LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY

IN
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
- INDIAN EXPERIENCE

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NEW DELHI

PUBLICATION NO. 139

CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION AND POWER

Indian National Committee for International Commission on Large Dams
Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi.

(Issued on the Occasion of Golden Jubilee Congress of International Commission on Large Dams)

New Delhi October 1979.

 ACKNOWLE DGEMENT

This publication has been brought out under the guidance of a Special
Committee constituted by the Central Board of Irrigation and Power frir this
•
purpose. Shri M.G.Padhye, Member, Central Water Commission was the Chairman
of this Committee with the following Members:
10 Shri B.N. Aich, Chief Engineer (D&R), Irrigation and W~terwaya
Directorate, Calcuttao
2. Shri A. Nagabhushana Rau, Gen eral Manag er, Hindustan Construction
Co. Ltd., Bombay.
3. Dr. J. Purushottam, Chief Engineer, I&P Department, Central Designs
Organisat~on, Hyderabad.
4. Shri M.D. Deshmukh, Chief Engineer eSP), Irrigation Department, Pune.
5. Shri C.Etty Darwin, Member, Kerala State Electricity Board, Trivandrum.

The Board grateful~y acknowledges the contribution of this Committee

in the planning of this publication~

\Ul~~
C.V. J. VARMA )
Secretary
Central Board of Irrigation and Power
 FOREWORD

India has been bestowed with substantial water resources.

The overall surface water resources of the country have been
assessed as 1880 thousand million cubic metres. It is envisaged
that out of this it m~ be possible to harness about 700 thousand
m1ll1on cubic metres of water for irrigation. In addition the
ground water resources of this country are assessed at 270
thousand million cubic metres.

The total popul.a tion ot the country is over 630 million

(1978). By the turn of the century the population may be
·i

expected to reach a figure of over 900 million. The food

requirements of this population may be over 200 million tons as
against the production of 126 million tons in 1977-78. To
provide adecpate food and fibre to the population, provision
of irrigation facilities to as large an area as possible in as
short a period as possible, therefore, forms one of the
important tasks before the country. Further, about 75 percent
of the population is rural and depends for emplqyment on
agriculture and allied operations. A portion of the rural
population is alSO landless. water resources development
projects which are located in the rural areas may be expected to
provide relief to these otherwise unemployed and seasonally
unemployed population initially during their construction phase
and also during their operation phase.
 ( 2 )

1lle culturable area in the country is about 189 m. ha.

As assessed at present, out of the above an area of about 73., m. ha
can be brought under irrigation by surface water utilisation
projects and an additional 40 m. ha by use of ground water. By
mod,ernisation of the existing systems, by conjunctive use of ground
water, by improvement of operational efficiencies and by inter-
basin mass transfers of water it may be possible to increase this
potential to 150 m. ha.

Prior to 1951 the total irrigated area of the country ,

was 22.6 m ha. The irrigation potential increased to 44.1 m ha
by the end of Fourth Plan (l973-74). During the four years of
the Fifth Plan, irrigation potential created was of the order of
8 m ha. This was a considerable step up. During the Sixth
Plan, it is proposed to fUrther accelerate this tempoof develop.
ment and to bring additi onal area of 15 m ha under irrigation.
This tempo will have to be accelerated further in the subsequent
plans with the aim of utilising all the available water resources
by the turn of the century.

Toward this end the country has already built up a large

number of dams and storage reservoirs andamals. From a
storage capacity of 12 thousand million cubic metres in 1947
the aggregate effective stor age capacity in the country has now
risen to 134 thousand million cubic metres (1978). This has
been achieved by the construction of a large number of dams
of varying sizes and capacities. The number of dams in India
which could be classified .8S large in accordance with the
 -3-
criteria of the International Commission an Large Dams, is
over 1500. The number of dams taken up for construction since
1951 which are 30 metres and above in height is OVer 280 and

of these over 170 have been completed so far.

The construction of dams and the associated canal systems

involv:ing the investment of substantial funds afford an
opportunity for providing employment opportunities for a large
number of technical, non-technical, skilled and unskilled
personnel. This can make a subs tantial contribution to the
reduction in the unemployment situation in the country also in
the construction phase. Recognising th:Js fact the engineers of
the country have been adopting labour intensive technology in the
construction. of River Va11e.r Projects to the maximum possible
extent.
Hydro-electric developments constitute a no insignificant
portion of water resources development effort in the country.
Tbe technological problems and the problems of construction in
relation to adoption of labour intensive technology in respect
of the hydro-electric development projects are expected to be
similar to those for projects for irrigation development.
Therefore, even if no special mention is made of hydro-electric
developments in the report or overview, the conclusions that may
be arrived at will also be applicable to the hydro-electric
projects as well.
Various factors, such as site conditions and complexity
of the situation at the project Site, type of construction envisaged,
time schedule for the completion of 'Works, the relative economics
 -4-

and even the managerial problems associated with the type of

technology to be adopted, influence the decision on adoption of
labour intensive methods for water resources development projects.
Often, a mix of the two is seen to be more appropriate in the
condi tions as are available in India. The mix is also seen to be
Variable from time to time and from project to project.

1b.e present publication contains some of the experiences

of engineers in the country on adoption of the labour intensive
technology on a few water resources development projects. It is
felt that publication of these experiences on the occasion of the
Golden Jubilee Congress of the International Commission on Large
Dams will give the Indian engineers an opportunity to share their
experiences with the delegates to the Congress to mutual advantage.
It is also our belief that this will lead to a better appreCiation
of the problems involved in the adoption of labour intensive
technology in the construction of water resources development
projects.

Bringing out such a publication is essentially a co-opera-

tive effort. I am aware, that, but for the efforts of the various
contributors and the members of the Group constituted for the
purpose by the Central Board of Irrigation and Power and also of
the staff of the CBIP and particularly of Shri R.Rajaraman,
Deputy secretary, it would not have been possible to bring out
the publiCation in so short a time. I gratefully acknowledge
the assistance received by me from all of them.
 I am happy to present the publication "Labour Intensive
Techbology in Wa ter Resources Development - Indian Experience"
on the occasion of the Golden Jubilee Congress of the International
Commission on Large Dams.

~,£1~ ",.,~
~,.

M.G.Padhye
New Delhi Member (Planning & projects)
Central Water commission
October 1979.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

foreword
1• Labour Intensive Technology in Water M.G. Padhye 3-8
Resources Development Projects
2. Ta wa Proj ec t M.P. Hirmath 9-17
3. Pench ProjectS S.M. Bhale Rao
K.M. Shukla and 1B-30
5.5. Kulkarni

4. Jayakwadi Project D.L. Garud 31-42

5. Construction of clay-concrete M.A. Chitale and 43-56
diaphragm for the Mula Earth Dam G.E. Shukla
6. Sarda Sahayak Project G.K. Mishra 57-65
7. Kadana Dam V.B. Patel 66-77

8. Construction and management of J. Purshottam 78-95

large projects-Nagarjunasagar
Project and Godavari Barrage project
9. Lower Manair Dam R.C. Rao 96-100
10. Kallada Irrigation Project V. Lakshmana Iyer 101-107
11 • Modernisation of Periyar-Vaigai J.N. Dawson 108-123
Irrigation System
1 2. Mayurakshi Reservoir Project B.N. Aich 124-127
1 3. Mahanadi Reservoir Project~ Totaldoh D.R. Sikka 128-140
Project and Godavari Barrage Project
14. Excavation of Venkatayapalem Deep R.C. Rao 141-149
cut in the canal system of -
Nagarjunasagar Dam Project
1 5. Bhatsa Dam M.D. Deshmukh 150-158
1 6. EGS Activities on Jayakwadi, Mula, M.D. Deshmukh 159-167
Kukadi and Bhima Projects in
Maharashtra
17. Srisailam Hydro Powar Project M.L. 5wamy 168-1B1
16. Srisailam Dam Construction R.C. Rao 182-190
19. Idukki Hydro Electric Project C.Etty Darwin 191-203
20. Mechanisation on Warna Dam M.D. Deshmukh 204~208

21 • Beas Satluj Link Project R.K. Malhotra 209-221

 LABOUR INTENSIVE' TECHNOLOGY IN WATER
RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
PROJECTS
M. G. PADHYE
Member (Planning and Projects)
Central Water Commission
New Delhi

The popultation explosion which is taking place in a world of limited

resources is creating a number of problems which mankind has to face and solve.
In addition to the problem of additional mouths to be fed, the ever-increasing
population has also created the problem of finding employment for the substential
yearly additions to the work-force. The construction of large irrigation works
required to increase the food and fibre production can offer a real opportunity for
additional employment.

Depending on the size of the project, the irrigation projects are classi-
fied into three categories, namely, major, medium and minor irrigation projects.
Of these, major and medium irrigation projects are mainly the surface water
utilisation schemes where as minor irrigation schemes could either be surface water
utilisation schemes or scheme utilising ground waters. Since the na ture of the
minor irrigation schemes involving surface water utilisation are expected to be by
and large similar in character to the major and medium, irrigation schemes, the
discussions in the subsequent paragraphs will also apply to such minor irrigation
schemes also.

During the Sixth Plan, an outlay of ~.67,000 million is likely to be

provided for major and medium irrigation schem:;!s and the target of creation of
potential is placed at about 6.5 million hectares. This outlay is likely to be
spent for construction of over 200 major and 400-500 medium irrigation schemes.
Similarly, outlay of about ~.36tOOO million will be spent on minor irrigation
schemes to create a potential of 8.5 million hectares. Of this about Rs.15,000 to
20,000 million may be expected to be spent on surface water utilisation scheme.
These schemes are expected to be numerous and spreadout throughout the country

From the point of view of labour employment, the schemes could be divided
into the following broad components:-

( i) The head-works which involve construction of the storage dam or barrage,

the spillway, the outlet mechanism or the head regulator, the coffer dam
requir-ed for diversion of water, the diversion tunnels wherever required, the
outlet tunnels if the layout so requires, construction of colonies and the like.

( ii) The works of the canal proper, which will include excavation of canal
and providing the bank work wherever required, construction of cross
drainage works and other structures, construction of lining for the
canal and other ancillary works which also include construction of
approach roads.

( iii) Tha works of the distribution system which are essentially similar to
the works of the canal described under (ii) above, but by their very
nature are relatively smaller in size and spread over relatively large
areas.

( i v) The works in connection with on-farm development and the necessary land
shaping and field drains.

( v) Works in connection with the carrier drains which will carry the storm
run off from the fields and field drains to the main natural drainage
line in a reasonable period so as not to affect crop production.

In deciding, whether, labour intensive or machinery intensive techniques

should be adopted in execution of such projects, a number of factors will have
to be taken into consideration. They are:

(a) Nature of work

(b) Targets for completion
(c) Economics
(d) Investment on equipment
(e) Availability of labour
(f) Problem of management

THE NATURE OF WORK

If a dam is to be built in concrete, the technical requirements of
m~x~ng ot concrete, placing of concrete and other allied operations will almost
dictate that the work will have to be executed using maChinery intensive
techniques although for smaller jobs or components, some intermediate
technology involving use of labour could be adopted. Similarly in the Cases of
high earth or rockfill dams, the technical requirements of placement of large
quantities of earth/rockfill materials would require that machinery intensive
techniques are adopted. In the Case of works of tunnels, espeCially the large
diameter tunnels in difficult stratography such as is met with in Himalayan
regions, the technical requirement of works will necessitate employment of machi-
nery intensive teChnique. However, in such Cases also requirement of personnel
force, mainly of the skilled and semi-skilled variety is also fairly large. For
4
example, in the case of Beas Project Complex, which involved construction of a
gravel-fill earth dam, concrete spillways, diversion and pressure tunnels,
pressure shafts, deep chute through 300 m height a fairly long stretch of a hydel
channel with alternating deep cuts and heavy embankments, although the machinery
intensive technique had to be adopted, the employment is reported to be of the
order of 36,000. There are also instances when in cedain situations, e.g., in
the tunnelling works for Beas Project, highly mechanised method of working was
given up in preference to a highly labour intensive method with a view to excavate
difficult portions of the tunnels.

TARGETS FOR COMPLETION

A decision on whether to adopt a labour intensive technology or a

machinery intensive technology or a combination of both of them would also
depend on the targets for completion of work. For example, in the case of masonry
dams or small size earth dams, it will be possible to adopt labour intensive
technology with some element of assistance of small equipment, as the production
targets are relatively small and can be managed with labour intensive methods.
In the country there are many examples of small size earth dams which have been
and which are being constructed by adopting largely labour intensive technology.
In the case of masonry dams also, the labour intensive technology with a varying
complement of light machinery is being adopted even for large size masonry dams.
Examples of such dams will be the Nagarjunasagar Dam (Andhra Pradesh) which is
the highest stone masonry dam in the world (125 m), the Bhatsa Dam (Maharashtra)
(1119 m), the Mahi Weir (Gujarat), Kadana Dam (Gujarat) (65 m), Mahi Bajajsagar
Dam (Rajasthan) (68 m), the Sharavati Project Masonry Dam (Karnataka)(62 m) and
the Tawa Dam (Madhya Pradesh)(58 m). Many more such instances could be pointed
out. However, in the planning of these dams, a definite trend is discernible in
that, where the works are required to be executed to tighter time schedules,
there is an increasing use of ma~hines or mechanical devices for obvious reasons.

ECONOMICS

The dacision to employ a labour intensive or machinery intensive

technology is also conditioned by the relative economics of the work to be done
adopting either of the methods or even a mix of both. As at present, a large
part of the engineering works in the country are being executed through contract-
ing agencies whether it be a large size contract for construction of a dam or
whether it is a small size contract for execution of a relatively small work of
excavation of a portion of a canal or distributary. It can be said that as the
size of the work increases, increasing use of machinery is found to be economical.·
However, the relative economics of the two methods depend on the circumstances
5
of each case, the choice of method depending on the agency executing the work,
his experience and the equipment already available with him, etc. Even in such
cases. a mix of the two types of technologies has to be adopted.

INVESTMENT ON T~E EQUIPMENT

At times, the ~n~estment already done on equipment may decide the

choice of method of construction. The construction agencies which quote for
the work would quote on the basis of equipment available with them. For
example, when a contractor has a concrete equipment he would quote for an
alternative of a concrete dam to a masonry dam put to tender if alternative
designs are permissible. Even in the case of departmental works, at times,
the designs are required to be adjusted to suit the equipment available with
the department.

AVAILABILITY Of LABOUR

The problem of availability of labour in adequate quantities and

at the times they are required, also influences the decision of adopting the
type of technology. The availability of labour is influenced by various factors
such as incentives, mobility. enterprise, social and regional barriers. Even
the law of supply and demand is also seen to be operative in certain circumstan-
ces, more so in the skilled categories. It is generally seen that most of the
unskilled labour on river valley development projects is agricultural labour
and is tied to the lend even though it may be landless. Thus one would find a
shortage of labour for engineering works during the harvesting season even though
the wages may be remunerative. This sort of a situation is noticed even in some
ar~as which are known to be labour surplus. The problem of labour shortege could

also be related tel the problem of mobility on a,ccount of territorial/regional

considerations ,when labour in otherwise labour s,urplus areas is reluctant to
move to other areas. On the other hand, there are some labourers, for example,
Andhra Pradesh labour, who move seasonally over relatively long distances for
work.
PROBLEMS Of MANAGEMENT

At ~imes, the decision on choice of technology also depends on the

problems pertaining to management whether of a fleet of equipment or of a large
labour forc~. In the present day social circumstances, it may, at times, be
difficult toorganis,e and control a large complement of labour force. Such
management problems are known to have also affected the works even where the
machinery intensive technique was employed and the labour complement was relative-
ly small.
6
 Although important factors affecting the choice of type of technology
to be adopted for a particular project have been listed above, it is rarely
that a decision is affected by any single factor. Always the decision is taken as
as a result of all the factors taken together. It is, therefore, very difficult
also to set out a hard and fast rule as to the choice of technology to be
adopted for various components of an irrigation project. However, broadly,
it can be said that largely labour intensive technology which was adopted in
the early part of the century for the construction of some of the noteble dams
in the country cannot be adopted under the present day circumstances and an
appropriate mix of the two technologies may have to be adopted depending on ~he
circumstances of each of the cases. It cen, however, be said that for almost all
concrete dams and for large size earth dams, say height more than 30 metres,
machinery intensive technology may have to be adopted due to the nature of work,
the technical requiremen~. and the time schedule. In the case of the works of
canal and mainly that of excavation of canal, labour intensive or intermediate
technology can be adopted. Th~ will be more so in the case of smaller canale
and channels of smaller capacities.

MEeHAN ISAT ION

The existing complement of machinery required for irrigation projects

in the country has also to be viewed in the above context. Presently. the
various Irrigation Departments in the country have heavy equipment amounting to
about ~.1700 million (1977). This would amount to hardly 2Y2~ of the value of
work to be done in the country, during the Sixth Plan. Not all of this equipment
is new equipment and the value represents the book value. In the present planning
strategy, the insistance is on progressively increasing stiffer targets and
expeditious completion of projects. Further, due to technological improvements,
the sites and projects which otherwise would have been considered impossible
of exploitation in earlier ti.es ara being considered for exploitation. This
situation will, therefore, require that the equipment content for execution of
such projects would have to be increased.

In view of the foregoing, i t is felt that a flexible approach to

mechanisation and employment of labour intensive teChnology in irrigation projects
may have to be taken. By and large, the head-works of the project may be expected
to be capital intensive whereas, the canals could be expected to be largely
labour intensive. It may be expected that out of an investment of ebout ~.67,OOO
million in the Sixth Plan for major & medium irrigation projects an inveetment
of about ~.25,OOO million may be on equipment intensive works whereas the balance
investment of ~.42,OOO million could be considered as labour intensive. Similarly,
an investment of the order of about ~.36,ooo million may be expected to be made

7
on the minor irrigation schemes in the 6th Plan. On a broad assessment this
would mean employment of a work force of about 5 million on a continuing
basis with a peak of about 7.5 to 10 million. In addition for the works of
Command Area Development. work-force of about 1.5 million on the average with
a peak of about 2.5 to 3 million may be expected to be employed in a similar
manner.

8
 TAWA PROJECT
M. P. HIREMATH
Chief Engineer. Tawe Project Irrigation Department,
Madhya Pradesh,

I NTROD UC TI ON

Man has been e major construction agenc~. He has built the whole
civilization. He has power, physical and intellectual. He is an auto and easy
source of energy. He is a versatile machine, self-attending, less cumbersome in
operation and easy in maintenance; and can be multipurpose by mere briefing
and adequate training but a s~ow rated machine. Horse power is less and peak
power limited. With copious working space, light loads,and unlimited time of
completion, men and women can accompl~sh awe inspiring tasks. The Pyramids,
Tajmahal, Great Wall of China, Caves of Ajante and Ellora are some of the many
evidences of the same. He over-comes the limitations of his strength and power
with the help of simple machines called tools and implements, he himself remain-
ing the source of energy. With them he promotes himself into an artisan and a
skilled worker. 0

But th", formidable forces of nature encountered on con.truction works,

are to be overcome in limited space and time. Man as a mabhina and source of
power becomes inadequate. He has evolved powered machines both small and big
supplement his deficiencies to do the giant jobs. He operates them with his
limited power and accomplishes the huge tasks. He promotes himself as an opera-
tor transferring all the strenuous, irksome and torturing part of the labour to
the machina. It is a compUlsion that the works that can hot be done by labour
are to be done by machines. But machines are also evolved and have come to stay
to do any work that a man can do. In relieving man of his burden, they have
relieved him of his jobs also, and have caused unemployment. Man is a poorer
machine in competition. It becomes finahcially attractive immediately as well
as in the long run to replace labour by aechine.

Unlike machines, man has higher subsistence cos'ts, more severe than
the depreCiation charges of machines. Kept idle man costs more to the nation in
the form of subsistence doles and anti-social activities. Thus unemployment and
under-employment are both real national problems at any moment of time. His

9
un-employment creates large national liabilities which the fiscal gains by mechan-
isation on any project Can not balance. Employment not only reducgs liabilities
but builds enviable national human assets.

But man has always resented manual labour and takes it as a curse on
him. More than being strenuous. he feals it to be degrading. Each individual
tries to escape the drudgery as quickly as possible and makes all efforts to
promote himself to less exacting jobs. Man is an intellectual. His position in
the body of the universe is analogous to the brain. He, therefore, tries to
transfer more and more to the inanimate machines. In spite of this it cannot be
denied that every man needs employment. In a country like India where there is
large unemployment in the rural areas this employment will hafe' to be manual
labour. It should not be difficult by planned proper briefing and adequate
training that man will continuously get promoted into higher skills and trades.
In a well developed society, the animal physical power of man shall be extinct
in course of time. There is a great scope for better intellectual exploitation
of man. In India and other developing countries also, trend has set in this
direction. Development plans and construction operations are to be planned and
executed to accommodate the trends and hasten them.

