will increase long-term strength and reduce Type F fly ash delays setting and reduces rate of strength
permeability. It will also slow hydration and mitigate ASR gain. High loss-on-ignition affects air entrainment. Type F
expansion. is generally effective at reducing ASR-related expansion.
Availability may be a limitation.
Chemical Admixtures Chemical admixtures are added to the concrete mixtures to The effects of set-modifying admixtures on other
modify certain concrete properties such as strength. Adding properties of concrete, like shrinkage, may not be
chemical admixtures can achieve these properties more predictable. Therefore, acceptance tests of set modifiers
efficiently than adjusting other mixture ingredients such as the should be made with job materials under anticipated job
type of cement. Admixtures that are combined and contain both conditions. Compatibility of the admixtures with other
water reducers and accelerators are available. ingredients should be tested as it relates to potential
constructibility problems.
Water reducers Water reducers can reduce water demand through reduced Confirm that water reducers are compatible with other
paste content (lowers w/cm) to help minimize shrinkage, chemical admixtures and cements, particularly under
temperature, and cracking without sacrificing workability. Water harsh environmental conditions. Confirmed laboratory
reducing admixtures can also increase early strength gain by testing is essential to determine if the admixtures will
lowering the quantity of water necessary for cement hydration develop the desirable properties. Type F and G water
(by as much as 10% in 28 days). The w/cm ratio typically are at or reducers (superplasticizers) are not normally used in
lower than 0.43 for accelerated construction. pavements because of their high cost and because it is
difficult to control the slump range required for slipform
paving with their use. Overdoses of water reducers,
particularly normal-range products, may severely retard or
prevent setting.
Accelerators Accelerating admixtures are used to increase the rate of Long-term strength may be lower. Excess acceleration
strength development of concrete at an early age, including in may result in cracking before finishing and/or saw cutting
cold weather. It is important to test both fresh and hardened can be completed. Care must be exercised in using
concrete properties before using accelerators in overlays, accelerators in thin overlays so as not to cause early
particularly bonded overlays. shrinkage, cracking, and high curling and warping.
Air entrainment Air entrainment will dramatically improve the durability of Need to check compatibility with other admixtures. For
concrete exposed to moisture during cycles of freezing and about every 1% of air entrained, about 5% of concrete
thawing. It improves concrete resistance to surface scaling compressive strength is lost. Loss of air through the
caused by chemical deicers. It also tends to improve the paver is acceptable up to 1.50% to 1.75%. However, when
workability of concrete mixtures, reduce water demand, and the loss of air through the paver approaches 3%, the air
decrease mixture segregation and bleeding. system (quantity and distribution) is not acceptable.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Aggregates It is critical that aggregates be well graded (that is, there An aggregate’s CTE is a measure of how much the
should be a wide range of aggregate sizes). Well-graded material changes in length (or volume) for a given change
aggregates have less space between aggregate particles, in temperature. For bonded overlays over concrete,
therefore reducing paste demand without loss of workability. use aggregates that as closely as possible matches
Reduced paste content reduces shrinkage and early-age the underlying pavement CTE. The material is subject
cracking, particularly with accelerated mixes. With all to varying conditions in storage and handling. At the
construction, aggregate moisture content needs to be constantly very least, these changes should be anticipated, and
monitored since it can change significantly during the course accommodations made to adjust the water content in the
of construction. Physical properties of the aggregate such as mixture as necessary. Ideally, real-time monitoring of
absorption may be one source of change. the aggregate moisture content would allow for “on the
fly” changes. In most circumstances, a well-regulated
sampling program using rapid evaluation equipment will
improve this component of the process considerably.
Separation Layer A separation layer provides a necessary separation plane A separation layer does not provide structural support.
between overlay and underlying pavement. For asphalt Heavy truck traffic may decrease stability and strip the
separation layers under pavements carrying heavy truck traffic, asphalt due to pore pressure. Consider drainable asphalt
decrease sand content and increase 0.13 in. (3.3 mm) aggregate layer and drainage system under heavy truck traffic.
in order to reduce stripping the asphalt due to pore pressure.
Geotextiles may also be used as a separation layer.
Fibers Although not typically required for concrete overlays, Placement of fibers in the mixture must be accomplished
consideration needs to be given to the use of fibers for thinner so as to prevent balling of the fibers into clumps. In some
overlays (4” or less). Fibers improve the toughness of the cases, water-soluble bags are added to the final batch.
concrete overlay and resistance to plastic and dry shrinkage A staging area may be needed with adequate capacity
cracking, particularly with bonded overlays. Fibers also can to avoid a queue. In other cases, individual (bulk) fibers
increase the flexural strength of the concrete. may be introduced into the mixture, where a blower
appropriate to the application should then be considered.
Batching Batching of concrete used in concrete overlays is usually no Depending on the size of the job, a dedicated mobile
different from conventional concrete paving, or even other batch plant is a benefit to the project. In fact, this is
ready-mix applications. recommended when at all possible due to the potential for
increased concrete uniformity.
Capacity Having adequate batching capacity is a critical link in the Contingency plans should include preparation for rapid
process of constructing concrete overlays. Both mixing time and responses (repairs) of the more common equipment
the availability of transport equipment should be balanced along malfunctions
with cost.
Consistency During batching, consistency and uniformity are critical. Overlays are particularly vulnerable to changes in material
Adequate mixing time should be balanced with the need for properties due to their commonly thin sections.
increased production rates. If possible, a continuous type or
high-speed twin-shaft mixer could be used to accommodate both
objectives.
