MARY JOY A.

ELMUNDO BSMA-3 NAT SCI-2 MWF 6:00-7:00PM

2. What is a Prokaryote?
- Prokaryotes are organisms made up of cells that lack a cell nucleus or any
membrane-encased organelles. This means the genetic material DNA in
prokaryotes is not bound within a nucleus. In addition, the DNA is less
structured in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes: in prokaryotes, DNA is a single
loop while in Eukaryotes DNA is organized into chromosomes. Most
prokaryotes are made up of just a single cell (unicellular) but there are a few
that are made of collections of cells (multicellular).
FUNCTIONS
1. NUCLEUS
The nucleus contains a cell’s deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), its genetic material. DNA
contains instructions for making proteins, which controls all of the body’s activities. In the
nucleus, DNA is tightly winded around histones, which are proteins, to form structures
called chromosomes. The nucleus regulates which genes are expressed in the cell, which
 controls the cell’s activity and functioning and will be different depending on the type of
cell. DNA is located in the nucleolus region of the nucleus, where ribosomes are made. The
nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope (also called nuclear membrane), which
separates it from the rest of the cell.
The nucleus also regulates the growth and division of the cell. When the cell is preparing
to divide during mitosis, the chromosomes in the nucleus duplicate and separate, and two
daughter cells are formed. Organelles called centrosomes help organize DNA during cell
division. Cells usually have one nucleus each.
2. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are where proteins are synthesized. They are found within all cells, including
animal cells. In the nucleus, a sequence of DNA that codes for a specific protein is copied
onto a complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) chain. The mRNA chain travels to the
ribosome via transfer RNA (tRNA), and its sequence is used to determine the correct
placement of amino acids in a chain that makes up the protein. In animal cells, ribosomes
can be found freely in a cell’s cytoplasm, or attached to membranes of the endoplasmic
reticulum.
3. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous sacs called cisternae that
branches off from the outer nuclear membrane. It modifies and transports proteins that are
made by ribosomes. There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum, smooth and rough.
Rough ER has ribosomes attached. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and has
functions in making lipids and steroid hormones and removing toxic substances.
4. VESICLES
Vesicles are small spheres of a lipid bilayer, which also makes up the cell’s outer membrane.
They are used for transporting molecules throughout the cell from one organelle to another
and are also involved in metabolism. Specialized vesicles called lysosomes contain enzymes
that digest large molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins into smaller ones so that
they can be used by the cell.
5. GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is also made up of
cisternae, but the cisternae are not interconnected like those of the ER. The Golgi apparatus
receives proteins from the ER and folds, sorts, and packages these proteins into vesicles.
6. MITOCHONDRIA
The process of cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria. During this process, sugars
and fats are broken down and energy is released in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). ATP powers all cellular processes, and mitochondria produce a cell’s ATP, so
mitochondria are commonly known as “the powerhouse of the cell”.
7. CYTOSOL
The cytosol is the liquid contained within cells. Cytosol and all the organelles within it,
except for the nucleus, are collectively referred to as a cell’s cytoplasm. This solution is
mostly made of water, but also contains ions like potassium, proteins, and small molecules.
8. CYTOSKELETON
 The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules found throughout the cytoplasm of
the cell. It has many functions: it gives the cell shape, provides strength, stabilizes tissues,
anchors organelles within the cell, and has a role in cell signaling. There are three types of
cytoskeletal filaments: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.
Microfilaments are the smallest, while microtubules are the biggest.
9. CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane surrounds the entire cell. Animal cells only have a cell membrane; they
do not have a cell wall as plant cells do. The cell membrane is a double layer made up of
phospholipids. Phospholipids are molecules with a phosphate group head attached to
glycerol and two fatty acid tails. They spontaneously form double membranes in water due
to the hydrophilic properties of the head and hydrophobic properties of the tails. The cell
membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it only allows certain molecules through.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through easily, while larger or charged molecules must go
through a special channel in the membrane. This maintains homeostasis within the cell.
10.