Labour pattern and labour intensive technology is, therefore, not a

static but e dynamic technology, promoting man continuously in the intellectual
cadre. The objectiv~ is not necessarily labour-intensive to condemn man to
manual labour all the time, out certainly employment-intensive to engage man at
various stages of development of his ability and competence, to enable him to
get opportunities for self-advancement, to get rid of the drudgery and promoting
man to higher and higher levels, machinery becoming more and more subordinate to
him.

In the following paragraphs the study of Tawa Project is detailed in

this liqht.
TAWA PROJECT

Tawa Major Project is constructed on Tawa River, a Major tributary of

the inter-state river Narmada. in Hoshangabad District of Madhya Pradesh and is
scheduled for completion by March 1981. The Dam is located in Ranipur Village
0.82 km downstream of the confluence of tributary, Denwa with Tawa. Table I
furnishes the salient particulars of the Tawa Project.

The project is estimated to cost ~.914.2 millions. Large quantities

of various items of works like Earthwork, Masonry and Concrete were involved in

10
 TABLE I
SALIENT FEATURES OF TAWA PROJECT

Masonry Dam
Maximum height above the lowest foundation level. 51.9m
Spillway length - 237.7m
left. and Right Transitions &. Key Walls. 176.83m
Earth Dam length Max. Height Earth Work (M .cum)
( m) above G.l.(m)
left Dam 690 33.5 2.976
Right Dam 521 31 .7
5 eddle I 182 13.4
Saddle II 182 15.3
Top wid th 7.62m Free board 4.26
Reservoir Data Gross Storage 0.231 M
live " 0.205 M

its different components such as Dam, Tunnel with Approach and Exit Channels,
and Right and left Bank Canal systems. Many problems and difficulties of diver-
sion and dewatering, treacherous soils in foundations and canals and tunnels were
faced. Proper designs and construction operations had to be conceived and adopted.
Suitable constru~tion a~encies w~re employed. They have generally been labour
intensive.

Tawa Projec~ is located in Hoshangabad District, in an area with good

rainfall and predominantly Rabi crop. The population is agricultural, busy in
the field, most period of the year. The area has poor labour potential for
construction activity. lacking in industrial activity, it is not also a source
for skilled workers like masons and other artisans. There are few contractors
and construction agencies. Nearest source for labour is Bilaspur in M.P. and
near by States of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. Bilaspur
contributed 60 percent of the labour force, Hoshangabad Dis tric t 5 percent,
Orissa 20 percent and the rest 15 percent by Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Mahara-
shtra and Rajasthan together.

The Irrigation Department had the benefit of the experience of construc-

tion of a major project, viz., Chambal Project, with a high masonry dam and
extensive canals in difficult reaches, and also the valuable know-how of const-
ruction of earthen dams on a number of medium and minor projects.

With the advances in SOCiety and its development of the present day it
is very difficult to conceive a purely manual operation on any construction work

11
today. Many works that were done purely maually in earlier days of construction
are not in vogue today. Against this historical background the designs, construc-
tion operation and agencies were suitably selected and adopted for efficient
execution of the project. The opera~ions and agencies ranged from purely manual
for the earthwork of distributaries and minors, to various combinations of
machinery and labour for masonry and concrete work, to wholesale mechanisation
in the construction of earth-work of earthern flanks and the two saddles of Tawa
Dam. Best combinations were dictated by the site conditions, requirements of
the work and availability of the agency.

Major items of works are analysed and labour component assessed in

Annexure-I. The labour component has varied from 6.5 percent in the complete
mechanisation of earth-work for earthen flanks and the two saddle dams to 85
percent in the earth-work of canals. On the overall 40 percent of the cost of
the major items of works have gone to labour. The organisation of the construc-
tion works has been highly labour intensive. The year-wise maximum, minimum and
average daily la~our engaged based on a working month of 25 days (allowing 5
holidays) is given in Annexure-II. The daily maximum employment provided by the
project has varied from 14,500 to over 35,000 for the period 1969-70 to 1976-77.
The annual daily average for twelve months veried from 9,150 to 19,100 during
the period.
LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY

Earth work in gen eral is labour intens ive and major source of employ-
ment to labour. But longer leads and higher lifts limit the capacity of the
labour to undertake such works. The labour generally desires easy types of
excavation in soft soils. Hard soils, shale, soft sand stones, compacted send
a nd gravel, s i l t s tones, hard pans and soft conglomerates generally excavated
by labour even up to soft jointed sand stones in earlier days do not attract
labour, and are now blasted and only mucked by la~our. There is definite change
in the temperament of the la~our and they do not do it even at higher wages.
Blasting, transportation by trucks and dumpers end lift by mechanical appliance
supplement the manual labour in such works. The partial mechanisation hes thus
become essential in such cases.

Whole-sale mechanisation in the excavation of exit Channel and ~onstru­

ction of tunnel was possible with drag lines, shovels, track excavators and
moles, etc., but partial .echanisation was adopted suiteble to the needs of tha
job. Excevation was mostly by blasting, mucking and transportatipn by l.bour by
manually driven trolleys, end lift by power operated winches and mechanical lifts
in tunnel works. To improve speed in exit channel, blasting and transportation

12
by tippers and trucks supplemented the manual labour. The erection of permanent
steel supports, shuttering and concreting operations were also labour intensive
with minimum necessary mechanisation for bending R.S. girders to required shape,
lift by mechanical lifts in the shafts and mixing and blowing of concrete behind
the shuttering. On the whole the works were semi-mechanised keeping mechanisation
to bere minimum to supplement labour, and have held the labour component reasonably
high. The meximu. daily labour engaged for ~e works was 1250 averaging to 1000
on the tunnel works.

The right and left earth ern flanks, and the two saddle dams on the left
bunk of the Tawa Dam involved nearly 3.0 million m3 of earth work with long leads
varying from 2 to 4 kilometers and larger lifts. The soil for casing work was
mixed with cobbles and was hard for the labour dig. If total work and all op.a-
tions were to be done manually it wes estimated that it would be necessary to put
15,000 labourers a day in the limited working space. The recruitment and manage-
ment of such a large multitute was not considered practicable. Further the
progress of the earthen dams was to keep pace with the progress of masonry works
in the river portion and the obligatory levels were to be reached without fail
at the end of eech working season to meet the flood problems of the subsequent
rainy season adequately. After weighing all the pros and cons ~f the problems,
i t was decided to do the works by departmental machinery. Work was done well
in time with proper quality control. The work had only 6 percent labour component
excluding the pitching, boulder toe, and filters with were labour intensive. The
mechanised portion of work forms only 1 percent in quantity and 23 percent in
cost of the total earth work involved on the project.

Earth work involved in Left and Right aank Canal systems of 40 million
m is a monopoly of the labour except 2 millio~ .3 proposed by machinery. It
3
cost~. 118 .illion of this 35 million m3 is already completed mostly by manual
labour. About 85 percent of the cost is antici.pated to go to the labour.

But major portion (63 percent) of the cost of works is on masonry and
conc,ete both in the dem and canals. The labour intensive character of the
project is determined by the labour component of these works. Masonry works are
more labour intensive than concrete.

The masonry portion of the Tawa Dem could have been in concrete as well.
Then whole-sale mechanisation with batching plant, crushers, conveyor belts,
cable ways, hois ts and shafts could have eliminated the labour component to a
large measure. With the previous experience and know-how of masonry works,

13
availability of masonry stones, the design in favour of a masonry dam was adopted.
The economics of cost was also in favour of a masonry dam alternative. Except
for blasting ~y explosives, transportatiom by trucks, mixing of mortars by mixers
and pumps for watering, every operation was manual, right from quarrying, excava-
tion in foundations, and laying upto completed items of masonry. In block No.7
contract agency failed to do rock excavation of 14,000 m3 that came on the critical
path and was completed under difficult amergent conditions by departmental drilling
blasting, excavation and transportation by one II C.G. track excavator with Mogurt
Dumpers and Dozers. This explains the supplemental nature and inter-dependence of
manual labour and machines in the execution of major project works. and demons-
trate the need for the department to hold same quantum of maChinery at its
disposal for such contingencies.

Masonry and concrete works have major costs on materials particularly

cement and steel elso in case of R.C.C. The labour component of such works
varies from 30 percent in masonry to 20 percent in richer concretes where whole-
sale machinisation is not adopted for concrete. With the selection of masonry
for the Dam structure end adoption of manual operation in most of the items, the
work has become truely labour intensive.

The masonry works on canal systems were designed as masonry structures

for economy. Such designs presupposed the local availability of masonry stones
and suitable masons to execute the works. They were labour intensive and created
the demand for masons in large numbers. They involved 1 million m3 of masonry.
But the locality was found to be poor both in suitab~e stones for coursed rubble
masonry and masons. For concentrated major works of stone masonry like the dam,
masons, skilled labour and even labour in sufficient quantity was brought by big
contractors from Anclhra Pradesh ~nd South India.There are 4,758 masonry works
involved in the canal works. 2,465 works and 0.1 million m3 of masonry and
concrete have been completed. The remaining 2,293 structures are generally small
scattered works mostly of stone masonry involving 0.25 million m3 of both mesonry
and concrete together. The imported labour is not attracted to do such works and
have all migrated elsewhere. The big contractors have also shifted to some other
areas, leaving the work sites poor in construction labour potential in all cate-
gories, both skilled and unskilled. The labour intensive aspect of the project
has now lost significance and the task to complete the works by deployment of
other methods now dominates the scene.

All alternatives are now being examined to face the problem. The
structures are being converted into river shingle concrete structures with plums
which are relatively less labour intensive works.

14
 CONSTRUCTION LABOUR

Construction labour is the most uncertain and unorganised sector. The

statistics in respect of ~ts number, trade-category, place, mobility and availa-
bility are scanty. The construction agencies are mainly contractors. They
collect them and mobilise according to their means end requirements. The labour
may often get exploited. Their condition, therefore, always remains nomadic,
insecure and uncertain. Its growth as a regular professional entity is hampered.

Efforts are required to organise this force into a regular profession

whether full time or part time. It is suggested that a Labour Employment
Department in eech State with its ~ings in each District may register the labour
trade category-wise; determihe and enforce their wage and employment conditions
and further procure work for them either from the Government or from the constru-
tion agencies.

They may also maintain the inventory of work sites and the category-
wise labour requirements and arrange for engaging labour and their movement to
sites at suitable terms and conditions. They may also arrange for their training
to afford them opportunities for professional diversion into better cadres.

Employment intensive plannihg can only succeed with proper organisation

and maintenance of the labour statistics, their training and e.ployment liaison.

15
 ANNE XURE I
Analysis of Labour Component of Major Items in Tawa Project.

S1. No. Items Total cost Labour Percentage of labour

paid. cost. component.
(F~.100,000) (1B.100,OOO)

1 .0. Dam
1 .1 • Masonry Dam
1.1.1. Excavation of
foundation of
Dam
( i) Over burden 6.44 5.47 85
( ii) Rock cut 52.55 34.16 65
58.9~ 39.63 67.18

1.1.2. Cement concrete

( i) Al, A2, A3
(1:2:4) 136.25 31.34 23
( ii) B6 (1 :3:6) 37,21 10.64 28.6
173,46 41.98 24,2

1.1.3. Masonry
( i) Masonry (Rich
mortar) 57.38 14.34 25
(ii) , Masonry (Le~n 334.73 107.11 32
mortar)
392.11 121.45 11
Earth Dam
( i) Pitching &.
boulder toe 33.47 16.73 50
(ii ) Earthwori by
machines 342.64 22.27 6.5
376.11 39.00 10.31
1.1.5. Radial Gates 289.56 131.43 45.4
2.0 Tunnel
2.1 Excavation in
tunnel 1 24.19 24.40 19.64
2.2 Permanent
steel Support 68.27 8.60 12.59
2.3 A40 580 CC. 47.14 15.05 31.92
2.4 A40 5128 C.C. 74,11. 22.10 29.82
313.71 70.15 22.36
3.00 Canal System
3.1 Earthwork
excavation in
canals 1177.11 1000. S4 85
3.2 Masonry &. C. 2158,11 604.00 28
3335.22 1604.84 48.10
Total:- 4939.16 2048.18 41.5

Say 40"
16
 ANNE XURE II

Year-wise maximum and minimum and annual average daily

labour engaged in Tawa Proj act.

51.No. Year Daily labour engaged Annual average of 12

Max. Min. months of 25 working
(Numbers) days each
( Numbers)

1• Upto 31.3.68 NA NA NA
2. 1968-69 NA NA. NA
3. 1969-70 14511 12540 13904 for 3 months only
4. 1970-71 18955 2292 10902
5. 1971-72 15416 2607 9152
6. 1972-73 29929 2614 13986
7. 1973-74 32369 4165 16006
8. 1974-75 35342 6129 19126
9. 1975-76 24368 5561 14462
1 Q. 1916-77 23291 4850 12150

17
 PENCH PROJECT
S. M. BHALERAO K. N. SHUKLA S. S. KULKARNI
Chief Engineer Superintending Engineer Executive Engineer

Irrigation Department, Nagpur (Maharashtra)

INTRODUCTION

A multipurpose project for hydro power and irrigation with subsidiary

b enefi ts such as water supply to the Koradi Thermal Station (1040 MW,) and water
supply to the Nagpur City (Population: 1.1 million) including its industrial
needs, is planned on the river Pench in the Negpur District (Maharashtra). Pench
is a tributary of River Kanhan in the Wainganga basin of Godavari Valley. The
hydro part comprises a masonry-cum-concrete dem 14 m high, at Totaladoh with an
underground power house (installed capacity 2 x 80 MW and B km long tail-race
tunnel. The regulated releases from this hydro-dam are picked up by the irriga-
tion dam near village Kamthikhairi, 23 km downstrsam, along with the run-off
from the intervening catchment. On completion, the system will irrigate 27,300 ha
on the right bank canal (48 km) and 73,900ha on ths left bank canal (33 km).
Works on all the components of tha multipurpose project are in progress and are
programmed to be completed by 1982 A.D. The lower dam is already completed along-
with the right bank canal and has started supplying water to the Thermal Station
at Koradi fro. 1975 as well as to irrigation since 1976.

The hydel dam with its underground components of work is beat suited
for large-scale mechanised construction with labour. In the case of the irrige-
tion dam with its canals, however, the conditions are different. The 34.5a high
composite dam at Kamthikhairi (Figure 1) is constructed pertly in masonry
(0.24 M m3 ) which is a labour intensive work and partly in earth (2.0 M .3)
which was a mechanised work. The canals and their crosa-dreinage works and
concrete lining are also very much suitable for large scale manual work, though
help of mechanical equipment fo~ transportation, concrete mixing, compaction,
etc., is taken. The total length of the canal, branches, distributeries and
minors is 1,260 km and earth work 15.60 M m3 • There ere 385 amall and big croas-
drainage works ranging from prestressed R.t.C. equeducts to hums pips culverts.
In addition there are 4,700 outlets and 12 cross-r6gulators and meseuring devic •••
18
 -
fIGURE 1; Kamthi-Khairi SpIlTway Completed

All these works are scattered over 2000 Sq km and are not suitable for economic
mechanised construction. The cost of labour component of all these works is about
61 percent. The total man-days estimated to complete the works are 30 million.

The Pench Irrigation Project can, therefore, be justifiably categori-

sed as a labour intensive work.

ENVIRONMENT OF PROJECT AREA

The project area receives a rainfall of 100 cm from June to October,

but ~ it is situated in one of the very hot districts of the State end the
temperatures range from 100' to 115°F. In the rainy season the construction
activities are almost at a standstill. However, when the rain is scanty, it
is possible to excavate in herd strata like hard murrum, and soft rock, because
the rain softens the strata making them easier for excavation. The total work-
1ng days range between 160 to 190 in a year. In addition to rainfall the festi-
vals account for quite a few days of absence.

The high temperatures in the months of May and part of June affect
the working hours in a day. The labourers start work in the early morning, take

19
a long break in the afternoon and resume the work till the dark hours. The
high temperatures affect the efficiency of labour also. Cases of sunstroke
and gastric troubles affect the labour strength on the work.

The agricultural work in the project area is limited to mainly kharif

crops. The total population intensity in the Nagpur District is 196 persons
per 5q km. The labour needs of the project works cannot, however, be entirely
met with by the local labour. This is also corroborated by the poor response
to the employment guarantee scheme in the project area. The construction agencies
have necessarily to depend on imported labour such as Chhatisgad labour from
Madhya Pradesh and Palmoor Labour from Andhra Pradesh.

Predominant crop in the project area is paddy and· incidentally staple

food of the imported labour is rice. They, therefore, find the project area
convenient for working from the point of food habits as well as other natural
environments.
AGENCIES AND LABOUR COMPONENT

For construction of the masonry spillway of the masonry spillway of the

Kamthikhairi Dam a single contracting egency was fixed for convenience, while
the earth work was done by departmental earth moving machinery. However, for
earth work and lining of the canals and cross-drainage works, the planning of
works is done in suitable reaches with a view to adopt~ng labour intensive
technology.
The labour component in the various elements of the project is indicated
in Table I.

It will be seen from the statament that the overall labour compon~nt of
Pench Irrigation Project is about 61 percent.
LABOUR RECOURCES

The various items of work on the project can be broken into basic tradas
namely :

(i) earthwork in excavation and embankment,

(ii) quarrying of rubble for masonry and metal,
(iii) crushing of metal,
(iv) masonry of different types,
(v) mixing and placing of concrete,
(vi) bending and erection of reinforcement,
(vii) erection of formwork and scaffolding.
20
 TABLE I

51. Name of Total cost Labour Total Max. R

No. work works component Labour Labour e
portion Poten- Strength m
tial in reached a
man-days on the· r
compo- k
nent iii
during
its
constru-
ction
period
1• Kamthikhairi
Pick up weir
(a) Masonry 10 30 2 2000
Millions Millions Millions
(4$ of
total cost)
(b) Earthwork 30 3 0.6 100
Million Millions Millions
Earth- (10$ of
work done total cost)
by mecha-
nised
component
2. ( c) P ench 300 225 18.8 1000
left bank Millions Millions Millions
canal Earthwork (15~ of
&. C.D. total
works. cost)
3. Pench Right 130 91.5 8.1 5000
Bank Canal. Millions Millions Millions
Earthwork (15~ of
&. C.D. total
works cost)

Total 530 355.5 29.5

Millions Millions Millions
(61~ I of
total cost)

Apart from these skilled and semi-skilled jobs there are numerous other unskilled
jobs like watering and curing, helping the artisans like masons and carpenters.

India has a long and glorious tradition of civil engineering works.

The various trades such as masonry, carpentry, smithy. earthwork, rubble work,
etc., were carried on by separate groups of people in the society in a hereditary
manner. Though such a caste system of professional"s had its social evils, it
had the advantage of creating a sufficient n~mber of experts professionals to
meet the needs of the society. Under the present changed social circumstances,

21
as also on account of changes in the modes of construction, the old system
is almost extinct. It however, cannot be denied that continuous practice result-
ing into specialisation in doing -a particular job only helps in getting proper
quality and out-turn of work and hence, even at present, there are groups of
people who do a particular type of job only e.g. there are carpenters who
spEcialise in form work and scaffolding work only while others specialise in
furniture making. Similarly, the unskilled labour from Chhattisgad or Palmoor
specialise in excavation and embankment work and have their own typical methods
of working though apparently earth work seems to be an unskilled job. Good
skilled labour for quarrying and stone cutting is obtained generally from
Andhra Pradash, obviously because there is long tradition of masonry works in
that area. Very good masons for laying of masonry and plastering are obtained
from Andhra Pradesh as well as Rajasthan. The interstate mobility of labour
is likely to be affected if there is large scale construction in the parent
State itself or if contractors from States having less labour give them exceedin-
gly attractive terms of payments.

The new system introduced in the Maharashtra State called the employment
guarantee scheme (EGS), under which employment is guaranteed in his district
to every able-bodied adult seeking work, is useful mainly for unskilled works.
But even there, as already mentioned, the response in the project area is poor
due to long established mining and other industries. Therefore, on a job of the
magnitude of the Pench Project where the works have to be executed on a time
bound programme, import of even unskilled labour is inescapable.