Concrete Transportation
Traffic Separation In an ideal situation, a separation of the transit vehicles from In most situations, however, circumstances deviate from
both the traveling public and other construction vehicles is the ideal, which warrants appropriate measures to ensure
helpful. continuous, uninterrupted delivery.
Transit Time Transit time is one variable that must be known. If a mobile Caution must be exercised if a retarder is used as it may
batch plant is used, transport of the concrete from the batch also affect the strength gain of the mixture, thus affecting
plant to the paver may be quick. As a result, deviations from a the time of opening to traffic. Curing may also become
conventional concrete mixture (including the admixtures that are more critical in these situations as fresh concrete will be
used) may not be necessary. However, if there is a potential for exposed for longer.
delay (e.g., due to traffic congestion), or if a ready-mix plant is
used for supply with a longer travel time,
a modified mixture may be necessary.
Protection Protection of the mixture from environmental factors may also be Dry and windy conditions can lead to rapid moisture loss
a consideration, particularly in long transit times from any exposed concrete. Conditions that are marginal
for the risk of freezing or rain must also be addressed. In
each case, protection of the concrete in transit may be
warranted, and can often be done by use of tarps. If ready-
mix trucks are used, protection is often less critical as the
concrete is protected by the drum.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Preoverlay Repairs Prior to the construction of overlays, there may be a need for a If the preoverlay repairs dictate the accelerated overlay
variety of spot repairs on the existing pavement to be overlaid. schedule, the repairs should be considered under a
The timing of these repairs will affect the schedule of the overlay separate project or completed in off-peak hours.
construction.
Dowel Bar Retrofit Typically, dowel bar retrofit is not done in conjunction with Slots should be cut by special diamond slot cutters that
unbonded overlays since both can serve many of the same are capable of making multiple cuts at a time. Modified
functions. Dowel bars have been used in conjunction with milling machines are not recommended due to associated
thin bonded overlays when you want to significantly increase spalling and variable cut widths that effect chair width
load-carrying capacity. Good candidate projects for dowel requirements. Slots should be cut parallel with the
bar retrofits have the following characteristics: pavements direction of traffic. To properly prepare the slots, material
with adequate slab thickness, but showing significant loss of should be removed with a lightweight jackhammer, and
load transfer due to lack of dowels, poor aggregate interlock, the slot should be sandblasted and cleaned. Re-establish
or subbase/subgrade erosion. Relatively young pavements, the working joint with a joint insert. When choosing
because of insufficient slab thickness, excessive joint spacing, a repair material, select a material with the following
inadequate steel reinforcement at transverse cracks, and/or characteristics: little or no shrinkage, good ultimate
inadequate joint load transfer, are at risk of developing faulting, strength, thermal compatibility, freeze-thaw durability, and
working cracks, and corner cracks unless the load transfer is good bond to existing concrete.
improved. Typically, 3 to 5 smooth round steel dowel bars are
used in each wheel path.
Drainage Drainage improvements are sometimes warranted to Since the equipment used for drainage improvements
complement the construction of a concrete overlay. These often works on or near the pavement edge, their operation
improvements may include cleaning adjacent ditches, increasing before the overlay is complete would decrease the
their capacity, or even retrofitting subdrains. likelihood of premature damage to the young concrete
but also results in less stable material under the track
line, thereby risking reduced smoothness. In addition, if
retrofit subdrains are to stabilize the subbase, they should
ideally be installed prior to the overlay in order to reduce
movement of the existing pavement. However, be careful
not to damage the subdrains during overlay construction.
Utilities Utility work is also sometimes done prior to overlay construction. New patches can be particularly troublesome as they may
This may include relocation of utilities from beneath the not have adequate time to “settle” prior to the overlay
pavement to off of the pavement edge. If trenching or other construction. As with drainage improvements, all utility
disturbance of the existing pavement is required, care should be work should be completed prior to the overlay in order to
taken to ensure proper construction of patches. minimize interference or early-age damage.
Spot Repairs Some concrete overlays will require spot preoverlay repair to In all cases, quality of the spot repairs will often be critical
the existing concrete or asphalt pavement structure. If there are to the success of the performance of the pavement.
extensive repairs, the roadway may not be a good candidate for
an overlay.
Partial-depth repairs Good candidates are sections where slab deterioration is Poor candidates for partial depth repairs are those
contained to the upper one-third of the slab and where the with distress caused by compressive stress buildup
existing load transfer devices (if any) are still effective. in long-jointed pavements, spalling caused by dowel
bar misalignment or lockup, transverse or longitudinal
cracking caused by improper joint construction
techniques, working transverse or longitudinal cracks,
and spalls caused by D-cracking or reactive aggregate.
It is important to verify that all delaminated concrete
is removed, and that no concrete around the repair
boundaries has been damaged during the process. For
bonded overlays, it may be possible to fill in the partial
depth repair areas as a part of the overlay paving
operation.
Full-depth repairs Full-depth repairs of existing concrete or asphalt pavements are The effectiveness of a repair is dependent on the proper
effective at correcting many different types of localized distress. sizing of the repair. Most agencies specify a repair with
However, there are a few cases that limit the effectiveness of a a minimum length of 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m). Salvaging
full-depth repair. the existing dowel system is not recommended. It is
also important to verify that all delaminated concrete
is removed, and that no concrete around the repair
boundaries has been damaged during the process.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Slab stabilization Slab stabilization restores support beneath concrete slabs, Watch the maximum pressure to make sure it does not
thereby reducing progression of support-related distresses such exceed
as pumping, joint faulting, and corner breaks. Slab stabilization
100 psi (0.69 MPa). Monitor slab lift closely. Lift is typically
is not intended to raise depressed or settled slabs to the desired
limited to <_ 0.13 in. (3.3 mm). Stop grout injection when
elevation. Cement grout mixtures and polyurethane are the most
the grout is seen flowing from holes, cracks, or joints. Stop
commonly used materials.
injection if one minute has elapsed, regardless of pressure
or lift changes.