The quality of village masons is not edequate for the more important
works on the dam or canal cross-drainage works, though they may do some routine
works. Carpenters to do the form work and ordinary scaffolding are, however,
available within project area. Local labour is also available for bending and
erection of reinforcement.

RECRUITMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTED LABOUR

The recruitment season in Chhatisgad starts from November and the

labourers arrive at the work-site by 15th December. The initial contract with
labour is for about 3 months after which nearly 50 percent of the labour goes
back to do the pre-monsoon agricultural operations in their villages.

Recruitment is done through an agent known as 'Mate'. He is paid a

lumpsum advance to cover the expenditure on collecting the labour from villages
and their transport upto the railway station. At the railway station the

22
contractoL pays an advance of about Rs.50 directly to the couple and bears
their journey charges upto the work-site. On arrival at the work-site each
family is provided with hutting materials such as 10 bamboo-mats, and 5 bamboos.
An advance equivalent to the wages of about one week's work is again paid to
each family to make a beginning at the new place. Both these advances are
recovered in instalments from the weekly payments for work done. Every week the
labourers prefer to take an amount sufficient to subsist in the project area,
about Rs.40 balance being kept back for taking home at the end of the season.

The mate who acts as a coordinator as well as a mukadam over the labour
gets payment which is about 10 percent of the weekly payment to the number of
labourers brought by him. Normally, he is paid Rs.50 per week as an on account
payment and the final payment is settled when the labour return to their villages
at the end of the working season. The return fare is paid by the contractor only
to those labou~ers who work with the contractor for 5 months and more.

The trained masons are imported from Andhra Pradesh. Fo~ obvious
reasons the advance per head is more, viz., Rs.100 to Rs.125 but in this case
the payment of advance is made to the mate and not to individual mason. The
mate is generally a senior mason. The advance paid is recovered at 10 percent
of the weekly payments.

AMENITIES AND TOOLS

The contractor provides the amenities of free hutment and medical

aid at his cost. The compensation to labourers for injuries or accidents is
also paid by him. The tools required for earth work, e.g., Pickaxes, Ghamelas,
etc., are given by the contractor but the skilled artisans such as carpenters
and masons have to bring their own tools. Blacksmith for sharpening of tools
is provided at contractor's cost.

Regular weekly payments on the bazar day, providing reasonable amenities,

timely help during sickness or epidemics, sympathetic treatment at the time of
accidents go a long way in avoiding discontent amongst the labourers and ensur-
ing continuity of stay on the job. Contractors who adopt fair employment practices
are able to maintain a continuity in emplcyment for the same gang of labourers
over long periods say a few years and the mates playa significant role in
maintaining good relations between the contractor and the labourers.
 WORK TECHNIQUES

Earth work

Earth work is done on head load upto a lead of about 50 m. The

labourers prefer cane baskets for carrying the soil on head. Between 50 and
120 m. the method of Kawad i.e. a pair of baskets hung at the bamboo ends
carried over the shoulders is adopted (Figura 2). Traditional modes of transport
like donkeys and bullock-carts were not used on this work.

FIGURE 2: Use of Yoke &. Pair of Baskets (Locally

Known as "Kawad") for Conveyance of Earth
from 50 to 100 Lead

Rubble Ouarrvina

The masonry dam at Kamthikhairi required rubble on a large scale and

the contractors preferred to have mechanised quarrying though conGiderable
quantity of rubble was obtained by breaking boulders. The project area is in
a metamorphic geology where big granulite boulders and outcrops of ~nferior

marble are available. The requirement of cross drainage works on the canal

24
being limited the contractors , prefer to obtain rubble from the big size
boulders by adopting special techniques which do not require costly explosives
like gelatine etc. These techniques do not involve any destructive blasting.
~imple tools are made use of to obtain big size rubble. The techniques are
specially suited where specials such as stones for corner, header or coping
are to be obtained. Use of big size rubble requires special methods of handling
but it helps in minimising the mortar contents in masonry. The techniques
a~opted are as under:

1. Wedqinq

In this method small chisels and hammers are used to enlarge the line
of dormant cleavage which is detected by the expert eyes of the quarry men
and the boulder broken by driving large size chisels along the opened line of
cleavage. The boulder breaks into a number of large size pieces in the desired
direction (figure 3)

fIGURE 3. Breaking of Boulder (Method 1)

2. Heatino

In cases where dormant cleavage is undetectable, jungle wood placed on

the boulders is burnt and water poured on the hot stone to make a line of
25
cleavage detectable, which is subsequently enlarged and rubble obtained.

3. Cleavage Line Holes.

In the cases where steel wedges are ineffective, with the help of
crowbars a line of holes 15 to 20 em. deep are drilled along the dormant
cleavage line and long dry wooden wedges driven in the holes. These wedges
are soaked with water after driving and their swelling exerts adequate pressure
to develop a line of cleavage along the line of the holes (figure 4).

fIGURE 4; Cleavage Caused by Wooden Wedges

in a Boulder (Method 3)

These techniques yield large size stones weighing about 40 to 45 kg.

Being heavy, they are lifted and carried to the placement point by a pair of
male mazdoors with the help of a special device consisting of a wooden rod
and iron chain (figure 5).

In the case of masonry dam where high lift is involved it is usual

to construct proper scaffolding with sloping ramps made out of bamboos and
ballies (Figure 6), and c~nvey the stones upto the point of placement by
manual labour instead of lifting by mechanical means such as a crane or

26
tower hoist. Outputs to the extent of 400 m3 per day were obtained on the dam
without using any mechanical device for handling t~ stones.

fIGURE 5; Conveyance of Heavy Stones by Yoke

~ Chain Method

.
The volume of masonry or concrete on the usual size cross-drainage work
on the canals is most suited for manual construction except for mixing, compact-
ing and transport of material. Only on two major aqueducts prestressed techniques
had to be adopted for the conductor system.

OUTPUT. WORK MANAGEMENT AND P~YMENT CONTROL

To have an effective cost control the contractors always prefer piece

work system for labour work though in some cases payment is made on daily
wages. Rates of earth work is vary with the strata as also lead and lifts.
Dressing of e~rth work is separately paid either on daily wages or on 5quare
metre basis. Masonry and pointing, etc., is paid on piece work basis, but all
the materials are required to be provided near the place of work to the masons.
In the case of R.C.C. Works, the form work and scaffolding work is done through
piece work system all materials being supplied by the contractors. The samB
is the case with bending and erection of reinforcement. The binding wire is

27
supplied by the contractor. The miscellaneous items of curing, finishing are
paid on daily wages. The feeding of the mixer with the various ingredients
of concrete, as well as the transport and placement of concrete is done through
daily wages.

fIGURE 6. Scaffolding with Sloping Ramps

The out-turn of work is generally ensured where the piece work system
is adopted, i f the ancillary arrangements such as supply of materials or
machinery and help of unskilled labour are done by the contractor in time.
Where daily wage system is adopted the out-turn is extracted by linking the
labour with another component of work being done on piece work system, e.g.,
masons on piece work system and helping labour on daily wages. 5imilarly where
mixer is used for concreting or preparation of mortar a continuous efficient
use of the machine makes the daily wage labour giv~ the necessary output. By
adopting such techniques the contractors minimise their supervision charges.

D~Da~tment8l Control

The contractor pays to the labour, on the basis of the borrow pit
measurements weekly, whereas he is paid by the department monthly on the basis
of cross-sectional areas of the finished quantity of excavation and embankment.
Where required adequate safeguard against the overpayment for the work is taken

28
by the department by paying part rate. further as a safeguard against abandon-
ment of work after doing easier profitable work and leaving the difficult part
at any intermediate stage, appropriate part rate is paid in the running bills.

QUALITY CONTROL

The quality control should be treated as a responsibility of the

department as well as of the contractor. Employment of proper quality of
artisans by the contractor can only ensure the proper quality of work.

It has, however, to be accepted that where labour intensive techniques

are adopted more vigilant control on quality is required to be exercised. The
points of control are more than in a mechanical work, e.g., on a mechanised
work of a concrete dam the control at the batching and mixing plant and control
at the placement point are the only two points of control to get the proper
quality of concrete. While on a masonry dam the quality of work done by almost
every mason has to be ensured by proper supervision, and such points can be
many. In addition, control on the quality on mortar is also necessary. Same
is the case with mechanised earth work. In a mechanisad work the soil clods,
etc., get broken under the movement of the machinery spreading can be uniformly
done and part compaction is also done by the mere movement of the machinery. In
the case of embankme~t work of canal done by manual labour, a very vigilant
watch on the breaking of clods, on proper spreading resulting into correct
thickness of layer is required to be kept and again the points of control are
as many as the gangs of workers.

PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS

Though the recruitment and managament methods adopted by the contractors

are generally satisfactory to get the works executed as per schedule, there arB
cases whan the labour abandon the work overnight without the knowledge of the
contractor which results not only in monetary loss to the contractor but also
upsets the schedule of works. This happens either when the relations are strained
or when there is allurement from other contractors.

Cases of running awa~1 even when advances are outstanding with the
labourers, as well as of cornering of the contractor in the midst of the critical
stage-of work are also reported.

Even in such labour intensive work it is difficult to obtain agencies

for construction of the small outlets and diversion boxes spread allover the
command area. Availability of quality materials, water for curing also creates

29
problems. Transport is also very costly. Hence precast units are used for
all these small works. Such units were departmentally cast under proper qual. ity
control.

CONCLUSION

Irrigation Project was started in 1968 while the Hydro Project was
started in 1974. The irrigation dam and the part of right bank canal waS comple-
ted. earlier while the remaining canals are being completed by 1982, i.e., by
the same time is the Hydro Project. The mechanised technology on the hydro side
and the labour intensive technology on the irrigation side have been so coordi-
nated as to complete the canals when corresponding storages are getting ready.
The adoption of labour intensive technology did not delay the acrruel of benefits,
but it has helped in giving large scale employment to labour •

.....

30
 JAYAKWADI PROJECT

D. L. GARUD
Chief Engineer (SP)
Irrigetion Depertment Aurangabad.

With about 80 percent of the Indian papulation staying in Villages,

there is a large scope for utilising man-power for unekilled productive work.,
at reasonable costs. The basic need would be that there should be such work
available which could be handled by the large number of un-educated village
folk and that it .hould be such as would permit the workers to do the work
without much change in their place of rasidence. The execution of irrigation
projecta involves aubstantial portions of work in respect of dams as well aa
canals which fit £nto this cetegory. The present article deels with the
experience of using labour for execution of the J ayakwadi Project in Mahara-
ahtra State in India.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

Jayakwadi i. a Major Irrigation Project in Mahara.htra State,

having largest irrigable area undar command. The Stage-I consists of
execution of the Dam at Paithan and the exacution of 208 k.longPaithan
Left Bank Cenel. The Stage-II coneists of executing the Paithan Right Bank
Canal (132 km) t the Majelgeon Da. and the Majalgaon Right Ban k Canal (165 kll).
Hajalgaon Da. etorage would raceive part suppliea also from Paithan Right
Bank Canal. The ereaa commended by the three canals of the Jayakwadi Pxoject
are ae followa ••

1. Paith.,n left Bank Canal •• 1,41,637 ha

2. Paithan Right Bank Canal •• 41,682 ha
3. Majalgaon Right Bank Canal •• 93,885 ha

T a tal •• 2,77,204 ha
• • •_ • •_ • • • ~a •• _ . . .

The eatimated coet of tha Stage-I ia Ra.1250 Million and that of

Stage.II is Re.890 Million. So fer Rs.9S0 Million end Re.270 Million have
been apent an Stag .. I and Stage.II works respectively.
31
 USE OF LABOUR IN EXECUTION OF P AITH AN DAM

The execution of the earthen portion of the Paithan Da. was taken
up since 1965-66, whsraas tha masonry work of the Paithen Dam Was taken up
in 1969-70. The Dam became ready for storage upto the spillway crest by
June 1974. The execution involved 13 million cu • of earth work and 0.33
million cu m of masonry work.

(A) Earthen Portion of Da.

Although execution of earth work (excluding axcavation in hard

rock) and transporting the 8ame within the reasonable lead and lift could
be fully executed throug~ unskilled labour, the Dam work which involved
huge quantities to be handled over longer leads and higher li~ts, necessarily
needed use of heavy earth moving equipment, if a Dam of this size was to be
completed within a reasonable period. However, with machinery use also
sacondary operations themselvea required lot of unskilled and semi-skilled
labourse In respect of the execution of the Paithan Dam, the pxogrllSs of
earth work achieved in different yaare and average labour force engaged are
given in Tabla I
TABLE I

yea r Quantity Average labour force engaged Avarage

of earth ( in man-davs) daily
work done Dapartmental Contr- Totel atrength
Million actors
cu m

1 2 3 4 5 6

1966-67 1.1016 27,000 1,09,500 1,36,500 682

1967-68 2.411 38,500 1,53,600 1,92,100 960
19'8-69 2.2898 36,400 1,47,300 1,83,700 920
19"-70 2.1395 34,000 1,37,600 1,71,600 858
1970-71 1.6697 26,700 1,07,400 1,34,100 670
1971-72 2.01 91 32,100 1,29,900 1,62,000 810
1972-73 0.6690 10,600 4,300 53,600 268
1973-74 0.0725 1,200 4,700 5,,900 30

Tot.J. • 12.979 2,06,500 8,33,000 10,39,500

The maximum labour utilised on ths sarthen dam component of project

waa of the order of 1000 Nos. ae per the break-up given below during the
year 1967-68:
32
 The labour force wa. used primarily for operation and
maintenance of machinery.

Skilled •• 310
Semi-skill ad •• 36
Un-ekilled •• 554

Total •• 960

(B) Masonry Portion of P eithan Dam

The execution of the masonry portion of the dam was done by a

auitabla ..ix of man force and machinery. This work needed 1 abour for many
itams lika for quarrying operation, loading and unloading of rubble and sand,
rellOving of muck from excavation of da. and quarries, carrying rubble and
mortar to working place, brushing and washing of masonry faces executed
aarlier and befora starting of fresh work, laying and curing masonry,
preparing form work for concreting, cutting, bending and binding .teal for
reinforcement, laying concrete, etc. The broad classification of the labour
which was engaged on this work is given balows

(i) Skilled •• 4,06,400 Han-days (from 1968 to 1976)

(ii) Semi-skilled •• 4,34,100 •
(iii) Un-skilled •• 27,55,500 •
Total •• 35,96,000 •

In view of the failure of the contractors to show ressonable

progress. in the course of first year of contract period, the execution of
masonry dam of this size Was proposed to be taken up departmentally by
GovernllSnt Engineers in 1910. This involved a big challenge as well as
~res.nted en opportunity to the Government Engineers for employing large

labour farce, locally available as well sS outside labour force which was
willing to co •• to the work sits. Tha yearly output of masonry for the dam
achiavad i8 given in Table II.
At the peak period (year 1972-73) the labour popUlation employed
for execution of the maeonry da .. was as below:
~ Man-day.
Skilled ••• 648 1.29,600
Semi-skilled ••• 688 1,37,700
Un-skilled ••• 4388 8.17.500
Total ••• 4 ill! 11.44.800

33
 TABLE 11
Ye e r Output Labour employed Average
(In cu AI) In Han-days daily labour
strength
2 3 4
_••••••1__.=•••••• ==.==••• c_.==.===~.= ••======.= •••• =.-..•==.= ••••••• ====•••••
Upto 6/68 218 5,200 26
from 1/68 to 6/69 19,108 1,86,000 930
from 1/69 t. 6/10 26,127 2,52,400 1262
from 1/70 to 6/11 63,958 6,15,600 3018
from 7/11 to 6/72 58,164 5,36,800 2684
from 7/12 to 6/73 1,01,568 11,44,800 5124
from 7/73 to 6/74 58,-634 6,80,800 3404
from 7/74 to 6/75 725 1,10,400 552
from 7/15 to 6/16(*) 8,490 64,000 320
---------_
35,96,000
...

•••• ==-== •••••••• :=.== ••••••••••••••••• =========================· ......=a===

Note: (*) For the year 1975-16 only concreting w~s done, on which 64,000
man-days were engaged.

Total labour potential uti1iaed 0 n the Head Work portion of project

ia aa under (i.e. on Earthen Dam and Maeonry Dam):

Hen-daye
Skilled •• 9,33,300
Semi-skilled •• 4,66,100
Unskilled •• 32,36,100

Total •• 46,35,500

The maximum labour potential utiliaed in ana year (i.e., 1912-13)

was 12,85,300 man-days, break-up of which is given balow.
Skilled •• 1,90,200
Semi-skilled •• 1,42,100
Unskilled •• 9,52,400

Total ••
-------.. _-
12,85,30Q

Camping 'aci1itiea for tha Labour

The piece-workers engaged on the earth-work job had provided

camping facility near the work-site for about 1500 labourera. Similarly,
about 1000 lebour engaged on the masonry work were also provided with hut-
ment facility.
34
 USE OF LABOUR ON JAYAKWADI CANALS

Execution of Peithan Left Benk Canal as well a. the Paithan Right

B.nk Canal pre •• nt.d an opportunity for .mploying a large ecarcity aff.ct.d
labour population in three year. frolt 1971 onwarde, ae th.ee thr •• con••-
cutiv. years witn•• s.d sav.r. draught conditione due to failure of monsoon
raine. Tha .tati.tics regarding labour .mployment on the PLBC a. well es
PRBC during two scarcity y.ars is givan in Table IU.

TABLE III

Year Maximum nu.ber of Numb.r of .. n-day.

labour.rs .. ploy.d ••ployed (in thou.and)

- - - -PRBC- - ---TOTAL
-
PLBC
during the p.riod
- ----
PLBt
- ------
PRBt
~
TOTAL
~ ~

- - - - - - - -- - --- -- - - - - - - - - --6- ----- -

1
~
2
~
3
~
4
~
5 7
~

• • • • • _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

1912-13 6,150 12,000 18,150 353 1800 2153

1913-74 12,965 37,000 49,965 1641 2700 4341

------------------~-----~--------------~----------------~--------.---------
In vi.w of the ecarcity condition. in the area tha Gov.rnaent
of Mahara.htra, thought it d•• irable to intmduc. a ach.... by which a willing
unskill.d worker can b. guarante.d a jab to enable him to earn hie living.
Thie r •• ulted in introducing the Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGs) in the
State from 1972. Ae the locations of ths work. however would not n.ce •• arily
b. within a short r.ach frolt the uaual plac. of residence of the ICtrkere,
it wa. al.o decid.d to .stablieh lebour camp. near work .ites wh.rev.r
n.c ••••ry, and m.k. r.a.onable living faci1iti •• like W.tar Supply, Medicine.
and foodgr.ine ..ade available near such 1.bour camps.

This r.eulted in attracting a 1arg. numbar of labour fbrc. for

the axacution of the un.kill.d portion of the PLBt a. wall a. PROt. Tha
statistica for the ue. of labour an th as. canale particularly through EGs
during the yaara 1975-76 to 1978-19 i. given in Tebl. IV.

Looking to the figures of labour popUlation on EGs it could b•

• e.n that the labour fore. on EGS ill getting reduced fro'.. the year 1978-79.
Thi. i. due to th. following rea.ons,

3S
 Ca) Completion of substantial part of loose excavation particularly
in the reaches which were nearer to the Villages.

(b) Monsoons being fairly good in the past 2/3 years, there WaS
raaaonabla amount of work in the fields. Also reasonable
amount of food grains were available at reasonable rates in
their area making the manual work under EGS Schemes less
attractive.

(c) The edvanced stage of Canal construction necessitates execu-

tion of many canal structures and large quantities of concrete
lining. These involve substantial skilled work and nence
ere being executed through contractors and pieceworkers.
The local labour force which had be en working on the canal
earth work was readily absorbed in a substantial portion
for works under the contractors and piece-workers in un-
skilled or semi-skilled jobs. Thus, though the number of
works on the EGS Scheme has been getting reduced, still,
a large portion of the same has already been working with
piece-workers or contractors and that too some-times at
higher levels of wages due to achieving of some skill at
least in reepect of part 0 f the labour popUlation. Naturally,
the capacity of the projact to absorb labour i. going to be
diminished by and by a. tha work. coma to a staga of
complati.on.

TABLE IV

Ya e I'
Maximum number of Man-days (in thouaand)
labour engagad. used.
PLBt PRBt TOTAL PLBt PRBC TOTAL
- .. -- - -- -
1
~
2 3 5 6
-- .... - .... -
7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1975-76 5,840 5,100 10,940 1752 1530 3282

1976-77 20,900 11,532 32,432 6270 3502 9772
1977-78 20,975 3,900 24,875 6293 1166 7459
1978-79 14,630 2,249 16,879 4389 348 4737

-~-~-.-------~--------------------~~--~---------~------------------~---------
In EGS the Government hae etipulated thet the b.sis of p~.ent
should necessarily ba the work turned-out 8Ad not merely the presence of
36
the worker. This fector was a safe guard for ensuring proper utilisation
of the l~rge lebour force and has proved i.portent in getting productiva
work done from the labourers under tha EGS Schema.

The Governllent had also stipulated that rats structure for payment
to the EGS labour should be euch that the people who are really in need of
work, would definitely find a place to work, whereaa workers or labourers who
ara habituated to work in the agriculture operations will not be temptsd to
go away from their usual work ..,d turn to EGS works. This was a good safe_
guard to sea that the agricultura, which ie the backbone of the Indian
econallY, does not vet affected. Tha Govern.ent had stipulated in year 1975
that the taak work ahould be so fixed that .., average worker, working for
a period of B hours per day, would aarn about Rs.3 per day. It was seen
that ganarally the worker gats above this limit although certain gangs which
were not punctual for their works. earned lower wages. The averege daily
wages .arned by the workers on tha Paithan Right Bank Canal and Paithan Left
Bank Canal works during the yaars 1975-76 to 1978-79 are indicated in
Table V.

TABLE V

Yea r Labour employed Average R.te

on EGS Un dud ng the year
thousand lIan-days)
PLBt PRBt PLBt PRat
- - - - - - - - -- -
~ - -- -- - - - - - - - ---- - --
1 2 3 4 5
•••••••••••• ===••••• s:a= • • • • • • =a== • • ==........- ••••••••• , •••
Rs. Day
~===.===== •••••••
1975-76 1,752 1,530 2.90 2.50
1976-77 6,270 3,502 3.15 3.11
1977-78 6,293 1,166 3.65 2.72
1978-79 4,389 3,48 3.95 3.18

-~-------~---------~~--------~---------~----------------------~-------------
ADAPTATIONS TO HAKE THE PROJECT
WORKS LABOUR INTENSIVE

The labourers normally get attracted if the works are not far
away froll the place of residence, so that they could return to their own
placee of residanca by evening.

To .ea that labour ie not h.,diclIPped for want of i.pl_ent., the

depart.ent had undertaken to give them pick-axes, Phawedas, Ghamela. and
37
similar other acce.sorie. needed for the execution of the work.

In caae 1:h. labourers engaged on the work bring their own toole,
they ere pai d at Re.O.OS/day extra. The aharpening of the tools is moetly
arrang ed by the Department at Government cost. Where such fecility for
sharpening of taole is not provided the labourers era being paid Re.O.OS
per dey extra towards the charges for aharpening of toola which they have
to incur.

Moreover, it is also observed that aome labour force doee get

.ttracted to colonies aWay from their native place, if the work is expected
to continue for over 2 to 3 years, provided Camp facilities are providsd.
This factor was utilised for executing rock cut in km 145 to 148 of the
•
Paithan Left Bank Canal. The statietics of labour force which were on this
rock cut is es belaw:-

Ye e l' Average nUllbsr No. of Man .. Quantity of Maxillum

of workera deys during strata exca- attendance
employed the year vated i~ in Year
per day ( thousand (l000 m )

- - - --- - - -- - - .. - .. .. - - -- - - - - - - -
Men-daya)
~
1 2 3 4 5
..............................................................................
1975-76 380 85 26.5 981
1976-77 3950 1701 60.2 9'00
1977-78 4595 1238 31.9 7497
1978-79 2795 754 19.3 3633

------~-~--------------~----------~~-----~---------~--------~---------~-----
Similar. labour camps were also eetablished at a nUliber of
locations on both the canals (Right Bank and Laft Bank) whara sizeable
quantity of work could be executed for et least one year or .0 and where
labourers showed willingness to stay.

It must be stated here that in executing the deep rock-out in

km 145 to 148. the procedure adopted was demarking short raachas {say about
10 to 15 metree) to each gang ( a group of about 20 to 25 workers) and perMi-
tting the gang to be paid for the full rate for excavation including lifting.
lIucking and dumping in the spoil benk. The help ne .ded in drilling or for
supplying the blasting lIaterial, when necessary, Waa charged at Government
rate. separately. The operetion of secondary breaking of the .tone loosened
38
by blasting operation was done manually so th at the muck becomes of
reasonable size for lifting (Figures I and 2). The muck wes filled in the
Ghamelaa (iron basket) and then lifted to the top by help of chain of
labourers standing on the rocky slopes (Figures 3 and 4).

FIGURE Is Paithan Left Bsnk Canal km 146:00

Removing of Stones After Blasting For
Secondary Breaking.

FIGURE 2s Paithan Left Bank Canal km.146aOO

Operation of Secondary Breaking And
Lifting of Mude.
39
fIGURE 3: Paithan Left Bank Canal km.146&00
View showing Muck Removed By Manual effort.

fIGLRE 4: Paithan Left Bank Canal km.l46:00

Removed Bv Chein Of Labours Muck.

40
 The manual lifting had 1 imitations of height. With higher depths,
this operation becomes risky as the labourers heve to handle the muck removal
by increased number of transfer of baskets from hand to hand and there is a
possibility of injuries, if the basket i8 not collected neatly. It is saen
that manuel lifting of the Jnck muck st~ted becoming risky for heights above
12 to 15 metres arid hence the balance work in lower portion is being got
executed through mechanisation by diverting the EGS labour force to some
other nearby we rks. The main point wh ich was remembered was to see
~hat the available man power is given first preference for executing the work
on EGS before considering the use of putting in machines for executing the
job. No doubt, looking to t~e practica of axecution, review. are being taken
every year to see that machines (like scrapers, loaders, dumpers, tippers, etc.)
are used where the labour force available in thet reach of the canal wa. not
expected to complete the work in time as per echedule of executing the project.

The percentage of woJ:!< executed by the machines on Jayakwadi Canal.

is stated below.

Yea r Paithan Left Paithan Right

Bank Canal Bank Canal
.... --- .. ----- - --- - ~ --- - - .. ------
1 2 3

-••••••••••=-••-•••••••• ~-- •••== ••==•••-•••••=••=••• ~. = ••= •••••••••••••••••••

1976_71 16.381. 18~

1977-18 6.781. 23~
1978-19 14.511. 30~

~-~----------------------~---------
Average , l2.55~ 23.66~

------------------------~----------------------~-----~-----------------------

LIMITATIONS OF EGS

Hendling of large labour force of tha nat~re stated above, wa. an

experience to the Government Engineers. The execution of the scheme involved
lot of l.bour to the supervisory staff also, beceuse payments are promised
avery week, necessarily involving frequent measuremente. Tha EGS Schama
basically has smaller numbar of workers in each gang which could unita
themselves, so .s to avoid compleints amongst the individuals in the group
regarding equal distribution of the payment for the work dane by the group.
This result. in increased No. of gangs and hence lot of peper work and
41
physical work by tha eupervisory staff becomes neceseary. The Offica Staff
alao had to axart substantially mra than the normal working houre as the
number of p~ment involved, number of muster ralle and nu~er of groupe
involved were phenominally large. This also has brought out-certain e.pecte
which need to be remembered for executing large quantities by large labour
force organised by tha Department an individual group basis (EGS lika Schema).

It is neca8sary to see that adequata facilitias like Assistants for

supervision, meaeurement s a8 wall as IDUster reca~din9' trensporting vehicles
liko motor cycles, atc., are provided to the auperviaary engineer considering
the number of wo.kera handled by them ~d the juriediction covered by them.
If the axpactations of work from tha indivic:ktals go bayond e deUy out-put of
oval' 8 hours except fa l' short periods, ind iv iell ala are bound to gat fatiguad
reeulting in slackness in eupervision or recording the meesuraments or .eking
the payllen ts effiCiently. It is sug ge8ted that tha naXlllal pattern of staffin,
should be reviewed .,d modified whenevar executi.ng tha works of canal aarth
work by engaging large labour force on EGS.

CONCLUSIONS

It will thus be eeen that by proper pl.,ning of works over years

and proper lIIOulding of execution p racaduree, it is passibla to employ locally
available labour farce for executing productive works though it i. necesa.ry
to keep a watch and introduce mechanized execution when the available labour
force is not expected to meet tha t argat a f project co IIplatian. It ia alaa
seen that labour etrength available in a ragian ha. limitatiana and hence thara
is no usa of assuming aveilabili~ of unduly large lacel labour farca, for
projact planning.

42
 A CLAY CONCRETE DIAPHRAGM
UNDER THE FOUNDATIONS OF
MULA EARTH DAM
M.A. CHITALE G.E. -SHUKLA
Chief Engineer (Water Resources) Assistant Superintending Engineer.

Irrigation Department Maharashtra

THE PRO..ECT

For tha Mula Irrigation PJ:Oject in Hah.reahtra. a 47 • high .nd

2850 II long 6arth da. wi1:h a 332.5 • long aaddl • • pillway haa b •• n con.tX'Ucted
eCID •• the riv.r Mule n••r the villeg. Beragean Nandur in Ah ... dnager Dietrict
for i.pounding 763 H .3 Qf water. Over 1900 m of the dam's length skirts along ~e
hill alop.. .t th. da• • ite. But the d •• length running aver tha 900 .. wide
flood plein having 37 II deep alluvial depoeits presented e difficult proble.
of d.ep axcevetians and dewetering fa r t.king the cut .._off tr.nch 22 .. below
the ground weter-tabl. to the bed rock.(Figure 1).

For ov.r a c.ntury. -"y watar impounding .tructure w.s consider.d

infeaaible .t the d.m site in view of the d.ep overburden in ths vall.y
through which e dep.nd.bla cut-off could not be laid. Tre.t ••nt of the
alluvial daposits et this .ite by grouting w.e al.o found to be diff~ult
becau.e of their heterageneou. neture. Exploretory hales totalling 2621 •
in length were drilled through these .lluviel depo.it. and about SSO sections
eech of lY3 • depth wer. te.ted for weter int.ke to under.tend ths neture
of ths deposits and thsb p.rms.bilit)' ch aracteriatic.. But little could be
inf.rrsd about their per.elbility .,d psrticularly about the continuity or
otherwise of the p.rvious packet. in the .lluviu. with certeinty al though •
rough guass could be .ada en the b •• i. of the re.ult. of th • • ite explor.tion
and the infoZllation about the geological proce •• of tha formation of the.a
depoaita.

THE GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

The Mula River ia e rejuvenat.d .tr.... In the g.olog~al p.at it

had fill.d ita v.lley with thick .lluvial d.posit. and w•• flowing on them on
• wida flood plain. On r8juvenation, it hed cut dawn ite ch .. nel through thie
(1)
alluviu., all obt.in.d fro. the w.eth.ring of the basalts only. By the
dacoltpo.ition of b .. alt., fine silt gred. meterial ia produc.d. Although
43
.0_
 573

.. .' ., Groodly jointed

"c~D~r~e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~~~~~m~R~L~.~(M~.W~.L~)~~~O~P~O~f~dam~~R~.L~.~5~5~5~'8~m~~~~o~u~tl~e~t~t~o~w~e~r~
549 --. -. --- ~ ..... " 7 ~orpliyritic .
: : :: .Jf SSlve gey Ve51
Broadly jointed
Sheeted. greyamygdolo R.L.533·" L.W.L. .. t e d culor
Ver t ·ICOIIy JOIn
mlxedzone ~ 527'4 R.B.Outlet
524 Sheeted grey vesiculae 5~ '39 27'" Sill R.L.529·88m
assive dark grey amyg.5~ PtrDle with bole
datodol ~18'29
udely jointed compact "il Red bole
porpnyritic dark grey "504'5~~daloidal purple
500

476
Ground 557'15 552·58 51741 546·45 525·79_ 523·88 545'9 562'47
level

Chainage
3030'54 254573 2103-66 1564-88 1067'07 548'78 121·91 0

I. Purple amygdaloidal 7 Red bole A Amygdaloidal pink H. Amygdapidal pink.

2. Amygdaloidal grey 8. Spneroidally weathered grey B. Spheroidally weathered grey. I. Spheroidally weathered
3. Rudely jointed compact porpny· 9. Purple sheeted C Red bole J. Amygdaloidol pink
ritic ctorkgrey.
10. Purple amygdaloidal D. Amygdaloidal pink K. Spheroidally weathered grey
4· Amygdaloidol grey. II Red bole E. Spheroidally weathered grey L. Amygdaloidal pink
5. SphepoidalIY weathered grey 12 Purple amygdaloidal F. Green bole M. Red bole
6. Compact grey 13. Vertically jointed G. Grey basalts N. Broadly jointed

Figure 1:- Geological Section along Mula Dam

coer •••• t.rial i • •1.0 produced, cOlaparatively little sand size material is
produced. When the.e products are t~.nsportad by the river and lIeposited
the result is a .ilty alluvium with lens •• and packets of Coer.e grained
.. terial. irregularly scattered therein depending an the intensitias of floods
and their duration. This in turn makea the deposits very heterogeneous,
( Fig u r II 2).

As thll alluviUM is predominsntly fine grained, i t could bll largely

i.pervious. It Was also observed in the field that the deposition of
calciull carbonat. i. al.o •••• to taka plec. in the alluvium on a 1 arg. scale,
cementing lIuch of the alluviull into a herd II.... The p08sibili~ of SOli.
sandy and p.bbly len •• e b.ing interconnect.d and th .reby forlling continuous
channel. for l.akage of wat.r through th.m could not be firllly ruled out.

AlT ERNA TIV ES CONSI DERED

The alternative propoeal for providing a partial cut-off trench

with. bl.nk.t an the upetre •• was found to be very coetly. After
coneidering the varioue alt.rnativ •• for cutt off. the grouting of tha
alluvium was tried in If' .xtensivs manner but d.signing of a satisfactory
grout lIix for the hstsrog.nsous deposita wss found to be vary difficult.
The coat of grouting procaas was also found to ba very prolaibi'tiva.

The only coursa laft opan was to adapt tha provision of a concrat.
diaphragm below tha ground water-tabla a. a conventional cut-aff trench with
a rollad beckfill could ba .anaged wi th the earth moving eqUipment avail able
with the project only for a d.pth upto 5 • below th:t ground water-tabla.

THE DIAPHRAGM TECHNIQUES

But tha diaphragm tachnique for providing a per.. enent cut-off

had not baan triad in India by then (1962). Froll literature review it
Was aeen that the diaphreg. tranches were axcaveted and back-filled with
concreta .ostly with the uae of trenching machines. During the excavation
of tha trench, ths sidea of the trench wara reteinad by filling thixotropic
drill!ng fluid end the concrete was poured through the drilling fluid itself
ueing euitable trellis. Ths width of the diaphrag .. excavatad by a trenching
lIachine wae howavar lillitad to about 600 II" only. It Was also 8een that the
diaphraVII had nat bean ussd for any lIajor cut-off work for heada in exceas
of 15 II by tben. The coet of such. dilPhragll was reported to be of the
ordar of R•• 360 to Ra.400 par 112 in 1960. For a dependable cut-off against

45
~I.

518

$12

SDe

too rat •

•••

~- III
~~
a:,! i.,
i-
;:,- to
L.
0: n
•

Convention
~ Bouldry conglomerate e mmm Sand Iton, 10 c:::J Silty land and compact
siltllSFlliltyl and ML
2 ~ Man Ihard and loftl 7 rllllJI C loy with lim. blnding~h
3 ~ Leon conglomerate 19 &!i!ill Dirty and silty sandi II ~~i.!"1 Coors. sand with pebbl.1
4 ~ Organic cloy sw IsiltyllW IdirtYI Coors. land
12 ~
, ~ Fissured clay-ch 9 I:····'·:·, Fin. land-Ip 13 ~ Percolation

Figure 2: Mula Project-Dam at Baregaon Nandur. Detailed logging of

C.O.T. and diaphragm trench from rock level to ground level
upstream face
50 m head of water two such diaphragms along with intensive grouting of the
alluvium material around the diaphragms would have been required.

A CLAY-CONCRETE DIAPHRAGM

Rather than importing a sophisticated equipment like the

trenching machine for undertaking a mechanised diaphragm work for the Mula Dam
it Was decided to provide a comparatively wider diaphragm of 1.B III width in
clay cement concrete manually. A wider diaphragm was even otherwiss
preferable from the point of its resistance to cracking. Sincs Cl e.Y csment
concrete waS expected to have a lower modulus of elasticity than the ordinary
cement concrete it was felt that it would adjust itsslf to the deformetions
under the foundations of e dam and still retain its tightness. Moreover use
of local high plastic claY in concrete could substantially reduce the cost
of the coat of the diaphragm. Clay also acted as a retarding agent to setting
of tha concrete and took care o~ any disturbances during the eatting period
of the concrete of tha diaphragm. Such a diaphragm Was estimated to cost
upto Rs.SOO per m2 inclusive of all incidental costs, in May 1964.

PILOT PITS

Before undertaking the work of a diaphragm, it was necessary to

test the feasibility of carrying out the deep excavations manually. A pilot
pit Was accordingly undertaken manually at Ch.1402 m close to the river
course. With proper arrangements for de-Watering, the pit could be completed
successfully to reach bed ro~k through the heterogeneous deposits. Size of
the pit at the rock level WaS 4.5 m x 3.S m. Thereafter a similar pit at
Ch.llB9 m could also be completed successfully reaching the bed rock at 17 m
below the ground water-table.

Experience on the pits showed that all the excavation of the

diaphragm-tranch could be dane mostly with pneumatic tools.

DEWATERING EfFORT

Dewatering for the pilot pits, 'Illes initially dane with diesel pUlltps
and electrically operated self-propelled centrifugal pumps. But as the pit
progressed beyond 6 • below the ground weter-table, dewatering was dana with
electrically operated twa deep well turbine pumps of 30 HP. Maximum
dewatering required from either of the pit 'ilia. 100 li tres per aecond only. The

47
pilot pits gave an idea about the quantum of dewat erin g that would be requ ~ red

during the e xcal.' atj on of the trench for the di:'lJJhr~gm. From the water-level obser-
vation points put in the ground around the seat of the dam it WaS revealed
that the effect of the dewatering at a pit could be felt over a very wide
influence arBa of more than 750 m radius through the lowering of the local
ground water-table. With the use of electrical vertical turbine pumps
installed at a platform level not far below the natural ground \,/ater-table,
dewatering Wes a manageable affair. A system of open pits to serve ae
dewatering wells wae found to be adequate for lowering the ground water-table
in the t~ench area and the alternative of a tubewell system around a diaphragm
trench on the lin8S of a well point system was not conaidered necessary.
Consequently the dewatering required later during the actual excavation of the
diaphragm trench was not more than 250 litres per second from the three wells
togethe r.

THE LA YOUT

As the diaphragm work was to be executed from the bottom of the

cut-off trench excavated 5 .m below naturel ground water-table, there was a
severe restriction on the space for the movellents and operetions. The
dewetering equip.ent; excavated muck, transport routes, concreting equipment,
had all to be accollmodated within the available epace of about 8 II on each
side 0 f the diephragm trench (Figure 3).

FIGURE 3: Layout of the Diephragll lranch below the open cut.

All the operations ~ d to be managed on a total bottom width of trench of

about 18 M only (Figura 4). This could be done because the entire trench
work Waa h""dled manually. Even the heavy vehicular traffic along th.
48
524 U/S O/S
Av. G.L. 521·95 m
I
C. L. ofc.c.diophragm C.L. of idam
518
I I ,- R.L.514 Berm for dewatering flume
512 For mach i·nery traffic I
Notes:
506 l. Details of hopper and linked chute
are not to scale
LJ
Platform R.L.504·50m - } \ gI ttJ--&Olml-i 2. Dia of hopper fToP 90em
\aottom 23 em
Masonry piller . 1 " R.L.5015m 3. Dia of linked chute {TOP 30 em
. 1·5t- Bottom 23 em
5 m
4. Top of dlophrQ9mi.e. platform.
Dewatering pit i. Linked chute for R.L. bet ch.I0006m to eh.1220m 504·5m
• pouring concrete
5. Top of diaphragm i.e. platform
in aU remaining length 50J·5m
494
c.c. diaphragm

Rock R.L.489·32m
"M< ;:za:c )sa
O'6m
488 1 I
~
~ ~ ~
10 10 II')
810 ~
8Itt III
q) ~
co l"- 7 0 ~ ~ ~
C\I 01 01 II') ~
N !2
Figure 3 : Typical Cross Section at Ch.IOOOm
diaphragm trench was almost eliminated by obtaining tha concreting material
through chutes from a high lavel berm in tha sides of tha cut-off trench.
There were no shocks and impact. from the operstion of the heavy equipment
which could have otherwise disturbed the natural strata and caused landslips
ahd slides.