Surface Preparation/Cleaning Surface preparation and cleaning are required to prepare the The techniques used will vary depending on the surface
existing surface for the concrete overlay. type. The equipment used for repair should be sized to
provide not only adequate production rates but also to
minimize the disruption to the traveling public and to assist
with the accelerated schedule.
Traffic on Prepared Surface Phasing of the surface preparation operation can allow for If trafficking is allowed on the prepared surface prior
intermediate trafficking of the surface prior to the overlay to the paving of the overlay, subsequent cleaning of the
placement. surface, particularly for bonded overlays, is required in
order to remove any potential contamination.
Bond on Concrete Existing pavement surface preparation typically consists of Paving should commence soon after cleaning (i.e. minutes)
shotblasting followed by sweeping the concrete surface. to minimize the chance of contamination of the surface.
Cleaning consists of compressed air. Milling is used to lower the concrete elevation where
required and is not used as a concrete surface preparation
by itself since it can cause surface microcracking and
fracturing of the exposed aggregate.
Bond on Asphalt Existing pavement milling may be used where surface distortions Water or moisture cannot be allowed to stand on the
are 2 in. (50 mm) or greater to remove soft asphaltic material asphalt surface prior to the bonding resurfacing. In order
that would result in inadequate bond surface or to roughen the to prevent contamination of the surface, it is important to
surface to enhance bond development. Cleaning consists of avoid a large lag time between the final surface cleaning
sweeping the asphalt surface then cleaning with compressed air. and paving.
Unbonded on Concrete Only the distresses that cause a major loss of structural capacity The existing pavement needs to be stable and not shifting
require repair. or moving, particularly at the subbase level.
Unbonded on Asphalt Milling may be used where surface distortions are 2 in. (50 mm) Spot milling of only parts of the projects with significant
or greater to remove distortions that contain soft or fractured distortions or structural problems is often adequate.
asphalt. Before concrete placement, the asphalt surface should
be swept. Remaining small particles are not considered a
problem.
Traffic Considerations
Vehicle Access Meet needs of user. May want to open pavement to cars earlier Use accelerated mixtures only when necessary. Opening
and open to trucks later. strengths are those typically specified.
Pedestrian Access in Channel pedestrian movements around construction zone. In areas where heavy pedestrian traffic must be
Intersections/Urban Areas accommodated, detouring the pedestrian path may be
necessary.
Traffic Control Devices Traffic can be accommodated during construction. Fit traffic Too many times concrete overlays are eliminated as
control to user needs and follow the MUTCD (FHWA 2003b). rehabilitation options when the project is to be built under
traffic. The limitation of clearance requirements for paver
tracks and stringline are no longer valid since many
options are now available.
Lighting Lighting allows night work. Lighting must be movable with Number of lights and control of light patterns within work
construction. zone must be considered.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Lane Capacity Examine lane capacity of construction zone speed and not Must deal with existing traffic flows in a safe manner for
design speed of roadway. the driver and construction worker.
Large Trucks Limited data show that tractor-trailer crash involvement in work Special attention should be given to accommodate
zones is higher than the national average for these vehicles, tractor-trailer combinations, both in work zones and
particularly on the interstate system. their transitions, especially where there are large truck
volumes. Items to consider are lane widths in curves with
runs of barrier on both sides and stopping distance where
congestion is expected.
Detours Must be conveniently located and have effective signage. May have negative impact on users. Always minimize the
out-of-distance travel where possible.
Events
School Coordinate schedule with bus routes and events. The schedule may be difficult to control because of limit
changes.
Commuters Plan project to minimize disruption. Normally limits can be relied upon.
Holiday Normally work stops during holidays. Holidays present an uncontrollable increase of traffic.
Visibility Provide adequate stopping distance, which increases overall Equipment and traffic control must be considered in
safety. regard to visibility.
Construction Staging
Staging Area The project limits should be evaluated to determine adequate A dedicated ready mixture plant or mobile batch plant
staging areas. The staging areas are necessary for ready located near the project site will also cut down on the haul
mix truck washouts, storage of equipment and materials, times to the site, and the quality of the mixture will be more
construction trailers, and possibly a portable concrete mixing easily controlled.
plant.
Incremental Lane Closure Allows for continuous single lane paving in one direction, leaving Requires multiple traffic control setups and pilot cars.
(Leap Frog) opened areas for traffic recovery.
Mobilization It is important that the project is planned to minimize staging Remobilizing of the paving crew on the project site takes
operations. Every time a stage comes to an end, there are time, and time not paving increases costs. A preferred
mobilizations necessary to regroup and prepare for the next step approach is to minimize the staging operations and
in the paving process. mobilizations.
Work Production To keep paving crews busy and provide cost-effective work, it Length based on curing time and production rates and
is important to keep construction crews effectively utilized in acceptable traffic delays when under traffic.
construction projects involving overlays. That requires the crews
to utilize effective work schedules that provide continuous and
uninterrupted results.
Number and Type of Lane Closure Traffic control must meet acceptable standards. Methods and Number and type of closures will depend on traffic
materials used must meet project restriction. demands, lane capacity, adjacent access requirements,
and number of available traffic lanes.
Paver Encroachment All encroachment restrictions can be met. Normal stringline and track paver widths per side is
typically 4 ft (1.2 m). One foot incremental encroachment
reduction (up to 3 ft [0.9 m] reduction total) is common
through typical machine adjustment. These do not
require specialized pavers, but may require adjustment
or modifications to an existing paver. Stringless paving
minimizes this problem.