ORGANISATION OF LABOUR

for the diaphragm work the labourers wers not engaged directly by
ths Department but they were organised in "work's teems" (i.e •• gangs) of
different sizes sccording to the nature of field activity. Each gang Was led
by a headman who Was the "labour mobiliser u• He worked with the department
ae a 'piece - worker' for a fixed rate of payment "per unit of out-turn. He
distributed the individual wages amongst the workers according to their
contribution to the output. The Department was thus sbso1ved of the
responsibility of supervision on individual labourers.

LABOUR fOR EXCAVATION

Tha quantity ofaxcavation for the diaphragm trench including that

for the dewatering pits amounted to 14380 m3• The trench excavation Was
tackled in a period of eighteen month. from January 1964 to June 1965. The
work was oJ:9snised only in two shifts a. the manual output in the night shift
was bound to bs low. The maximum output plannad on axcavation was 90 .3 per
day of two shifts, i.e., 45 m3 per shift.

For excavation, a typical work team coneistsd of 20 labourers.

Compressed air'and demolition tools ware supplied to the gang free of cost.
The compressor itself Was operated by an operator employed by tha Dep'artment.
But operators of ths demolition tools were members of the 'works-team' and
were paid by the piece-workers. Output of one gang of 20 labourers in the
excavation of the diphragm trench Was about 2.8 m3 per shift. For tha dasirad
output of 45 m3 a shift, 16 g~ngs had to be employed engaging 320 labourers
per shift. Of these, hardly 25 percent were semi-skilled workers like
oparators of the demolition tools. Majority wera unskilled workers. The
excavation gang_ h.d about 3D percent of female labourers, who wers normall~
amployed fOr the lighter dL.lty of 1 ifting the .uck by head load.

LABOUR FOR CONCRETING

An output of 45 .3 per shift was planned fo~ concreting also.

50
This could be achieved with the USII of two 10/7 capacity mixers, each mixer
requiring B support from 75 labourers. The total labour strength of concre-
ting Was 150 per shift (compared ~ 320 on Bxcavation)o This Was so becausB
supply of metal and other materials WaS organised outside the cut-off trench
araB as an independent activit yo 40 labourers Ware working on crushers and
an equal number for transporting aand and matal to t he trench site. A
separate gang of 20 persons was working exclusively for preparing the clay
slurry to be used in the clay concrete. Thus the labour strength on the
diaphragm work at a time was between 500 to 600 per shift. In all 1000
labourers worked every d~ on the diaphragm work (Figure 5)~

",ET/J..&SAND ooR
CONC1lliTING.

FIGURE 5: Concreting arrangements for the diaphragm.

A labour colony was established on a levelled plot of ground near

the work site within a distance of Y2 km, so that the workers did not have
to walk to their work over a long distance in the early hours of the morning
or late at night. In the colony, plots of 5 m x 5 m were allotted to esch
family. Bamboo matting was givan free of cost for erecting huts along the
systematic layout of the internal roads. Night lighting along these roads
was provided by ths project.

THE EXCAVATION ACTIVITY

The strata mat with in the diaphragm was by and large quite
compact. However, strutting wss liberally provided wherever soft spots
were noticed. It created a psychological feeling of safety amongst the
labourers working in the deep trench. loosening of the compact mass WaS
done by the light demolishing tools, weighing only 27 kg which the labourers
could easily handle and manipUlate inside the narrow trench. Three such

51
tools could work at a time on one compressor of 210 cu m capacity. Because
the output of the work-team depended on the up keep of the tools, it was
noticed that the labourers used and maintained the tools in a careful way
end never miehandled them.

Lifting of the excavated muck was done in one 0 f th e th ree possible

ways~ according to the choice of a particular labour gang. The gang's choice
mostly dape nded upon the composi tion of the mal e an d female labourers in the
gang. Upto 6 m depth and when the number of female labourers was fairly large
in the gang, lifting could be done over ordinary ladders. The lifting of the
excavated muck could also be done by use of s*ationary wooden platform made
out of bull ies and plan ks fixed at a vertieal spacing 0 f 1.2 m across the
diaphragm trench to form a staircase. This system was extremely useful for
large depths when lifting was done by the female labourers{Figure 6).
Alternatively for the lifts in excess of 6 m, pulleyes wers used for pulling
the muck in buckets by ropes. The pullayas were fixed on steel-angIe-frames
erected near the trench. Three labourers could pull the rope and lift the
muck bucket. But this was a rather strenuous operation though out-turn \!I<.iS
large and the work WaS faster. Gangs with p redo minance of heavy duty wo rkera
opted for this method. It is interesting to note that the rate for lifting
of muck over the sta:i.rc1lse of wooden platform was only Rs.3.2 per m3 against
the rate of Rs.4.25 per m3 for lift by pulleyes. Thus for lifting operations
the presence of Female labour in the gang always made for economy.

THE CLAY CO NC RETE

Concrete Was placed through the mobile tremies moved on rails along
the edges of the trench. The tremie consisted of a funnel to receive concrete,
and followed by a series of 1 m high conical tubes made out of G.!. sheets,
by the local turners, and tied together in series by hooks. The length of the
tremie could be edjusted according to the depth at which the clay concrete
was to be delivered. The ripples created in the component pieces of the
tremie held the concl:ete mix in vibration and avoided segregation (figure 7).

The cement rich mix (using 296 kg /m3) was used at the bottom
of the trench over the bed rock for a thickness of 300 mm as accumulation of
water could not be avoided in the undulating rock surface. Over this cement
rich mix at the bottom, the regular mix of clay concrete using only 63 kg of
cement per m3 Was used to fill up the entire depth of the trench. The concrete

52
mixes had the following ingredientsl

Ingredie nts Cement r~ch mix. Reguler clay

(296 kg/m concrete mix
(83 kg/m3)

Cement 296 kg/m 3 83 kg pez' m3

Clay 225 do- 354 - do-
Coarse sand 447 - do- 1084 - do-
Aggregate 991 - do- 354 - do-
Water 271 - do- 2BO - do-
Cost Rs.89/m3 Rs.44/ m3

The clay Was fed into the mix in the form of slurry directly et the concrete
mixer kept near the trench. Sand and aggregates were .dded to the .ixer
manually by volume batching through measured boxes. Cement was added by
weight.

The conccate was vibrated by portable vibrators. The upstream edge

Was always pressed down lower than the general level of the clay concrete
back-fill to chenoelis8 the infiltrating water. Otherwise, it would have
liquefied all the clay concrete mass. When tha trench Was filled to the top,
the diaphragm was tapered off at the edges for effecting e proper bond with the
rolled clay backfill in the cut-off trench above.

SAf"ETY MEASURES

The open cut-off trench with its bottom below the ground water-tabla
had to be maintained successfully dewatered with no accumul etion of watar even
under the heavy rains in the rainy eeasons of 1964 and 1965 0 The river flow.
and the floods were kept away by a coffer dam on the river side end of the
cut-off trench. The safe existence of the coffer dam WaS vital for tha 8ucce ••
of the diaphragm work. The bund was, therefore, heavily guarded and kept under
constant vigilance round the clock.

Seventeen metre deep trench with only 1.8 • width meant a very
narrow space for the working of the labourers Accidents had to be prevented
with continuous survei~lance. A separate vigilance unit was, therefore,
maintained at the .i te 0 f work for pointing out the areas of paten tiel dang er
and for getting the situation corrected in time.. Rai~ing Was provided .~l along
53
the edges of excevation. Unwarranted persons were continuously werded off, by
traffic controllers posted at the critical entry points to the cut-off trench.
As a rule no heavy machinery was permitted in the trench as its vibratory
impacts could otherwise loosen the strata end CaUse landslides. EVen for the
oec.sinnel trips of the tippers which had to be admitted for the removal of the
muck, a speed limit of 8 km per hour was strictly imposed. All the labourers
working in the trench were provided with steel helmets. Unfortunately, in spite
of 1111 these preventive and precautionary measures. one of the junior supervisoE
got himsdf hit by the bucket of the concrete mixer wh ile trying to cross the
mix line and met with a sudden death.

--llNKSD
CHUTES

5taired platforms for muck FIGURE 1: Concreting by T remies in

fIGURE 6 the diaphragm trench.
l i fting

THE fINAL ' COSTS

But in the end, a clay concrete diaphragm WaB successfully provided

through labour intensive technique and at a much less cost th£f'l by the
trenching machine. Diaphragm has been constructed at a net cost of Ra.435
per. sq m of the diaphragm surface in elevation. Out of this cost, excavation
and clay concrete components together account fa r only 25 percent of the cost,
while the dewatering arrangements along with its incidental back-ups made for
tha 75 percent of the cost.. The cut-off efficacy of the diaphragm has been
measursd after t he reservoir formation for over last t en years and it h a8 been
noticed that the hydrl!lulic potential drop registered across the diaphragm by
54
the piezometric standpipes has bsan 95 to 100 percant.

THE LESSONS

The proper assesl?ment of the geological conditione at the aite Was a

major factors in the success of the work. It could install the desired
confidence in all the site staff for undertaking the hazardous activities.
The project geologist discussed their assessment of the situation in an
untiring .anner even with the lowest aupervisor et the aite, relDOved his .i.-
concept ions about the geologic al for.etiona and awaken ed hi. to the realities
of the situation. This awakene.d staff helped by the watchful eye of the workE
could carry out the task in a safe, neat and tidy _nner.

There Wes no attempt to rUsh through the work. The excavation work
progressed in union with the response of the alluvium to ths dewatering effort.
On the other h~ d the backfilling with Clay concrete Was done sufficiently
rapidly to raise the clay concrete backfill to an adequate height above the
level up to which the water-table would rise, after the blocking of the trench.

Once the 1 aboure~.s had a feel ing of aafety becaue e of the liberal
provision of the struts in the diaphreg. trench, raUings all around. us. of
helaets and a successfully dewatered area of work's ectivities, they could
.pply their minds exclusively to improving their afforts for increeaing their
outputs with consequent rise in their daily e.rnings. The ou~ut oriented
labourer gengs were also not burdened with any compla.entary activ ites. Separ-
ate departmental labourers were provided for ell such ectivitiss like the
trimming of the dewatering channels so that the main work gangs remained out-
put oriented.

There wes always sufficient standby of small squipment like digging

tools. pumps, and vibrators so as not to let down the workers any time. As the
small units do not cost more, liberal provision in their reapect Wea e.aily
possible. The 1 argsst size equ ipment used for the diaphragm work was the
comprsssor of 5.95 eu m / min. (210 cu ft/min.) capacity, B nos. of which were
employed; and the trucks required for conveyence of muck, metal and sand. In
all 10 No. of electrically operated vertical turbine pumps of 30/40 HP were
required to ba installed. They were supported in the dewatering work by an
equal number of small pumps for dewatering of localised pocke ts.

Bac.u.e 0 f the l.bourer.' cloa~ a •• ociation with the work and the
.Z'..
thrUl ing experience. during ita p rag re •• , the labourers had developed a t
affinity for the diaphragll work. They danced around at the ~alll site to expre ••
55
and calebrate their joy after the successful completion 0 f this hazardous JlJb
manually. When the work was planned many doubt. and apprehensions were
expressed. But in the end everybody realised that it could be done and done
primarily with the use of unskilled local labour, almost without an accident
or a sing1 e day 0 f qtoppage of work. It showed that the labourers are by 51 d
large willing to work hard and adjust to the new situations and- techniques pro-
vided their work-teams ara organised properly and they are supports. with
adequa te 0 rgan isational. techniCal an d infrastructurel backUp.

REf'ERENCE

(l) Agashe, L.V.; Chitale, M.A. and Gupte R.B ••

"Geology and f'oundation Difficulties at Mula Demit
Auden Volume, Published by the Indian Society of
Engg. Geologists.
 SARDA SAHAYAK PROJECT
G.K. MISHRA
Additional Chief Engineer
Irrigation Department U.P.

INTRODUCTION

Sarda Sahayak Projact, which is undar construction in tha State of

Utter Predesh in India and is now nearing complation, is one of the World's
largest irrigation projects. On completion, it would irrigata 1.92 million
hactares (4.15 million acres' of land in the Central and eastern part of the
Stete, to give en edditionel egricultural yield worth ~. 2,600 million every
yeer. The to tel outley on the project would be of the order of &. 3,150 million.
Labour intensive technology has baen adopted in foraulating the project and
it. execution. U.e of msehines and equipment has been resorted to only where
it was ebsolutely essentiel on eccount of limitation of time or other factors.

THE PROJECT

Central and Eastern U~ter Pradeah lying in Genga-Ghaghra Doab, had

an existing irrigation system-Sarda Canal System-commissioned in 1928, which
provided protective irrigation. The geographical reach and cepacity of the
cenals were limitad. This system naver received sufficient weter, the irrigation
intensity being as low as 19 percant in the eastern region. Planning of cropp-
i ng pattern ·of high yielding verieties under such precarious circumstances
was unthinkable. Succassion of droughts in the pest completely shattered the
economy of this region. Urgent need waB, therefore, felt for augmentation of
supplies in Serda Canal System and it was for this purpose that Sarda Sahayak
Projact was conceivad. It anvisaged utilisation of the vast potential of the
hitherto untapped water of river Ghaghre which is one of the largest rivers
of North India.

The project comprises a barrage on river Ghaghra to divert the waters

of this river through a 28.4 km long link channel into the river Sarda, construc-
tion of another barrage across River Sarda and a 258.8 km long, 650 cumscs
capacity feeder channel taking off from this barrage, from which supplies are

57
fed into the different branches of the old Sarda Canal System, viz., Daryabad,
Barabanki, Haidergarh, Rae-Bareli and Purwa branch systems. The project also
envisages remodelling of the canals in these sy stems to i,ncrease their capaci ty
to carry more water and construction of about 6.500 km length of new channels
for utilisation thereof. The total length of the distribution system will be
13400 km.

It would thus be seen that besides the two Barrages, the project compri-
ses construction of a very large channel system. All channels are earthen
channels. Only certain reaches of the feeder channel totalling about 10 km have
been lined to safeguard against heavy seepage losses and also to prevent water-
logging. A large number of masonry structures on the channels are involved, the
most important structures on the feeder channel being the two aqueducts across
Rivers Gomti and Sai.

PHASES OF CONSTRUCTION

It would have been out of tune with our financial and other resources
to expect simultaneous activity on the entire ~xpanse of the project. Therefore,
without in any way compromising on the composite character of the project, for
the sake of financing and deriving early interim benefits, it was divided into
various stages for the purpose of execution. The work on the project was phased
out with strict dead lines in such a manner that each stage yielded a specific
benefit. Work on the project waS started in the year 1969-10. The construction
sequence of the various components of the project was accordingly planned so
that the benefits started accruing gradually from June 1974 when the barrage
across Rivar Sarda was completed and water could be fed into Daryabad branch
system, off-taking at km 105 of the feeder channel. After June 1914, construction
continued with benefits extending progressively every year to other areas.
The Barabanki branch was fed in July 1975. The Haidergarh branch Was fed in
January 1918 as soon as the ~ork of Gomti aqueduct at km 153 of feeder channel
was completed. finally, after completion of Sai aqueduct at km 233 of Feeder
Channel, Allahabad Branch taking off from tail of Purwa Branch, was also fed
in June 1978. Work an distribution system would be finally completed by 1981-82.

EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT

Ghaghra and Sarda barrages, where most of the work area was in the bed
of the river and the time was limited, the targets as per programme could not
have been achieved without the adoption of certain amount of mechanisation along
with the labour intensive technology (figures 1 &. 2). Other works where use

58
 - - .. - -

FIGURE 1. A View of Ghaghra Barrage

of mechanical equipment-mostly cranes-became necessary because of the nature

of the structures were Gomti aqueduct across river Gomti and Sai aqueduct across
river Sai (figures 3 & 4). Besides the mechanical equipment, there was large
concentration of skilled and unskilled labour at these sites. Most of the labour
was brought by the contractors from outside the State of Uttar Pradesh. At the se
sites strength of technical personnel, skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour
at the peak of construction was about 8,000 at Ghaghra barrage, 5000 each at
Sarda Barrage and Gomti aqueduct and about 3000 at Sai aqueduct. Contractors
established small town-ships for supervisory staff, technical personnel and
labour.

For improving labour productivity, following measures were adopted.

(i) Advance planning in respect of actual location of work and assigning

specific tasks, to each or a group of labourers, as soon as they arriv~
at site.

(ii) Providing conveyance to the staff and labour right upto the location
of work and ensuring that SUperv-isory staff end field officers reach
the location of work a little earlier and start preliminaries to
ensure timely commencement of work.

59
 .
\; l~,j • " ..

~,
.", ."",,?..
.~" ~ '~

fIGURE 2. A View of Head-Regulator of Link

Cha~nel off Ghaghra Barrage.

Immediate availability of tools and plants to the labourers.

Aeducing the leads in transportation of construction materials to

actual sites of placement by proper location of cement sheds. stock
piles of sand and shingle. etc.
( v) Making the approach path over which labourers have to tread upon
fairly even and reasonably clear of dabris.
(vi) Ensuring adequate labourers and associates to an artisan carrying
out the main work so that he may not remain idle.

(vii) Engagement of labourers on other subsidiary works in the event of

temporary suspension of main work due to power failure or a break-
down in water supply, non-supply of materials, accidents or for
any such reason.
(viii} Daily review of the work and analysis of the problems end difficulties
encountered in the field so as to tide over the same at the earliest.

Besides the above, it was a contractual obligation to provide facili~ies

like rest-sheds, good drinking water, suitable medical aid and adequa te
sanitary arrangements for the staff and labourers.

With the above planning and provision of facilities, and with the help
of the mechanical equipMent, workers put in their best, and except for slight

60
 FIGURE 3. A View of Gomti Aqueduct

delays on account o~ a few spells of go-slow and strikes, the works could be
finished largely within the overall schedule.

Large labour force was also required for construction of other masonry
works, where except for use of concrete mixers and vibrators, all work was done
manually. Except for very small works executed through local labour, contractors
had generally to meintain a steady labour force imported from predominant labour
areas both inside and outside the State, which they supplemented by local labour,
when required. The number of masonry works was about 220 on main feeder channel
and about 13,600 on distribution system.

The major contribution of labour was in executing the earth work on

the feeder channel and on the distribution system. The lining work in about
70 km length of the main feeder channel was also done purely by means of manual
labour. All these works were executed in phases as already discussed. Total
quantity of earth work in feeder channel was about 69 million cubic metres.
On distribution system, the quantity of eerth work was about 150 million cubic
metres.

About 50 percent of tha earth work on distribution system where the

leads and lifts were small, was executed by labour available locally. The
61
 fIGURE 4. Another View of Gomti Aqueduct

remaining earth work on distribution system and entire earth work on feeder
channel involving longer leads and higher lifts, were mostly done by labour
imported from other parts of the State and from other States of the country.

In all cases the excavetion was done manually. At places where the
lead involved was less than about 150 metres, the transportation of earth
wes also done manuelly. For this type of work, the labour was brought by
the contractors from predominant labour arees like eastern Utter Pradesh,
Orissa, Maldah in West Bengal, Bihar and Bilaspur in Madhya Pradesh. While
the labour from Bilespur consisted of family units, only male labour in groups
came from other places. ~ontractors provided them temporary hutments close to
the worksite. The output of these labourers varied, and their wages and terms
of conditions were also different. They came in groups for a fixed period
varying from 15 days to 3 months after which another group replaced them. The
normal working period for labour is middle of Nov~ber to middle of June-
the total numbers of working days in a year being about 200.

In reaches where the lead ranged between 150 metres and 500 metres,
the transportation/disposal of the earth wes done by donkeys. Donkey labour is
mostly available from Haryana and Rajasthan. They also move in family units,
62
each owning 5 to 10 donkeys. They come after Dewali festival and stay for
the whole working season.

There were also few reaches on the feeder channel where leads longer
than 500 metres were involved. Upto one km lead camels were used for trans-
portation/disposal of the earth. Trucks were employed for leads longer than
1 km.

Certain variations in the transport of manually dug earth have also baen
used, though to a limited extent. These include manually pushed wheel-barrows
manually drawn hand-carts buffa~ow-carts and camel-carts.

As mentioned earlier, earth moving equipment, which comprised scraper-

dozer units as well as showel-dumper units, were elso used on the feeder channel.
These were particularly useful for reaches of heavy filling where long leads
were involved, or in reaches of heavy digging. Earth moving units were elso
deployed on various critical jobs and for timely completion of work left in-
complete by contractors. The earth moving equipment was owned and operated
departmentally.

Quantities of earthwork on the feeder Channel and distribution system

executed with the help of earth-moving equipment end by other modes are shown
in Table I.

TABLE 1
Quantities of earth work by different modes.

51.
No. Mode quantity in million cubic metres
feeder Distribution Total
Chennel system

1• Earthmoving equipment B 8

2. Trucks 7 7
3. Camels 3 3

4. Buffalow carts 3 3

5. Donkeys 24 24
6. Manual labour 24 150 174
Total 69 150 219

63
 LABOUR STATISTICS

Peak strength of labour engaged on the project during different ~ars

since the commencement of the project and total yearly man-days are shown in
Table 11, alongwith the yearly financial outlays.

TABLE II
Yearly figures of man-days and financial outlay.

Year Peak laboii"r Man-days financial

strength iMillion Nos.) outlay
(Thousand Nos.) (Million IS. )

1969-70 4 0.6 29
1970-71 6 0.9 36
1911-12 20 3.0 69
1912-13 70 1 0.5 285
1913-14 90 1 3.5 335
1914-75 120 18.0 441
1 915-76 140 21 .0 459
1 916-71 140 21.0 459
1 977-78 120 18.0 436
1 918-79 80 12.0 303
1 979-82 50 12.0 248
(Projected)
Total 130.5 3150

It will thus be seen that the project has during its construction
generated an employment potential of over 130 million man-days. The number of
workers employed per million rupees of investment works out to about 210.

The category-wise percentage of workers worked out as shown below:

Percent
Supervisory 3
Skilled 1
5 emi-skilled 20
Unskilled 10

Closely following the execution of the engineering structures of

the project, is the Command Area Development Programme. Thi s envisages mainly
land levelling, construction of field channels and construction of drains.

64
Implementation of this prugramme is also labour intensive. This would qe
carried out mostly by local labour as they would be the direct beneficiarieeo

It would thus be seen that Sarda Sahayak Project is a labour intensive

project, enabling generation of vast emp~oyment of skilled, semi-skilled and
unskilled workers.

CONCLUSION

The speedy execution of this major irrigation project, and successful

completion of its various stages as per schedule enabling progressive flow
of benefits, have been possible through the active participation and untiring
efforts of the labour and workers on the project working round the clock for
years.

With the abundance of labour and the problem of unemployment in the

country, it is only logical that projects and programmes based on labour
'intensive technology are adopted. Sarda 5ahayak Project, which has generated
employment potential of more than 130 millions man-days during its construction
phase, with additional labour employment during its command area development
and operational phases, is a good example o~ p~Qjects o.-this type.

65
 KADANA DAM
V.B. PATEL
Chief Engineer (P) & Joint Secretary
Govt. of Gujarat
Irrigation Department, Gandhi Nag,ar, Gujarat

I NTRODUC TI ON

Acute shortege of agricultural products was felt in the post indapen-

dence period in Indie. Great emphasis was, therefore, laid by Indian Irrigation
Commission on Construction of new irrigation projects. Accordingly India
embarked on a programme of massive Irrigation development in the post independence
period. The Kadana Reservoir Project on River Mahi, in Gujarat State was one of
the projects to be taken up in this direction. The project is expected to
stabilise irrigation under the existing Mahi Canal system and to create irrigation
potential of 2,02,000 hectares, generate of 240 of electricity and provide some
flood protection to 197 villages. I t is estimated to cost about Rs.800 million
( S 100 M) and is nearing completion.

PLANNING Of LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY AT KADANA

Kadana dam is a composite dam and the quantum of work involved in the
construction of the dam is as under:
1• Foundation Excavation 3,421,500 cu m
2. Masonry 827,500 cu m
3. Concre te 317,300 cu m
4. Earthwork for earth dam 1,210,500 cu m

The Kadana Dam is located in the Panchmahals District which is consi-

dered to be an area with surplus labour compared to other districts of the State
of' Gujarat. It is habit.tad mainly by trib~l population and tribal labour is
avail.ble in abundance. Tha availability of the labour is, however, restricted
to the non-agricultural season only, as they prefer to do their work of farming
and work as agricultural labours, partly due to tradition and partly due to the
fact that the agricultural SBason coincide with the slack construction season
viz., the monsoon season. No skilled labourers however are to available in this
66
region. For construction of Kadana dam, certain skilled laboureres like heavy
stone carriers (4 hefty persons for carrying heavy stones in a sling of chain),
stone breakers (labourer for breaking stones to smaller size), masons, riggers
(labourers handling heaving erection and lifting jobs) etc., were required to be
brought from outside States like Andhra Pradesh, R~jasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra,
etc. The department had to depute the officers to various States in search of
good piece workers for such jobs, in the initial phase of work. However, after
a few years of experience and association with the skilled labourers from other
States, the unskilled labourers of Panchmahals have also become semi-skilled or
skilled labourers.

The skilled and semi-skilled labourers like masons, Chawaliwalas,

Tapagars, Riggers, etc., brought from other States were meinly utilised for stone
masonry concrete and erection work. Highly skilled labourers, required for
heavy erection jobs and centering work, etc., were required to be brought from
Punjab, Kerala and U.P.

A preliminary analysis of experience in construction of stone masonry

dams in the State indicated that engaging labour was cheaper than engaging
machinery for works involving smaller lifts. There was, however, a limit beyond
which meChanised working was economical. For the works of smaller magnitude, and
involving small lifts as well as leads use of available labour resources was
reeorted to. But for the works at higher elevation and works involving longer
leads, use of mechanised devises wss found necessary. It was seen that carrying
the excavated materials for about 150 m could be done cheaper manually but for
greater leads, other modes of transport had to be deployed. Even in the case of
such transport loading by manual labour and transport by the self-tipping trucks
Was seen to be aconomical. Similarly for conveying stones and mortar for masonry
work for lifts above 10 m with manual labour over conventional scaffolding
I
proved
ex'pensive and mechanised handling of material was re'quired to be resorted to.

Since the projacts are required to be completed as per tight time

schedule, consistent with economy speed was one of the important factors which
influenced planning and method of construction adopted. Purely labour intensive
construction or purely mechanised working did not achieve the objective of
exploitation of the labour resources to the fullest extant and blending of labour
inten8iv8 construction teChniques and mechanised working were necessery to optimise
efficiency a.nd keep down the produc tion coats. The conventional machinery is
usually of larger capacity and was, therefore, not considered suitable. Interme-
diate tools and tackles had also, therefore, to be developed and introduced to
suit the labour intensive construction methods planned for the job. The construc-
tion planning at Kadana was, tharefore, decided on the following basic aims.
67
 (1) I To use highly labour in tensh'-e cons truction techniques.
, I
( ii~' To introduce meehenisa~n only for operations which would be
uneconomical or nO,t fedsible to be dcme with labo~£'.
(Iiii) To use intermedia~ tools and tackles which would be economical
as compared, to 'the 'conventional Ittaehine.cy and would also be cheaper
than working with labour.
Based upon '\h)B"se aims, the following works were undertak9n by manual
r ... bour:
(i) M~~,Dam

~) Quarrying and transporting of rubble for masonry work.

(b) Screening and certing of sand and Qravels.
(c) Breaking of metal without use of mechanical devices.
(d) Excavation of overburden for foundation including disposing off
excavated stuff.
(e) Desilting of the foundaticn.
(f) Tunnelling for drifts.
(g) Providing and laying U.C.R. masonry work upto a height of 10 m
and even more in some ceses.
(n) Providing and laying U.C.R. masonry for the height about 15 m
using mechanical devices developed by the project.
(i) Mixing and pouring concre te upto a height of 10m and more in
some cases.
(j) Mixing and pouring concrete above 10 m hsight using mechanical
li'fting devices developed by the project.

\ k) Cu tting, bind ing and layin.g in posi tlon M. S. ~BiA'f1Jre"tnant t"!Or

B.A: .C. works.

(1) Eaction and removal of cantari.ftg-eAt:1 fOftMlfOri; for <R.c.£ • ..w.odci.

(ii) Earth Dam
(a) Excavation of C.O.T. and drains.
(b) Dry rubble pitching, rock toe aRd t'Urfi"g.
( iii) Cltnals
(a) Excavation and earth wor~ for main canal and distribution system •
.
(b) Construc~n of C.D. works.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF- LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY AT KADANA
,
ti) SpeCial Piece-Work"Agreements
The conventional system of departmental eXBcution of work required
68
~haf the labourers be employad on daily wages. It was felt that since the daily
'wages was in essence a time oriented system it lacked the element of incentives for
production and would have created problem of labour organisation. It was therefore
decided by the department to use the system of piece workers having established
strength of labourers for executing small size bits of works on an agreed rate of
work. It was found that piece workers though less resourceful monetarily were
more resourceful in labour. In addition they had better control over labourers.
The piece work system adopted on Kadana Project had following special features.
(i) Against the normal piece work si7.e of ~.50,OOO the piece work size
was increased to Rs.5,OO,OOO. In Case of concrete the piece work
size was increased to Rs.2 million.

(ii) Piece work rates were decided every year after invitation of
public qutation to ensure competitive rates.

(iii) The facility for issuing departmental mechinery, tools and tackles
on hire-purchase basis or on rent was provided in the piece work
agreemen t.

(iv) Department provided for electrical supply, dewatering, air supply

free of cost to the piece workers.

(v) The piece work contact was a rather loose contract in that only a
rate for a work was agre=d to.

(vi) Incentive for increased turnout than that agreed in the agreement
was given in terms of enhanced. rates.

(vii) Payments were made to the piece workers every week so as to ena~le .
them to make regular payments to Aabourers.

(viii) For camp facilities, C.G.I., sheets and wooden posts were issued
on rental basis provided in the agreement.

(ix) Piece workers were assurer:! electricity. drinking wa~r supply, etc.,
ill their labour camps at department's costs.

As a result of the above facilities about 125 piec~workers were

operating on the dam sits during the peak period of construction.

Developing Tools for Labour Oriented Works

For minimisinq the cost and achieving maximum efficiency, it was

necessary to develop on suitably l\fr;J-pt tools and i~plements for the construction
by labour intensive method. The followirrg special tools were developed and
deployed.

( i) One Tonne Capac ity lifting Crane and- Builders Hoist

One tonne capacity lift~ng crane with 6 m boom was developed at the
project site end used for lifting stones for masonry and ready mixed concrete
beyond 10 m height. The builders hoist we. used for lifting mortar. The mini
69
Figure 1: Stones being lifted by one tonne lifting - crane.

Figure 2 Concreting by one tonne builders' hoist

70
crane and hoist each costs ~.20000/- per tonne capacity as compared to cost of
about ~.1 ,00,000 per tonne capacity of convention3l cranes of 10 tonne capacity
(Fi.guree 1 and 2).

( ii) Small Capacity Concrete Mixer

Small capacity concrete mixer of 0.38 to 0.76 cu m (half to one cu yd)
capacity were used for mixing concrete and mortar. The economy as compared to
controlled batching and mixing plant was substantial since one operation of
carrying the mixed mortar from batching plant to work site was eliminated. The
small mixers provided flexibility in production as par requirement of work.

( iii) Mini Cableways (0.25 cu m Capacity)

For inaccessible locations in dam where comparatively small quantity

of concrete was involved, mini cebleways developed on the project proved very
useful to transport concrete from lower elevation to higher elevations or from
one and or block to other locations to which labour gangways were not provided.
The limitation in deployment of such units is that of span and output. This,
however. has been tried in spans upto 150 m. The production was about 28 cu m per
shift. The economy of the unit. however, is of high order. The mini cableways
would costs hardly Rs.2,OO,000 per tonne capacity as compared to about ~.10,OO,OOO

par tonne capacity for large capacity installations. The erection and removal of
the cableways is very fast and very little cost is involved in civil works for
erection thereof (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Mini cable way (0.25 CM capacity) for concreting.

71
( i v) Pontoons and Boats
The decision of partial filling of reservoir for irrigation purpose
resulted in working from reservoir for the work remaining tQ be done after filling
reservoir. Pontoons were fabricated from 1.21 m x 1.21 m (4 ft x 4 ft) M.S. tank
plates available on the project and motorised tug boats were fabr1cated in project
workshop out of the scrapboats available from the Port Depa~tment. Thase were
fitted with diesel engines of trucks and propeller shafts. Thus 80 H.P. tug boats
were ready to pull pontoons upto 20 tonne capacity on water.

Masonry/concrete work has baen done from the reservoir with the help of
pontoons and boats during last two working seasons of the projec,t (Figure 4).

-
"

~
.
0:'.-~'~' .. - , '
' .. .. .. "

'~ . ._''',' - I , ' F , . ~,i'

..... "'~

P'1gure 4 Concreting and masonry laying from reservoir by use of

pontoons.

( v) Sling for Chawaliwalas

This is a standard method used in South India for Lifting large size
stones required for masonry. Stones are carried in a sling of chai~- carried on
shoulders of four labourers. A few persons were imported from Andhra Pradesh ~n~
the local labour was trained to work in this manner (Figure 5).
12
 Figure 5 Carrying stones in sling of chain.

( vi) . SC.reens
Small rotary screens and . vibratory screens were developed for sc~eening

sand/graval deposits .in the river bed for use on the project. The screens for
sand were hand oper.ated while the gravel screens were driven mechanically.

( vii) Kiln for Pozzolana

A sophisticated and efficient kiln for calcination Was designed and
developed on the project (Figure 6). It provided for mechanised feeding and
thermostat control to carry out calcination at desired temperature. The impact
pulveriser to give pozzo"lana of 200 mesh was also developed on the project where
fead ing wes manual. This enabled prod uc tion of pozzolana of consistent quali ty
at very competitive cost. Except feeding in the kiln, ell operations were manual.

( viii) Trucks and Excavating Tools

Truck transport for earth required for earth dam was found cheaper as
compared to loader-dumper combination or use of scrappers. Earth work on earth
dam was mainly done by using trucks. The excavation of stiff material was done by
 Pozzollona Plant

ripper and labour force was utilised to load and unload the trucks. This also
utilised labour force to a great extent and it Was possible to execute about
200 cu m of earth work per truck per day with combination of labour force and
trucks.

Amenities for Labourers

For attracting labour for work, working conditions and certain basic
amenities help a lot. The following facilities were provided on Kadana Project.

(i) Adequate supply of water for drinking and domestic use in labour
camps.
14
( ii) Construction of huts with ba.boos and grass ~ith sufficient open space
end sanitery arrangement.
(iii) Free medical facilities to the labourers employed by the Depertment at
the Project Dispensary. The labourer of piece workers were treated at
the project dispensary at the cost of piece workers. Arrangements for
inoculation or vaccination of the lebourers was also made.
( iv) Stree~lights in the labour camps.
( v) Benefits of paid holidays, Sundays and public holidays to the labourers
who have worked continuously for 360 days and more.
( vi) First preference for taking up on W.C. establishment to be given to
those labourers who worked on deily wages, for a period longer thsn
5 years.
( vii) Labour Welfare Officer to attend to problems of labour.
( viii) Ex-gratis payments in case of fatal accidents.
( ix) The department and piece workers provided cradle housee at the work site.
It is a .. tter of great satisfaction that on Kadane Project in -a
c onstruc tion period of 5 years there has not been a single incidence of
labour unre.t though the totel labour at peak was about 13,000. Even
the SIDA Mission expressed great setisfaction about this, when the
Mission visi ted Kadana Proj ect to study the labour intensive construction
technique.

BOTTLENECKS IN LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY

If purely labour intensive teChnology is resorted to in construction,

many difficulties are encountered.
(i) All available labour is not suitable for the jobs of the project and
hence versatile labour force as required for the work is not possible
to be recrui ted.
(ii) Nor_lly, for hard and difficult jobs the labour force is not available
and at times the production suffars as the tendency of the lebour is to
prefer easier jobs which provide income just enough to maintain their
li velihoed •
( iii) The labour wages are on an increase. The increase is primarily due to
general shortage in some classes of labour and statutory require_nta.
In some cases of semi-skilled and skilled type of workers, wages are
required to be paid subatantially in axcess of the provisions of minimum
Wages Act becauae of the prevai~ing sh.ortage of such labour. Tha
facilities required to be provided to the labour under the statutory
provisions also add significantly to the oVfJrall coat. For apacial
class of labour even concessions beyond the statutory requirements have
been made.
( iv) The food habits of the labourera differ from area. to area and there is
resietance from thelll to make any change in the habit. Such raquirements
have, the rafore, to be sati·afied for kaeping the la.bourere contented.
( v) Lika food habits, each different group of labourars has different work
75
 habits. for the labourers coming from agricultural class, the working
season is restricted to non-agricultural period only. Even in matter of
holidays also there are different systems, some prefer to have weekly
holidays and other once in a fortnight.
(vi) Direct employment of labourers is not always possible in most of the
areas. They have to be recruited through their gang leaders.
( vii) Most of the labourers seek advance at the time of recruitment. This is
mainly to Cover travel expense and expenditure on setting up the camps
etc. ,
LABOUR COST COMPONENTS

.The labour cost component and equipment cost componen~ ·o·f ver·ious items
of work~at Kadana Project are given in Table I. The numbers·Of labourers required
for doing each unit (cu It or sq .) of work are also g.i"en· in Table I. I t is seen
that labour cost component of above 20 to 30 percent was achieved except for
items of sand filter and turfing where the percentage was still highe r.

On Kedana Project, concreting 'was also hendled by Batching and Mixing

plan t and tower cranes. I t was fo~nd tha t the cos t of placement of concre te with
tower crane was found twice the cost of placement of concrete handled through
piece work system. In case of sa ... filter also it was observed that by using
intensive labour for loading, unloading and spreading, etc., the equipment cost
was 50 percent of "what was observed with practically fully mechanised handling of
the job. 'for excavation of drifts also, it was found that by resorting to more
labour intensiVe method, the equipment cost reduced by about 30 percent.

CONCLUSION

The following major conclusions can be drawn from axperience of labour

intensive technology employed et Kadana.

( i) In drought prone and scarcity affected areas. agricultural labour

potential is available. As the agricultural activities are only seasonal
and in some periods there is no agricultural activity due to scarcity
conditions the local labour is idla. By proper planning of work and
adopting appropriate teChnology this Can be used for construction
ac tiv i ties.
\ ii) I n developing countries lik I d' h .
and labour force is in abun;an~e1a~e~ :~~ ca p1:al resour~es are limitad
construction technique may not alwayaSbe o~ ant use of h1ghly mechanised
by job reqUirements Ad . a Van ageous unless warranted
and development of inter:::~:~~O~o!~:ourdintteknalive construction methods
consideration. an ac es daserve greater
( iii)
Con~truc~ion of i~igation works by the labour intensive
Obv10ua pull effect' on the under-utilised labour force methods hava
in agriculture.
( iv) Recruitment of labour during the harve t'
becomes very difficult. In other per.ad1ngthPeriad and local festiv.la
10 at e supply of labour depends
76
 on several factors like place of work, working conditions and type of
work, etc. The effec~ of these factors on fluctuation of supply of
labour has to be carefully accounted for while planning construction by
labour intensive methods, if delays and or increase in costs are to be
avoided.
( v) When labour intensive construction technique are used the lebour cost
component would work out to over 30 percent of the cost of work as
compared to about 10 percent for works with mechanisation.
( vi) A well-planned training programme to train the local labourers who are
normally unskilled, into semi-skilled or skilled NOrkers like masons.
tapgars, chawliwalas, operators, mechanics, etc., could go a long way
in social and economic uplift of the community apart fr-om· cutting down
the construction costs. To illustrate, the effect of training the
local labour can be seen on Kadana Project, wher'e the labourers earning
about ~.3 initially in 1971 are earning between ~.10 to 15 in 1978 as'
skilled workers. Some of them are working even on sophisticated equip-
ments like dozers, tower cranes, batching and mixing plant. etc.
( vii) To attract the labour, basic. amenities, viz., weter supply, sanitary,
light, etc., and other inteneives should be provided in the labour
Camps.
( viiil The main disadvantage of the piece work system using labour intensive
technology of working will be' in respect of quality control. A well
organised quality control and supervision system will have to be devised
& used at each end every stage as items are sub-divided into a number
of emaIl jobs ,nd work of large number of workers is to be supervised.
A large number of personnel for quality control at each stage is required
when large number of piece workers are to be dealt with. This system
of working also gives more and constant strain to working Engineers
because they ha~e to directly deel with large number of agencies (piece
workers) for quality control and progress of work.