Construction Under Traffic Versus A thorough analysis comparing road user costs and construction Additional construction cost and delays to users when
Lane Closure durations and construction costs should be performed for design construction is under traffic must be compared to travel
alternatives (full closure vs. maintaining traffic through the delay and out-of-distance travel for detours.
construction zone).
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Weather
Cold weather (below 40°F Consider covering pavement to help achieve opening strength. Develop a QC plan that addresses cold weather placement
[4.4°C]) issues. Specifically, insulation methods to assure that the
pavement will not freeze until it reaches opening strength.
Normal weather 40°F to 85°F Overlays have fast strength gain and high production rates with There should only be project restrictions and not normal
(4.4°C to 29°C) reduced early-age cracking potential. material or equipment limits.
Hot weather > 85°F (29°C) Faster strength gain exists during hot weather. There is a higher risk of surface cracking during hot
weather. Proper curing is important. Also, bottom up
cracking needs to be considered when the underlying
pavement is too hot.
Construction Equipment One of the most important aspects of accelerated construction In the event of failure to the concrete paver, a plan should
that is often overlooked is the availability and performance of be available to continue operations. The plan could be
the equipment on the site. All equipment should be in working simple, such as keeping a mechanic on call, or it may
condition and properly maintained. The contractor should be more complex, such as having a backup paver in the
present a back up plan in the event of equipment failure during vicinity. A staging plan should be part of the back up
construction. Proper parts, hydraulic fluids, oil, and fuel should plan to properly rout traffic in the event of scheduling
be readily available. Concrete saws should be abundant and disruptions. If the pavement is to be open in a matter of
readily available on the job site. hours after paving, the critical stage is often the sawing. It
is important to have the adequate manpower and saws on
the job site when constructing a concrete overlay on an
accelerated schedule.
Curing Curing is arguably more critical for overlays than for most other While cost should be a consideration, the incremental
paving. The relatively thin nature of concrete overlays increases quality improvements, such as high production curing from
their surface area with respect to the volume of concrete. The an effective curing program, will often far outweigh the
result is more susceptibility to excess moisture loss and the additional cost.
distresses that can result from this. To avoid problems including
plastic shrinkage cracking, full-depth shrinkage cracking, wide
joints, and surface distresses, a rapid and effective curing
program should be adopted that includes using twice the
recommended compound rate for thin overlays.
Special curing For overlays that require a very short opening to traffic and are Special curing is normally not required in summer months
relatively short in length, special curing in addition to curing for accelerated construction, but it does have an effect
compound is used. It normally consist of insulating blankets that on strength gain when air temperatures are less than 65°F
provide a uniform temperature environment for the concrete. (19°C), and it has a pronounced effect when temperatures
are less than 55°F (13°C) in colder months.
Sawing Sawing concrete overlays is also typically a more critical The timing of the saw cutting should be done to balance
operation as compared to more conventional concrete paving. the potential for uncontrolled cracking with the potential
The thin section will often gain stresses rapidly, and thus require for excessive joint spalling during sawing. Bonded
accelerated sawing. Sometimes the need for accelerated concrete overlays over concrete require the most effective
sawing is underestimated and the sawing operations fall too far sawing operations to prevent overlay failures. Not only
behind the paver. To respond to this, the contractor should be does the transverse joint require full depth saw cut plus
prepared with the proper type and number of saws. In the case 0.50 in. (13 mm) over the existing joint, the width of the
of sawing, redundancy in equipment is also important. cut should not be less than the existing transverse crack
below the existing saw cut. This allows the two monolithic
pavements (overlay and existing pavement) to contract the
same way. For overlays on asphalt, particularly when there
is wheel rutting in the asphalt, the depth of the saw should
be increased to account for the extra depth in the wheel
rut areas.
Fillets Provide fillets for a level of safety precaution at dropoffs. Placement of form fillets may require sawing.
Table 24. Considerations for Concrete Overlay Construction under Traffic, continued
Schedule The project schedule must be reachable and realistic. The Proper equipment and staffing, mixture, construction
schedule affects public acceptance, contractor’s methods, methods, curing, and sawing are all considerations. There
payment and incentives, quality of work, and safety. Most is a need to understand the impact of traffic controls and
accelerated construction projects are moving more to calendar openings, staging, material requirements, and isolated
days and days when work is not usually done in order to address restricted spot locations on the construction schedule.
critical completion dates where a large volume of traffic is
affected. It also allows for the counting of weekends when
necessary and eliminates working day issues of whether a
contractor could or could not work.
Maturity Method Utilizing maturity testing for concrete paving provides a reliable Development of a maturity curve is an important element
technique for estimating in-place strength and thus the time of maturity testing. As construction proceeds on a project,
of opening. Maturity testing provides a reliable technique validation of the maturity curve may be necessary when
for continuous monitoring of concrete strength gain. Most changes occur in mixture constituents, material sources,
importantly, maturity testing enables any pavement to be opened mixture operations, and the water–cementitious materials
to traffic as soon as it meets strength criteria. Concrete maturity ratios. Also some states set an automatic validation
concepts are being applied by 32 states. criterion based on a time period. Most states that use a
maturity curve have validation criteria established which
allows some flexibility in mixture changes without the
development of a new maturity curve.
Opening Strength See “Early Opening of Overlays to Traffic” section. See “Early Opening of Overlays to Traffic” section..
APPENDIX F.