77
 TABLE I
LABOUR AND EqUIPMENT COST COMPONENT fOR KADANA PROJECTS

Sl.No. Item Unit Ng. of labourerslUnii Labour cost component Equipment cost Hat.eriel component
Skilled Unski- Total 8S percentage of total component as J!!8_"~_c~st of item
Hed cos:!; of the item percentage of
SkU1ed Un- Total total cost of
Skilled ihe i :\iem
+ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

( Al MASONRY DAM
1. UC R Masonry cu m 2.37 5.58 7.95 15.00 16.00 31.00 26 to 29 40 to 43
2. Concrete CIJ m 1.81 13.37 15.18 3.5 17.6 21.10 7.7 to 15.3 63.60 to
71.20
(B) EARTHERN DAM
(i) Impervious filling cu m 0.225 1.41 1.665 6.8 25.8 32.60 67.40 Material
(ii) Gravel filling as availabla
casing Zone cu m 0.117 1.435 1.552 3.8 24.04 28.20 71.80 .. from
(iii) Sand filtBl' cu m 3.252 4.082 15.15 45.50 natural
0.83 29.35 54.50 services
(iv) Rock fill Zone cu m 0.33 1.125 1.455 12.30 26.10 38.40 61.60 free of
(v) Rubble pitching cu m 0.80 1.96 2.76 13.48 17.82 31.30 34.70 cost.
(vi) Turfing sq ID 0.22 D.795 1.015 19.79 65.71 85.50 14.Sq
(C) CANAL LINING sq m 0.1 S 0.400 0.550 9.00 15.50 24.50 6.50 69
(D) MISCELLANEOUS
( i) fabricating and erec-
tion of penstock HT 94.10 47.68 141.71 22.16 1.84 28.00 17.00 55
(ii) Excavation for drifts cu m 3 4 7 11.91) 8.10 19.00 36.00 45
(iii) Excavation for power
house cu lD 3 4 7 19.35 13.15 32.50 22.50 45
 NAGARJUNASAGAR DAM AND
GODAVARI BARRAGE PROJECT
J. PURUSHOTTAM
Chief Engineer (Designs)
Central Designs Organisation. Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

The planning of water Resources Development involves construction

of barrages and dams for developing irrigation, power generation, and a
network of canals to cater to the water needs of the irrigated area. The
main components of an irrigation project, whether major, medium or minor,
comprise one or many of the components listed belows
1. Masonry or concrete overflow and non-overflow sections.
2. Earth Dam.
3. Canal Distribution System.

The Drainage projects comprise excavation of drains and also

dredging if under-water excavation is involved. The exploitation of ground
water resources, comprises lifting water by pumps and distributing by canal
system.

AVAILABILITY OF LABOUR IN THE COUNTRY

India abounds in labour wealth. The labour can be classified into

threa categories (1) Unskilled, (2) Semi-skilled, (3) Skilled.

Unskilled Lebour

The unskilled are those who do the work with their own hends and
with the help of age-old implements. The unskilled Labouters are mostly
drewn from the villages. They come to work on the projects after agricultural
operations are over and go back to the villages when agricultural operations
such as transplantation or harvesting are taken up again. They return back
after short interval for continuing the work on projects. The labour will be
available during the working seasons of the project and the absence of the
labourers will roughly coincide with the slack season in the projects, i.e.,
the rainy season.
78
 This category of unskilled Labour includes some specialised labour
also.

(a) Palmoori: One such type is the well-known "Palmoori" who hail from
Mahooobnagar Distri ct in Telangana Region of Andhra Pradesh. They are. experts
in doing earth-work. Both males and females work as a team. They take up tt-e
work on out-turn basis. As the saying goes the palmooris work from the time
in the morning when, they can clearly see the lines on the palm to the time
. in the evening when they cannot clearly see the lines on the 'palm'. They
take their mid-day meals in batches so that continuity of work is maintained.
They come in batches from the village in the Atmakur Taluq in Mahboobnagar
District. Their services are secured through "Mukhaddams" who are their
agents. Advances arr to be paid to them before they move to work site.

(b) Jawalis: These "Jawalislt work in a team of four and specialise in

carrying stones using cross-poles and 10 mm flexible chain. They are sturdy
people with a knack of putting a sling round the stones so t~at they can be
lifted. They sling an endless chain around one or two heavy stones, without
putting a knot, and through the loop of the chain left over, a wooden cross-
pole 10 cm-13 cm in diameter 2.5 m long is inserted. Two persons each on
either end of the cross-pole put their shoulders underneath the cross-pole
and lift the load of stone or stones. The chain sling holds the stone by shear
friction. They can carry approximately 100 kg to 150 kg of weight. With rhy-
thmic foot steps they convey the load. At the point of dumping, the cross-
pole is lowerea from the shoulders and the chain sling loosens as soon as tha
stones rest on the ground or floor. Thus there is no wastage in unloading
time though loading may take 4 to 5 minutes for putting the sling_

(c) Stone Cutters: They have the art of applying heat to layers of rock to
create cleavages and then remove the chunks of stone taking advantage of the
cleavege. The big chunks are broken down to the required sizes by sledge hammer.
They use crow-bar to widen the cleavages. It is not out of place to mention
that this art is appli ed to steel elso. The labourers create a cleavage in a
steel bloom of 30 em with the help of chesil and sledge hammers and reduce
the 30 om square to as small squares as 5 em. The big stones are broken to
chunks to be converted into graded metal. A female using a small-flat head-ed
hammer breaks the spalls to graded metal of 12 mm, 19 or 25 mm si ze.

19
 SEMI-SKILLED LABOUR

Under this can be classified the mason who does the random rubble place-
ment. He uses, trowel, trisquare, plumb, etc., in his work.

5 killed Worker

These are the workers who operate machines and who are experts in
skilled trades. One special class of worker to be me~tioned here is the "Rigger".
Those are originally Moplah labour hailing from Kerala. Local persons have
acquired this trade now. They intelligently use common lifting tackle like wire
rope, pulleys, winches, single post derricks, hemp rope pulleys, etc. They have
a knack of moving heavy loads by using the principle of leverages, pulley
reduction and launching of P.S.C. spans-. This type of labour is used in struct-
ural fabrication where heavy weigh~s are to be lifted or moved.

CRITERIA fO~ INTENSIVE LABOUR UTILIZATION IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

The altarnative to use of manual labour is mechanisation. Mechanisation

is adopted in advanced countries owing to acute shortage of unskilled labour.
It also helps to achieve quick results. In India, the rate of investment is
.
limited, and to create e'mployment to the unskilled labour, intensive utilisation
of labour is planned. The main point in favour of such employment of labour
is economy. The percentage increase in labour cost over the past 15 years is
less than the. increase in the cost of machines. In 1960 the daily rate of a
man mazdoor was ~.1.50 per day and the cost of 9.2/11.5 cu m (12/15 cu yd)
scraper was ~.0.200 million. Today the wage of a man mazdoor is ~.7.00 and
cost of scraper is ~.2 million. The cost of scraper has increased by 10 times
whereas wage rate has increased 5 times. The cost of lubricants and fuel has
also increased more than the wage rate. It has, therefore, become increasingly
uneconomical to employ machines.

In Major Irrigation Projects the height of lift goes more than 61 m

(200 ft) and the daily requirements of mortar and concrete will be more than
100 units per day (Unit 2.8 cu m (100 cu ft)~ The record progress achieved
in Nagarjunasagar Project is 2550 units of masonry in a single day. In view
of the heavy production required, batching plants will be essentially required
for Major Projects of this magnitude. The batching plant will naturally be
located at about 1 km from the workspot. Conveyance is to be done by lorries.
In Nagarjunasagar Project the concrete mixing was done by batching plants located

80
at a distance of about 1 km from dam line and the mix was conveyed by tippers
or lorries. The lorries were unloaded by manual labour at the toe of the dam.
A scaffolding was erected for the labour to convey the-mortar or concrete or
rubble. The labour carried mortar or concrete in iron baskets by head loads.
The rubble was carried by jawalis. The vertical lift of 46 m (150 ft) had become
a limitation, so as not to exceed the initial setting time of 1/2 hour for
concrete. Where the lift e~ceeded this range, a combination of crane and belt
conveyor waS used to convey mortar or concrete to the workspot.

5cBffo~ding plays an important part in Major and Medium Projects where labour
intensive techniques are used. The skilled carpenters of Punjab had acquired a
lead over others by virtue of their dexterity in. this type of work. With casurina
poles and bamboos they have constructed scaffoldings upto B height of about
46 m (150 ft). Series of easy flights and landings are provided to give relief
to the labourer in their march up the scaffoldings (Figure 1).

Earth Dams: The work involves excavation in different soils, from borrow
areas conveying the same to the work site, spreading in layers and compacting
to the required density.

When high earth dams are involved, the output required is normally over
100 units <Unit.= 26 cu m (1000 eft)) per day. Complete mechanisation has
been done in most of the cases eventhough the lorry-labour combination or
tipper - labour combination have also been reported to, to some extent. The
combination of machines used is excavator - dumper combination or loader-
dumper combination or scrapper unit. The excavation, conveyance, spreading
and compaction operations ere mechanised.

In high embankments involving about 30 m (100 ft) height, earth moving

machines are employed in view of the high rate of progress required and
the limited space available. In these types of works the area of labour employ-
ment is in excavation of key and cut off trenches, forming rock toes, trimming
and turfing or revetment of the slopes.

The work of forming rock toes, revetment and filters on banks is a labour
intensive item, involving collection of stone, breaking, conveying and laying
operations.

CANAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

In Major Irrigation Projects, the canals ar~ wide and deep. High embankments
and deep cuts are involved. A combination of labour and machines has been
81
used in deep outs whereas for high embankments complete mechanisation has been
resorted to. In Nagarjunasagar Project the excavation in deep cuts was in hard
rock involving depths of more than 30 m (100 ft). Details of a combination
of labour and light machinery used in such works are furnished in a separate
chapter (see chapter 13).

~ few examples of the adoption of labour intensive technology in

Andhra Pradesh are discussed below:

Nagarjunasagar Project

The River Krishna across which the mighty masonry dam Nagarjunasagar
is built, is second largest river in the Indian Peninsula. The River basin
in its lO\ver reaches has fertile and flat land best suited for agriculture.
The Krishna River drains a catchment of 215,192 km 2 (83,087 sq miles) at the
dam site. The dam is located near Nandikonda village in Andhra Pradesh 144 km
(JO miles)from Hyderabad, the Capital of Andhra Pradesh-Nagarjunasagar Dam
is today the highest masonry dam in the World rising 124.7 m (409 ft) above
the deepest foundation level. The 4.87 million m3 (172 M cu ft) of masonry in
the dam is the largest compared to any other masonry dam in the World.

The dam harnesses the waters of the river Krishna for irrigating
about 1,420,000 ha (3,508,000 acres). The unique feature about the planning
of the dam was the employment of maximum man power and minimum machinery
consistent with economy and speed in construction.

The salient features of the dam are given in Table I.

Choice of Material

A structure of this magnitude is generally built in cement concrete.

The availability of hard granite stone near the dam site was the major
consideration to go in for a masonry dam. The historical practice of construct-
ing dams in masonry had gained ground in southern part& of India. The highest
masonry dam constructed in India prior to the Nagarjunasagar Dam waS the
Mettur Dam 10.4 m (231 ft) high.

A Committee consisting of eminent Engineers of the Country was

constituted in 1956 to recommend suitable construction materials for this
dam particularly in Zones where stresses are higher than those permissible, in
rubble masonry. Alternative materials thought of were, rubble concrete (as in

82
 TABLE I
SALIENT FEATURES OF NAGARJUNASAGAR DAM
Metric Units
1. DAM:
Length of masonry dam 1,450 metres.
Total length of earth dam 3,424 metres.
MaXimum height of masonry dam
above deepest foundation level 124.7·5 metres.
MaXimum height of earth dam 25.9 metres.

2. RESERVO I R
( a) Gross storage capacity at fRL. 11,556 million cu m
(b) Live storage cepacity 5,560 million cu m
(c) Dead storage capacity
(d) Water spread area at full
reservoir level. 2B4.9 sq km

case of Koyna Dam in India and some dams in West Germany), rubble masonry and
concrete. The alternative of concrete was ruled out as it required a larger
construction period and greater mechanisation. Th~ cost was also one of the
mein deciding factors. Masonry was selected as construction material for this
dam in preference to the other alternatives. This was a historic decision in
the annals of construction of high mesonry dams in India.

Table II gives the quantities of various materials involved in the

construction of this gigantic structure with their leads.

TABLE II
GODAVARI BARRAGE PROJECT SALIENT fEATURES

1• Total length of Barrage:

Length in Metres No. of Vents
A. Dowlaishwaram Branch 1437.92 70
B. Ralli Branch 6B4~45 43
C. Meddur Branch 469.66 23
D. Vizzeswaram Branch 800.64 -l2.
3592.67 175
Volume of work involved.
1 • Earth work 3,60,000 cu m
2. a. Reinforced cement concrete 2,30,000 cu m
b. Mass Concrete 90,000 cu m
3. Jeddy Stone apron 1,17,000 cu m
4. Steel sheet piles for cut offs 6,500 Tonnes.
83
S ~No. Material Quantity Source Lead
1• Cement 11.18 lakhs tonnes Macherla Cement 24 km (15 miles)
( 11 lakh ton) factory
2. Stone (Granite) 5.92 million cu m Rubble Quarry 3.2 km to 12.8 km
(209 million cu ft) (2 to 8 miles)
3. Sand 2.44 million cu m 5 and Quarry 19.2 km to 28.8 km
(86 million cu ft) (12 to 18 miles)
4. Surkhi 2.03 lakh tonnes Surkhi Qu arry 2.4 km to 16 km
(Brick powder) (2 lakh tons) (1Y2 lIlileslll~~eA9

5. Steel 60,960 tonnes

(60,000 tons)

The Chief advantage in going in for a masonry dam ares

(a) Less use of cement which is a scarce commodity.
(b) Use of minimum machinery, thereby effecting savings
in foreign exchange.
(c) Economy in capital cost resulting in e savings of about
Rs.40 million.
(d) Less heat of hydration and less seepage.
(e) Extensive employment opportunities for huge number of
skilled end unskilled labour, which was then considered
to be the most important fsctor in providing employment
opportunities to a vast number of people.

However, while taking the decision, it was emphasised that the work
of masonry should be of high quality and great skill should be employed to
achieve good bond between stone end mortar. Minimum mortar and more spalls
have to be used and packing has to be done to heve densest masonry with the
least coefficiant of permeability.

Construction Materials

As per the requirements of various construction materials, it required

a very sound planning as the quantities involved were of huge magnitude. Hence
a suitable plant layout waS evolvad for collecting, conveying and feeding
the materials to the work site.

Rubble stone was conveyed from quarries to earth platforms at dam

site by lorries. Lifting of materials from the platforms to the top of the
dalll was organised partly by the manual labour by means of the traditional
timber sceffolds and partly by lifting with mono-tower cranes.
84
 An island quarry situated about 3.2 km (2 miles) upstream of the dam
supplied good granite stone required. The average requirement was of the order
of 3115 cu m with a peak demand of 3,540 cu m. The dam consists of 79 blocks
each approximately of 16.3 m length. Each block was entrusted to a job worker
for facility of construction and keeping down the cost. Quarrying was done
by the local labour who were experienced in the job. Wherever needed the
department supplied jack hammers, compressed air, etc., in addition to the
hand drills with which the labourers worked. About 75 trucks conveyed the stone
to the dam site and the labour_strength was about 14,000.

5 and

5and was got from Peddavagu stream about 19.2 km (12 miles) upstream
of the dam. It was piled at one place with a dozer and loaded into trucks by
Emco Loaders. Conveyance of sand was also done by means of a fleet of about
45 lorries working round the clock which easily met the peak requirement of
1,643 cu m (56,000 cu ft) per day.

Cement

To cater to the needs of the Project in full, a cement factory was

planned and erected in private sector at Macherla at a distance of about
24 km (15 miles) from dam site. A departmental railway siding was laid from
Macherla upto Lankamotu hill near the dam site on the right bank of the river.
16 Nos. of bulk cement wagons fabricated in P.W.D. Workshops, HyderSbad were
pressed into service for conveyance of cement on rail. The bulk cement wagons
delivered cement to bulk cement carriers which transported the cement to the
batching and mixing plants. These carriers are equipped with air compressors
-for lifting cement to a height of about 22.9 m (15 ft) at a rate of 20.32 tonnes
(20 tons) per hour. When the bins at the bat ching plant were full, the cement
was loaded into storage silos. Two silos, thousand sixteen tonnes (1,000 tons)
capacity each, were constructed near the railwa~ terminus (at the foot of
Lankamotu hill). C~ment was also drawn from th"'se silos and conveyed to the
batching and mixing from plants when needed. The daily average requirement of
cement was about 305.6 tnnnes (300 tons). which increased to nearly twice or
more during the peak working season.

Surkhi

Surkhi (brick powder) was menufactured near the site and conveyed to
the batching ann mixing plants in trucks. 20 percent of cement wes replaced
by surkhi as pozzolana.
85
Mortar

for achievina the peak out-turn of 3,540 cu m (1,25,000 cu ft) of

masonry per day, the requirement of mortar was 1,558 cu m (55,000 cu ft) per
day. Mortar was manufactured and supplied departmentally at site of work
for maintaining good quality of work. for mixing mortar, a Blaw Knox batching
plant equipped with 12 number of 0.76 cu m (1 cu yd) mixers and a Winget batch-
ing plant with 4 numbers of 2.29 cu m (3 cu yd) mixers were used during construc-
tion of dam (figure 2).

Construction Technique

Almost half the mass of the dam lies below +106.68 m (+350 ft) level.
The maximum lift involved for this portion is 32 m (105 ft). Hence masonry in
this stage was constructed without heavy equipment (figures3 & 4)

Work above R.L. +106.68 m (+350.00 ft) was done with the help of mono-
tower cranes. A trestle bridge 7.32 m (24 ft) wide in continuation of the
masonry ledge was built at R.L. +128 m (420 ft). 17 Nos. mono-tower cranes
were erected in the masonry dam to lift the material from the trestlebridgs(fig.5~

3
The rubble was collected in skips of 4.25 m (150 cu ft) capacity
and was lifted into lorries by cranes. The lorries brought the skips to the
~ono-tower cranes wherefrom these were lifted to the work spot mostly during
nights. During day time, mortar was conveyed from the batching plants by 3.06
3
m (4 cu yd) Gabro type buckets both on the narrow gauQe line and by lorries.
Mono-tower crane lifted the se buckets. The trestle bridge at R.L. + 128 m
(+420 ft) in spillway portion was dismantled afterwards.

Mono-tower cranes were used on this dam for the first time in India.
These cranes were capable of lifting 8 T at a radius of 28.19 m (92 ft 6 in.).
As the masonry on the blocks rose, these cranes were raised in height by means
of self-erecting devices as the lower portion got embedded into the masonry.

Another unique feature in construction of the dam was the belt conveyor
for supplying huge quantities of mortar and concrete for the spillway section.
Belt conveyors were erected for feeding from both flanks of spillway. It
consisted of 91.5 cm (36 in.) belt mounted on steel trestles over the spillway.
At the feeding end, the cement mortar lifted by the cranes were received in
hoppers and regulated to feed belt conveyors, with hand operated chutes. At
the supply end adjustable chutes were provided for delivering materials in
different directions. Each belt conveyor could feed 68 m3 (2,400 cu ft) of 1II0rtar
of concrete per hour.
86
 FIGURE 1 Timber Scaffoldings erected for conveyance
of rubble mortar and concrete.

fIGURE 2 Winget batching plant for mortar and concrete.

87
FIGURE 3 Construction of spillway with timber scaffolding.

fIGURE 4 Initial stages of construction by earth platform

and clyde and washington crane.
BB
 In addition to the above, a walkway 1.B4 m (6 ft) wide was provided
at R.L. +116.18 m (+580.00 ft), connecting both flanks of the spillway. This walk-
way was used for movement of labour and also for laying the air and water lines.
I t Was constructed in a record time of 45 days and on this account, the construc-
tion programme could be completed one season ahead of schedule.