4 ft
Ref point #1
(4 ft rod with plate (TYP)) Center line
Wheel line
1/4 point
Wheel line
Edge
Ref point #2
(x,y,z)
Ref Point #1
(x,y,z)
Slope sensor
nder
lane u
Single ction.
u
constr
affic
nder tr l. Ref point #3
lane u o (x,y,z)
Single ot car contr
il
with p Robotic total station (TS)
Figure 137. System 1—Stringless paving operation using total stations and reference points
System No. 2 The paving equipment in this operation is con- System No. 3
trolled by a rotating laser unit that may be set
A second stringless system, shown in The third system, shown in Figures
on either side of the road to communicate with
Figures 139–141, utilizes GPS and laser 142–144, is a new emergence of stringless
the paving train equipment; see Figure 139. The
communications to achieve horizontal and paving technology and is a blend of the ele-
equipment locates itself over one known and
vertical guidance of the paving equipment. It ments currently being used in the first two
previously established reference point (approxi-
relies on an initial reference system inside the systems and the additions of items that can
mately 500–600 feet apart) inside the primary
primary control or 1,000 foot points of the reduce the time of survey prior to and dur-
control or 1,000 foot points of the highway
highway department with X,Y,Z coordinates. ing paving. It is based on the use of GPS
department. Elevation of the laser (Z coordi-
Coordinates X and Y may be established to guide the paving train and a computer
nates) is established through the use of a vertical
with GPS survey equipment, but Z must be program that can react quickly enough
pole, of set vertical length, under the laser and
established through the use of digital or three- to give real-time corrections from the
over the point. The laser is self-leveling and legs
wire level circuit operations to provide an elevation portion of the GPS signal to the
are adjusted vertically to allow the tip of the ver-
accuracy of 0.01 to 0.03 foot. Contractor or slipform paver or belt placer, in order to
tical pole to touch the point and the laser frame.
owner surveys are required to map the exist- provide accurate elevation data to 0.01 foot
The rotating laser emits a 10-degree vertical band
ing pavement surface, establish a final surface for development of profile information
to the units on the paver.
with profiles of the centerline and pavement necessary to meet highway agency needs.
edges, and calculate concrete quantities and Paver receivers consist of two devices as shown The GPS system requires a base station on
pavement depths to meet highway owner on the paver masts in Figure 141. The top part site with a 2+ mile radius of influence and
requirements. of the mast is a GPS receiver (X,Y coordinates) known X,Y,Z coordinates at the begin-
that is used to communicate horizontal guid- ning, ending, and third points of a typical
ance information to the paver onboard computer 5-mile project. The base station location
and surface model. Below the GPS receiver is a can also be tied to other known survey
1 mm correction receiver that relates paver and points outside the pavement corridor. The
reference point locations to the computer. The slipform paver or spreader is equipped with
paver onboard computer contains the pavement one GPS mast and two-way slope sensors
surface model and instructs the paving device on to adjust the paver movement. The opera-
changes in direction and elevation for the paver; tor can manually observe the action of the
see Figure 141. The same rotating laser can be paver from an onboard computer screen
used to guide the spreader/belt placer with only and make manual adjustments.
the GPS receiver and an onboard computer with
One of the advantages of this system is the
surface program installed. Other paving train
use of the four-wheel ATV equipped with
equipment such as the cure/texture carts are usu-
a GPS base station receiver and software
ally controlled by mechanical means.
Slope sensor
on.
cons tructi
lane under
Single
trol.
ar con
with pilot c
nder traffic
lane u
Single Rotating laser unit
Figure 141. System 2—Stringless paving operation using GPS, a rotating laser, and reference
points
Slope sensor
on.
cons tructi
lane under
Single
l.
ontro
t car c
c with pilo
nd er traffi
lane u
Figure 142. GPS base station mobile or fixed Single
APPENDIX G.
Separation Layer for have standing water prior to placement of to remove or when mud or other debris is
the overlay. tracked on the surface. If pressure washed,
Unbonded Overlays no standing water should be allowed prior
• If asphalt is used as the separation layer Bonded Concrete Overlays Over to paving. Paving should commence soon
material, it should be designed with the Asphalt after cleaning to minimize contamination.
intention of preventing asphalt stripping
from the build up of pore pressure from • A guideline to determine whether milling
is required is if asphalt surface distortions Unbonded Concrete Overlays
heavy traffic. Special consideration should Over Concrete or Asphalt
be given to pavements where high speeds are 2 in. (5.08 cm) or greater. If milling
and heavy trucks are expected. These vari- is specified, it is important that there is Surface cleaning is provided by sweeping of
ables are known to contribute to stripping. at least 3 to 4 in. (7.62 to 10.16 cm) of the existing asphalt surface with a mechani-
asphalt remaining prior to the overlay. cal sweeper or air blower. Paving should
• Fabric: Technology is evolving rapidly on Milling should remove the asphalt to the commence soon after cleaning to minimize
the use of geotextile fabric for the separa- nearest tack line. contamination.
tion layer. Care should be exercised in
selecting geotextile fabric, however, because • After milling, the surface should be
inspected for further preoverlay repairs. Concrete Placement
not all products perform equally well for
The milling operation may expose wide
this application. Grade Control
thermal cracks. If the cracks are wider than
the maximum overlay aggregate size, they • The engineer will review and approve the
may be filled with fly ash slurry, sand, or control system. Information detailing the
Construction other appropriate material. pavement thickness at the various survey
points and material quantities should also
• Following any milling, partial or full depth
Preoverlay Repairs repairs should be completed with concrete
be provided.
• Preoverlay repairs include: slab stabiliza- to ensure bonding with the overlay. • Concrete paver should place in single lane
tion and slab jacking, partial depth repairs, width or be capable of adjusting the crown
full-depth repairs, retrofitted edge drains, • All concrete patches plus the overlay should at each plan lane line when placing mul-
load transfer restoration, and milling. If be isolated from the rest of the overlay tiple lanes.
milling is part of the repairs, it should be using normal joint patterns.
completed prior to other repairs. • When appropriate, grade control for the
Unbonded Overlays Over paving operation should be referenced
• Materials removed in the preparation off the milled surface, unless the milling
operation may be temporarily placed in
Concrete
machine is controlled by a previously estab-
the shoulder area unless otherwise specified • For uniform support of the overlay, all lished paver control line.
in the contract documents. The removal partial and full-depth repairs should be
of materials must take place prior to the completed with concrete. Overlay Placement
removal of approved construction signage. • The concrete surface should be cleaned • Surface watering may be allowed by the
• Surface preparation equipment used prior to the placement of the separation engineer to help cool the pavement in
should be subject to approval of the engi- layer. If a leveling course is required, it extremely warm conditions and when the
neer. Milling, air, water, sandblasting, and should be completed with the concrete existing pavement surface condition is at
shotblasting equipment should be power overlay and not with the asphalt separation or exceeds 120°F (48.89°C). The pavement
operated and capable of preparing and layer. surface should not be moist or wet prior to
cleaning of the existing surface in accor- placement of the overlay.
dance with the contract documents. Unbonded Concrete Overlays
• Conventional concrete paving procedures
Over Asphalt should be followed for placing, spreading,
Bonded Concrete Overlays Over All partial and full-depth patching should be consolidating, and finishing the unbonded
Concrete completed with asphalt. Existing concrete overlay when required. When dowels
• The surface of the existing pavement should patches in the existing asphalt pavement are specified, anchoring dowel baskets to
be prepared by shotblasting, sandblasting should be isolated to prevent bonding to the the underlying pavement must be done
and/or milling. Milling, if used, should concrete overlay. A debonding agent, fabric, according to the jurisdictions requirements.
be followed by shotblasting or high pres- or other bond-breaking material should be Alternatively, paving machines equipped
sure water blasting to remove concrete applied to the patch before the overlay is with dowel bar inserters can be used.
damaged during milling (evidenced by placed.
• A quality control plan should dictate the
microcracking). time of placement with consideration
• Preparation should be adequate to remove
Surface Cleaning given to air and pavement temperatures.
all dirt, oil, and other foreign materials, as Bonded Concrete Overlays Over For bonded overlays on concrete, it is not
well as any laitance or loose material from desirable to have the overlay pavement
Concrete or Asphalt contracting, due to shrinkage, at the same
the surface and edges against which new
concrete is to be placed. • The surface of the existing pavement should time as the existing underlying concrete is
be cleaned by sweeping and followed expanding due to the heat of the day. The
• Airblast surface to remove loose debris and by compressed air in front of the paver. best time to place a bonded overlay over
prevent resettlement of debris into cleaned Paving should commence soon after clean- concrete is when the temperature differen-
area. The surface should be free of oil or ing to minimize contamination. tial between the existing pavement and new
other automobile fluids. The pavement overlay is minimal.
surface should not be moist or damp or • Pressure washing should only be consid-
ered when surface contaminants are hard
Liquid Membrane Curing Joint Sawing marked on both sides of the pavement by a
reliable method.
• Apply curing compound immediately
General
after surface moisture has disappeared but • Transverse joints should be placed in the
typically no later than 30 minutes after • The contractor should provide a joint saw- overlay pavement directly over existing
finishing/texturing. Apply liquid curing ing plan that demonstrates how all saw cuts transverse joints.
compound in a fine spray to form a con- will be accomplished within a shortened
tinuous, uniform film on the horizontal sawing window. Details should include • Transverse joint width must be equal to or
surface and vertical edges of pavement, the number of saws and anticipated sawing greater than the underlying crack width at
curbs, and back of curbs. production rates, as well as estimated start- the bottom of the existing transverse joint
ing and finishing times. All sawing must to prevent debonding due to movement.
• Use a white pigment liquid curing com- be completed within the first one-half of
pound for concrete. • Saw all transverse joints to full depth of
the sawing window.
overlay plus 0.50 in. (13 mm).
• For overlays with a thickness of 6 in. (150 The contractor should exercise care in
mm) or less, apply curing compound at • Saw longitudinal joints to T/2.
placing, consolidating, and finishing the
2 times the manufacturer’s recommended concrete at and around all joints.
application rate for a standard concrete Bonded Overlays Over Asphalt
pavement. Do not dilute the compound. • Wet sawing should be used when required • Saw transverse joints to a minimum depth
by the contract documents for dust control. of T/4.
• For overlays with a thickness greater than
6 in. (150 mm), curing compound should Joint Width • Saw longitudinal joints to a depth of T/3.
be applied at 1.5 times the manufacturer’s
• All conventional sawing widths are nor- • Early entry saws may be required unless
recommended rate for a standard concrete
mally 0.19 in. (4.8 mm) +/- 0.06 in. (1.5 otherwise specified in contract documents.
pavement.
mm).
• When 0.13 in. (3.3 mm) wide saw cuts
• When white pigment curing compound is
• All early entry sawing are normally 0.13 in. are used and sealing is required, follow the
employed correctly, the surface of the con-
(3.3 mm) +/- 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) in width jurisdictional requirement for low modulus
crete pavement should be solid white with
and a minimum T/4 inches in depth. hot-pour sealant.
no visible grey.
• If forms are used, apply to pavement edges Joint Seal Unbonded Overlays
and back of curbs within 30 minutes after • Joint sealing should follow the jurisdic- • Saw transverse joints to a depth of T/4
forms are removed. tional requirements. When narrow (.13 in. (minimum) or T/3 (maximum). For early
• Protect concrete pavement during cold [3.3 mm]) saw cuts are used and sealing is entry, saw depth will be 1.25 in. (31 mm)
weather for at least 5 days, or protect for required, follow jurisdictional requirements or greater.
a minimum of 24 hours and until flexural for low modules hot-pour sealant.
• Saw all longitudinal joints to a depth of
strength of 340 psi (2.3 MPa) is achieved T/3.
for unbonded concrete overlays, 420 to 480 Timing
psi (2.9 to 3.3 MPa) for bonded concrete • Timely sawing is necessary to prevent ran- • Sealing will follow jurisdictional
overlays over asphalt, and 540 psi (3.7 dom cracking due to shrinkage. This is requirements.
MPa) for bonded concrete overlays over particularly important for overlays less than • For unbonded overlays over asphalt, the
concrete. 6 in. (150 mm). saw cut depth may need adjustment over
rutted asphalt location in order to maintain
Bonded Overlays Over Concrete a depth of T/4 to T/3 requirements.
• Prior to construction of a concrete bonded
overlay, the exact location of each contrac- • When 0.13 in. (3.3 mm) saw cuts are used
tion and expansion joint in the existing and sealing is required, follow jurisdictional
pavement, including joints created by full- requirement for low modulus hot-pour
depth patches, should be identified and sealant.
APPENDIX H.
h. Joint sealant and backer-rod mate- tor responsibilities in testing and j. Documentation of test results and
rial certification submittals sampling deviations
i. Requirements on removal and b. Review of contractor’s QC plan k. Verification of failing acceptance
flushing of joint-sawing residue tests, retesting, and referee testing
c. Aggregate durability, soundness,
j. Joint beveling procedures (if abrasion, and gradation test data l. Actions to be taken if specification
required) and requirements requirements are not met
k. Joint sealant and concrete curing d. Reinforcing steel and dowel bar m. Pavement smoothness (ride) test-
time requirements and methods submittals ing and timing
l. Joint sandblasting, reservoir clean- e. Materials sampling and testing n. Treatment of premature cracking
liness, and moisture condition procedures and spalling
requirements before sealing
f. Development and use of control o. Resolution procedures for expected
m. Joint sealant surface depth toler- charts and unexpected delay
ances, sealant pump, water truck,
g. Concrete mixture designs and
and saw-cutting equipment
water-cementitious ratio effects on
n. Allowable ambient temperatures strength
during sealing operations and com-
h. Concrete sampling, fabrication,
pression seal reservoir requirements
curing, and testing procedures
o. Joint inspection procedures
i. Sampling and pay factor computa-
4. QA/QC activities tion overview
a. Delineation of owner and contrac-
APPENDIX I.
Table 25. Applicability, Pros, and Cons of Various Accelerated Construction Methods
Method Applicability/Limitations Pros(+)/Cons(–)
Formal partnering with design • This method has not been used very much + P
rovides a faster and cheaper construction process due to reduction of
consultants, contractors, local with designers or other agencies. conflicts, litigation, and claims (win-win situation)
authorities, and regulatory agencies + Brings about continuous improvement in the quality of services and
• Little training has been done and much
skepticism is in place regarding this method. products
+ Utilizes resources more effectively
+ Implements easily because already being used on an informal basis
+ Improves communications
– Limits completive market strategy
– Creates strong dependency on the partners
Methods for expediting utility • In highway construction, the need for the + Encourages project managers to develop more economical means and
relocation work relocation of utilities often arises, particularly methods
in urban areas. + Shortens project execution by using less formal documentation and
• Relocation is handled primarily by utility improving communication
companies. + Reduces executive personnel
• Currently, there is little recourse that can be + Produces more continuity during the project
taken against utilities for delays. – Brings about need for independent engineers to check PMs’ work
• Utilities have to pay for relocations. – Encourages overcoming the “specialist mindset” of the organization
Intelligent transportation systems and • Applicable areas include but are not limited + Increases safety
work zone traffic control to traffic control, route guidance, automated + Reduces congestion
highway systems, collision avoidance,
+ Enhances mobility
en-route driver information, transportation
demand management, etc. + Minimizes environmental impact
+ Increases energy efficiency
+ Promotes economic productivity for healthier economy
– Requires additional training of employees
– Includes costs to implement
Public input on phasing of • This method is applicable on construction + Allows for more expeditious construction methods to be employed
construction projects where there is a significant impact – Requires more public relations effort earlier
on the public.
Multiple approaches to traffic control • TCP solutions for small simple jobs are + Reduces both construction costs and user costs through optimal TCPs
plans (TCPs) often apparent, but otherwise they should – Requires larger consultant fees for development because of more
be thoroughly investigated earlier in the thorough TCP analysis
process.
Descriptive catalog of construction • Applicability of new technologies could + Provides an online catalog that could easily be accessed and
technologies be widespread, but specifications may be supported by FHWA and other states
affected. – Requires effort for maintenance and upkeep of the catalog
Contractor preparation of the TCP • This approach will encourage contractor + Reduces efforts
based on minimum requirements innovation but may be possible only on + Provides incentive for construction innovation
smaller, simpler projects.
– Increases costs
– Excludes impact on local businesses
– Means that contractor compliance with safety standards may be
challenging
Table 25. Applicability, Pros, and Cons of Various Accelerated Construction Methods, continued
• Resurfacing overlays and shoulder + Helps identify existing relationships and encourages the project team
improvement are good types of projects for to try different alternatives
the LSM.
+ Shortens schedule by overlapping activities instead of sequencing
– Scheduling projects involving large cuts and fills might be more difficult
to schedule with LSM
A+B contracting (costs plus time) • A+B bidding can be used to motivate the + Includes consideration of the time component of a construction
contractor to minimize the delivery time for contract
high-priority and highly trafficked roadways. + Includes favorable treatment of contractors with the most available
• There must be a balance between the resources to complete the project
benefits of early completion and any + Involves incentives for contractors to compress the construction
increased cost of construction. schedule
• This approach requires incentives and + Includes greater potential for early project completion
disincentives to be effective. – Requires that incentives and disincentives are carefully managed
– Means that costs are defined whereas benefits are distributed to the
public
Contractor milestone incentives • Incentives must be relevant. + Encourages contractors to finish on time
• Goals must be reachable. – Causes impacts to contractors to be highly scrutinized
• Incentives cannot be conflicting. – Causes disagreements over compensable delays that may be
problematic
Packaged multiprimes contracting • This method can be used when a specific + Increases competition among construction bidders
highway project is composed of several + Reduces pyramiding of costs, particularly overhead and profit
major segments or is very large.
+ Reduces project time through overlap of design and construction or
from multiple work forces
+ Requires more direct control by the project owner
– Presents interface management challenges for the agency
– Leads to physical interferences between contractors
Prequalified bidders based on past • Bidders qualify based on several key items, + Provides a shorter and easier selection process
schedule performance including specific project type experience, + Provides possibly better contractors
individual experience, past performance,
– Reduces the competition
capacity of the firm, and primary firm
location. – Requires that schedule performance data are well kept
– Requires that agency and other noncontractual schedule impacts are
recognized and equitably settled
Incentives for TCP development with a • To use this method, seek involvement of local + Leads to innovative ideas for successful TCPs
contractor who values an engineering municipalities in funding the incentive (e.g., – Means that savings are difficult to estimate
cost-savings sharing provision 5 percent of estimated user cost savings).
• This method requires close scrutiny to
determine actual time savings.
Incentives for contractor work • Incentives must be explicitly described in the + Leads to innovative ideas for successful TCPs
progress with a lane-rental approach bid package. + Minimizes contractor impact on the traffic
• Rental rates have to be significant and should – Causes administration to be difficult
address high-impact lanes.
Increased amount of liquidated • Just as important as the damages happening + Motivates better contractor performance
damages and routine enforcement in the contract are the claims made for – Requires rigorous documentation and quick request for information
damages. The time and effort involved response to enforce
in pursuing these claims is, however, a
limitation. This should be weighed against
potential benefits.
• Possibly provide incentives to finish projects
ahead of time.
“No excuse” incentives • These incentives preclude delay claims by + Results in considerable improvements in schedule performance
contractors, give contractors incentives to – Transfers risk to contractor and therefore may increase costs on the
finish early, and require a realistic schedule. average over time
Table 25. Applicability, Pros, and Cons of Various Accelerated Construction Methods, continued
Encouragement of the use of • Numerous research and implementation + Results in possible savings
automated construction technologies efforts are currently under way to automate + Presents opportunity for significant schedule compression
conventional infrastructure construction,
– Requires some training
condition assessment, and maintenance
actives such as earth moving, compaction, – Requires contractor implementation
road construction, and maintenance.
• Commercial systems are available.
Employment of methods for • These methods can be used where road + Decreases duration and unit costs
continuous work zones geometry and weekend or night scheduling + Increases safety
permit.
– Results in possible higher user costs and traffic congestion
Use of windowed milestone • This method can be used where milestone + Lowers project costs
dates are not based on hard constraints. + Lowers user costs
Milestones should be related to allow the
– Reduces ability to “hold contractors’ feet to the fire”
contractor maximum flexibility in efficiently
allocating project resources.
Schedule of calendar day projects • Scheduling calendar day projects is + Produces better weather management
applicable to projects where the completion + Provides a direct method of expediting
is critical and a large volume of traffic is
– Requires strict adherence to the schedule for credibility with the
affected.
public, even with breakdowns or weather problems
Construction time shortened by full • Full closure could be used in areas where + Shortens construction time
closure of the roadway instead of there is at least one alternative route for – Causes possible traffic congestion on alternative routes
partial closure drivers and where volume is limited.
Duration and productivity effects • Data collected can be very useful in cost and + Produces quicker and more dependable exploitation of new
tracked and associated with different time estimation for optimal plans. technologies
technologies – Requires personnel to devote time to properly monitor and record data
• Technology choices may be limited, however,
by project conditions and logical equipment – Can be perceived as costly
spreads.
Optimal approaches to crew shifts • The schedule can be shortened through use + Provides possible cost savings
and scheduling to eliminate long work of additional crews on regular shift, multiple + Increases productivity
hours shifting, or selective overtime.
+ Reduces cycle time of tasks, which improves the schedule
• Scheduled overtime can be used where – Creates possible negative results if planning is done carelessly
appropriate, but effects should be evaluated
carefully. – Creates a necessity for contractor to implement
Selected field personnel trained in • Schedule flexibility may be minimal in + Creates a flexible and quick-to-adapt project team
scheduling methods and claims practice, but for complex jobs a broad + Leads to faster project completion
understanding of scheduling issues should
– Leads to possibly too many people trying to manage
help expedite progress.
Lessons-learned database on ways to • This database would be broadly applicable + Requires quick reference for implementation of expediting measures
expedite schedules but limited by legal and policy constraints. – Creates a need for the database to be maintained
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