Earth Dam

The masonry dam is flanked by earthen dam on either sida for a total
lenqth of 3.2 km. The maximum height of this earthen dam is about 30 m (100 ft).
Even the mode of formation of these earthen dams was also mostly labour oriented.
The entire Right earth dam and most of the left earth dam was done by manual
labour with lorries, for conveyance and machinery was used only for consolidation.
The magnitude upto which the work of construction of dam and its appurtenant
works were labour intensive could be better appreciated by the facts that (a) in
its peak, there were about 60,000 labourers working the dam; (b) that a major
portion of the above labour force worked for over 10 years and (c) that only
7,000 workers would have been employed, if the dam was built in cement concrete.

Comparative costs were worked out in the beginning for building the Dam
(a) with cement concrete, if the mode of construction will be more machine orien-
ted, and (b) with rubble masonry if method would be mostly labour oriented. The
unit rates of concrete and rubble masonry were worked out then, as ~.149 unit and
~.113 unit respectively. The comparative cost of masonry dam portion worked out
to ~.241.4 million with cement concrete and 201.7 million with rubble masonry
(using concrete only in highly stressed zones) (Figure 6).

Godavari Barrage Project

The Godavari is the second largest river in the Indian Union and it
is the largest in South India. It rises near Nasik about 112.66 km (70 miles)
North - East of Bombay flows generally in a South-Easterly direction across the
peninsula for about 1448.4 km (900 miles) and falls into the bay of Bengal
80.5 km (50 miles) East of Rajahmundry. The total catchment area of the river
is 314684 sq km (1 ,21 ,500 sq miles). The maximum flood discharge so far recorded
is about 0.085 million cumecs (3 millions cusecs) which occurred in the year
1953. The width of the river at the Dowlaiswaram Anicut is nearly 6.44 km
(4 miles).

Below Dowlaiswaram, the river divides into Gowthami and Vasista which
after travelling BO.5 km (50 miles) enter the Bay of Bengal.
89
FIGURE 5 Monotower cranes handling rubble by skips and
mortal" / concrete by Garbe buckets.

FI GURE 6 Nagarjunasagar Dam after completion - Penstock

pipes for Power House being laid.

90
Brief History of Anicut

The Godavari Anicut system comprisina of fcur branches of the anicuts

and a ·atwork of canals was built nearly 120 years ago (1847-1852). Due to
passage of time, the condition of the structure deteriorated and the growing
needs of the delta made it imperative to go in for a new structure (barrage)
replacing the old anicuts.

The construction of the barrage across the ft lr arms of the Godavari

River with pond level of +13.64 m was recommended by the Mitra Committee, just
upstream of the existing anicut (pond level at +12.72 m) in view of the
precarious condition of these anicuts posing a threat to the Irriqation needs
of about .4 million ha (1 million acres) in the Godavari Delta.

The higher pond level of +13.64 m (against the present pond level
of +12.72 m) now proposed to be built up after the advenOt of the bArrage will
enable the transplantation in the entire delta to be completed within 35 days
as against 55 to 60 days as is now being done. The transplantation can therefore
be completed by end of July. The inundation expected in the lower reaches
during heavy rains in September will not be 50 injurious to the crop as the
life of the crop would be more than a month by then. This is a definite advantage
in augmenting the food production. This project estimated to cost ~.265.9 million
and envisaging a period of seven working seasons for completion was sanctioned
by the Government of Andhra Pradesh, The construction of barrage across Ralli
arm was taken up first as the anicut acrosS this arm waS the weakest.

Location of Barrage Site

After exhaustive foundation investigations as well as model experiments

conducted at Andhra Pradesh Engineerinq Research Laboratories, Hyderabad and
Central Water & Power Research Station, Pune, it was decided to locate the
axis at 39.93 m 631 ft) upstream of the old anicut shutter line, takinq advantage
of the existing structure as an additional protective measure. The barrage
will be in four sections across the four branches of the river connected in
between with embankments in the Lankas.

Design Features

The hydraulic design of the barrage was finalised on the findinas of

the 3-D Model studies conducted at the Andhra Pradesh Engineering Research
Laboratories, Hyderab~d as well as Centr~l Water & Power Research Station,
Pune. Structura design of the barrage was entrusted to Farrakka Barrage
91
Directorate of the C.W.C., New Delhi. The designs and the working drawinqs
were supplied by the C.W.C.

DETAILS OF CONSTRUrTION

The construction programme of whole barrage was estimated to cost

~.265.9 million which was contemplated to be completed in seven working seasons.
At present the revised cost of the project is Rs.600 million.

The raft is founded on sandy bed duly confined on all sides with steel
sheet piles. Wherever clay lense& are met with at shallow depths the same are
removed and back-filled with river sand and compacted. On the other hand, if
thick clay layers at deeper depths are encountered where it will not be economical
or practicable to remove the clay layers, the clay layers are preloaded in
advance with sufficient depth of sand to create twice the designed load on the
r.lay layers and the settlement allowed to take place. This was done in case of
Ralli arm 1 to 5 bays and in VizzeSlrJaram 26 to 39 bays. After the full settle-
ment has taken pla~e in the clay, the preload is removed and the R.C.C. structure
is constructed in the usual way, so that there is no danger of excessive settle-
ment and damage to the structure. (Figures 7 & a).

Sequence of Construction

Every year after the floods recede, formation of coffer dam is taken
up durinq the later part of November for enclosina the area proposed to be taken
up for construction durinQ the season. The earth for the coffer dams is brnught
from nearby lankas in the river by punts and deposited at site commencing from
one flank. It is allowed to take nAtural slopes of about 4: 1. Once the coffer
~am comes above water level raising of bund is done by tippers and d07ers upto
elevatiom + 13.35 m and beyond this level gravel spreading upto +13.73 m is
done to a final top width of 6.8 m (22 ft). The coffer dam is generally formed
to an average heiqht of 3 m above bed level reaching a maximum height of 4 m
under water.

The dewatering of the pond developed by enclosing the coffer dam is done
first by tripping the 0.91 m (3 ft) high falling ani cut shutters. The rest of
water below the crest level is dewatered by pumping and syphoning and the bed
exposed for starting the work (Figure 9).

The steel sheet piles are driven to the required depth along the upstream
and downstream cut-off lines in the area to be covered during the seaSon. Excava-
tion of foundations for upstream and downstream Bprons to the required levels
92
is done and aprons formed. The portion to be covered by the raft, i.e., in
between sheet piles is excavated to the required shape and compacted to the
required degree of relative density of sand taking care to see that all clay
lenses upto El. +5.18 are removed. The excavation for the R.C.C. pile cap is
done to the required depth keeping the ground water level, well below the trench
level by bailing out and concreting done after laying levelling course. After
the pile caps on both the sides are completed to the required level, the levell-
ing course of concrete for the raft proper is taken up to the required shape.
Reinforcement is kept in position and concreting done leaving grooves for embedded
metal parts, sill beams, etc. On completion of the raft, raising 'of piers is
taken up (Figures 10,11 &. 12).

The work at the end of each work season is stopped as far as possible
at the double pier location where two rows of cross-sheet piles are provided
and adequate protection arrangements are made before the onset of floods.

The quantities of work involved is given in Table II.

As can be seen it involves huge quantities of excavation manufacture

of aggregates, conveyance of materials from the quarry sites to the work spot
and handling of the construction materials, preparation of the profile below
the raft, laying of grill for R.C.C., etc. The work involves large number of
skilled and unskilled labourers.

DUDing the peak per~od of the working season about 5000 men are working
on the construction, apart from the supervisory staff.

CONCLUS ION

Thus in various major, medium and minor Projects in India,

depending on the local materials and labour both skilled and unskilled special
labour intensive techniques to achieve economy and efficiency in construction
are evolved. The special method of construction of masonry dams even upto a height
of 106.7 m (350 ft) as in the case of Nagarjunasagar Dam, is the result of
experience of Indian Engineers and labour for over centuries.

93
FIGURE 7 Providing sand drains in bays 26 - 43 for preloading
of clay in. foundations

FIGURE 8 Dozing sand for preloading of bays 26 - 43

94
 FIGURE 9 Dewatering in FIGURE 10 Sheet pile driving in bay
Maddur Arm. 30-31 (Vizzeswaram Arm).

FIGURE 11 Consolidation of raft profile FIGURE 12 Upstream wing of

for laying levelling course in riqht abutment
bay 20 (Vizzeswaram Arm). reinforcement in
position(Maddur Arm).
95
 LOWER MANAIR DAM
R. C. RAO
Managing Director
Andhra Pradesh Const;'uction Corporation

Sri .Rama Sagar Project (Pochampad Project) is one of the Major

Irrigation Projects of Andhra Pradesh. Lower Manair Dam is one of the
appurtenant works of Sri Rama Sagar Project. This Dam is being constructed
aCInSS Manair River in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh. Lower Manair
Dalll which was originally conceived as a level cInssing on Kakatiya Canal
(Sri Ra/lla Sagar Canal) at km 148 has to play an important role as this would
have to be utilised now as a sUbsidiary reservoir to store not only its self
yield but also to store waters of Sri Rallla Sagar Project Reservoir to irrigate
10 lakhs acres under its command. The capacity of the reservoir is therefore
increased to 679.68 M cu m (24000 M cu ft). The 640 m long masonry dalll with
earth flanks on both sides totalling to 8,200 III also serves as source of
drinking water supply to Warangal town 80 km below the dam site. In the
construction 0 f this dam ap preciable percentag e of labour intens ive techno-
logy has been adopted and the content of mechanisation has been the minimum.
Sailent Features of the Da.
Length of spillway 363 m (1190 ft) with 20
gates and 3 m (10 ft) thick
piers in between
Length of non-spillway 27B m (910 ft)
masonry dam
Length of earth dam 7.56 km (24,797 ft)
Max. height of earth dam 26.B m (BB ft)
Max. hsight of maeonry dam 40.5 III (133 ft)

AWARD OF CONTRACT

The work of construction of this dam (masonry Dam) was awarded to

Andhra 'Pradesh State Construction Corporation Limited in a phased manner under
three different contracts. The balance work including the Inad bridge is to
be finalised under a separate contract.
96
 COffER DAM

The width of the River at the Dam site is 640 m (2100 ft) with a
small out crop of rock in the middle of the river. The entire width of river
is divided into 2 portions for forming the coffer dam. Soils met with in the
bad of the river is mainly sand, below which sound rock exists. Depth of sand
varies from B to 10 m (25 to 30 ft). for the Right Arm as the depth of sand
was slightly less, the coffar dam upstream and downstream was formed by manual
excavation of sand upto bad rock using shoring and concreting ,the base and
raising the coffer dam by stone masonry upto bed leval.

for the L.eft Arm, as the depth of sand Was more, e special technique
of cement concrete diaphragm wall of 0.225 m (9 in.) thick Was adopted to con-
struct the coffer dam to cut-off the seepage. The construction of diaphragm
wall for forming the co ffer dam is the 1 stast technique and we have success-
fully adopted this technique in the Sri Ram Sagar Project works at L.ower Manair
Dam. The sequence of operations for forming coffer dam is explained below,
The formation of coffer dam consists of excavating by jetting narrow
trenches in panels of required depth and 1 to 2 m length and concreting them
with or withoyt reinforcement cage. The eides of trench are retained by
bentonite slurry. Tremi. concrete WaS poured into the trench and the bentonite
is displaced. Suitable jointing between panels is made resulting in continuous
water-tight wallo Each day a panel of 1.5 to 2 m length and 10 to 12 m depth
WaS formed. The adoption of this technique haS resulted in considerable saving
of time and money. The cut-off walls made by this technique were found to be
very effective and water-tight and haS served its purpose Wonderfully well and
all the foundations have been suocessfully excavated to the required depth and
masonry has been built above the bed level.

EXCAVATION Of fOUNDATIONS

The entire excavation was done by manual l3bour on piece rate

contract system. Where rack is met with, it is tackled by drilling jack
hammer holes and blasting.

AVAIL.ABIL.ITY AND PROXIMITY Of CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL.S

As per the agreement it is the responsibility of the department to

supply the required quantity of cemen t, flyash and steel. Sand is aVail able
in the river bed itself. The reqUired quantities of rubble and coursed rubble
stone are being quarried and conveyed from Cherlapur and Manakondur quarries

97
situated at a distance of 7 k .. and 11 km respectively from the dam site.
In order to crush the required quantity of metal for concreting work, two
crushers of lOT/hr capacity have been installed at the dam site (Figure 1).

CO N5 TRLC TIO N OF MA 50 NRY

In the construction of this dam, appreciable percentage of labour

intensive technology has been adopted for tho construction of masonry dam.
Mortar and conc~ete are mixed in concrete mixers kept adjacent to the block.
of Dam. Feeding of these mixers is done by manual labour. The mortar from
the mixer platform is carried by the mortar carries, i. e. loc al Mazdoors by
head loads. The stones required for the masonry brought from the quarries by
trucks and un-loaded near the dam, have been carried by Jawalis (four in one
set) using bamboo and slings, a special devise to carry the huge stones.
Skilled masons are employed for building masonry and vibrating the same. One
layer of masonry about 25.4 cm (lOin.) thick is laid every day. Bamboos and
ballies available locally are used for manufacturing gangways and for erection
of the scaffolding. Acrow steel shuttering is used for the gallery concreting
and bucket concreting and excellent quality is achieved (Figure 2).

In tile body of the dam, wherever openings are provided like galleries,
pump shafts, elevator shafts etc o block outs are first formed in masonry snd
then the R.C.C. structures are built by tying the grill and concreting (Figure 3).

The fact that in the construction of this dam appreciable percentage

of labour intensive technology has been adopted and the content of mechanisation
has been minimulllcould be confimmed from the cost analysis of the item of
construction of masonry which is the major item of the contract.

Labour component 66 percent

Machinery &. Material s 34 percen t

MEN AN D MACH INERY DEP LOYE D

Palmoori labourers of Mahaboobnagar District who are specialised in

earth work excavation were employed for the works of excavation of roundations
and concceting. Skilled labourers like masons, carpenters, bar benders, etc.
belonging to Tamil Nadu Kerela, etc., have been recruited for this work in-
cluding the local skilled labour available in Andhra Pradesh State. During
the peak period, about 1,200 workers were engaged on the job.

The required machinery like compressors, tippers, crushers, mixers,

96
FIGURE 1 Low~r Manair Dam Construction in Progress Blocks 21 to 26
showing Spillway Section - Downstream View - Rubble Stones
stock piled at the foot of the dam for construction.

FI GURE 2 Lower Manair Dam - Non overflow blocks 1 to 15 and left

flank core wall. Scaffolding for lifting the rubble
stones and mortar to the blocks can be seen. Mixers for
supplying mortar can be seen at the foot of the dam.
99
dewatering pUlRps. wagon drills and grouting pumps, etc., are also deployed on
the work to complete it as per the schedule.

CONCLUSION

There is large scale construction activity in the Country in the

Irrigation and Power Section. The actual methods of execution will depend
upon economical considerations based upon the site conditions availability
and accessibility of materials en d the avail ability of labour.

fIGURE 3 Lower Manair Dam under construction - blocks 1 to 18 -

Earth Dam can be seen in the further end. R.C.C.
Gallery in the body of the masonry dam can be seen.

1 00
 KALLADA IRRIGATION PROJECT

V, LAKSHMANA IYER
Superintending Engineer
KIP Circle Kattarakkara (Kerala)

INTRODUCTION

Kallada Irrig cation Project is the largest irrigation scheme so far

taken up in Kerals State. The Project consists of a gravity type masonry Dam
at Parappar, a pick up weir at Ottakkal, Right Bank ,and Left Bank Canal systems
with a network of major and minor distributaries. The salient features of the
project are given in Table-I.

TABLE I
THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

Reservoir &. Dam

(1) Length of Dam 335 m
(2) Height of Dam above deepest
foundation 85.34 m
(3) Top width of Dam 6.76 m
(4) Gross Storage capacity 524 Mm3
(5) Live storage capacity 50S, Mm3
(6) Length and type of spillway 42.06 m and gated spillway
with 3 gates
Pick up weir
(1 ) Length of weir 120.69 m
(2 ) Height 5.59 m
(3) Span between piers 15.24 m
(4 ) No. of spans 7
Canal Sys tern
(1) Length of R.B.C.
(2) Bed width of canal
- 69 km
4.65 m
(3) Full supply depth 3.40 1ft
(4) Designed disch args 39 cumeCs
(5) Length of L.B.C. 51.75 km
(6) Designed discharge -. 22.0 cumees
 THE COt1'ONENTS OF' THE PROJECT

(a) Dam This is a masonry gravity da~ across Kallada River

at Parappar just below the confluence 0 f the three tributaries of Kellada
River to form a reservoir of waterspread area, 2S sq km. The masonry dam
is designed as per standard practice in the C.W.C. with forming of masonry
of cement mortar of various proportions. The spillway profile is formed in
concrete of an thickness 1.20 m (4ft) over the masonry backing (Figure 1).

It is p reposed to develop whatever power is possibl e from the

irrig ation discharges by install ing a power house later on. The i rrig ation
outlet and power outlet are combined to act as a sluice. The sluice consists
of a 3.75 m diameter conduit which takes off from the dam in block No.8 of the
Dam to discharge a maximum 0 f 60 cumecs at 5.49 m / sac valoci ty in the condu it.

Two 2.25 II diameter conduits brillch off from this main conciJ it
near the downstream face of dam to convey irrigation water. After the
branch ing of th e irrig ation pip es, the power co ndu it is bent downward for taking
it to the power house pit.

The outlet is controlled on tha upstrsam side by a vertical lift

gate operated from the top of Dam. Provision for stoplog is made on the
upstream of this gate for use in case the gate develops some trouble. The
irrigation releases are controlled by two 1,500 mm diameter disperser valves
(Figure 2).
The energy dissipation arrang ement for the spillway is by th e
submerged slotted bucket.

(b) Canal System , A Right Bank Canal system has a main

Canal 69 km long with branchea and distributaries to serve an ayacut of
34,100 ha while tha left bank cenal system has a main canal 51.75 km long to
serve an ayacut of 19,000 ha.

The Right Bank Canal. system has been taken up for execution first.
On the compIe tion of the first phase 0 f the P rajact on ayacut of 4,000 ha will
be serviced. For this the R.B.C. upto 44th km and 15 kill of S.B. Canal. are taken
up and are in good p rogrese.
The canal works c an be divided into I
(a) Deep cutting.
(b) Heavy embankment.
(c) Cut and cover.
(d) Aqueducts.
(e) Tunnel.
(f) Cross masonry works of various types.
101
fIGURE 1 , Notice the gap in Block No.8 through which water is
to be let down during construction and afterwards
through penstock and irrigation pipes installed here.

FIGURE 2 A close up of the Block No.6. Notice the cons truction

sluice 3m x 3m.
102
 The canal runs through rugged terrain and excavation is mostly in rock.
The canal is designed as a lined one with deep cutting and almost a flume section,
the width being 4.65 m and depth 3.40 • and side slopes 1Y4 to 1. There are as
many as 13 aqueducts, two of which are pressure aqueducts or siphons. Two of the
aqueducts have trestle piers of over 21 m height. Quite a lerge number of valleys
are being crossed by heavy embankments, one of them having a bed filling of 20
metres. Here the drainage culvert or under tunnel is 2.65 m x 2.65 m. As the
state is a highly developed one, there are a large number of roads - railway
crossing.

ADOPTION Of THE TYPE Of CONSTRUCTION WHETHER MECHANISATION OR

LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNIQUE

Being a project costing over ~.BB3 million, naturally the question arises
as to whether mechanisation will not be more economical than adopting the labour
intensive technique which is bound to be slower.

As far as the dam is concerned, the skilled labour required for masonry
dam namely masons and stones dressers, are available in plenty in the adjacent
districts of Tamil Nadu. To fully utilize their services, masonry dam has been
preferred to concrete dam.

Reqarding canal excavation, mechanisation is not possible as the soil

consists of a large quantity of boulders and sheet rock which Can be removed only
by blasting. However, in the embankments, mechanisation to the extent possible
has been adopted in the matter of conveyance of earth and consolidation. The cross-
masonry works are mostly R.C.C. Skilled carpenters, bar benders,etc., are available
and so, this work is being successfully got done through labour intensive techno-
logy. As these works are spread out and vary in dimension the mechanisation process
is difficult.

LABOUR INTENSIVE T~CHNOLOGY AS IS BEING PRACTISED IN THE DAM WORKS

The materials that are required for the construction of the dam are
rubble, face stones, sand cement and water.

Rubble is obtained from quarries developed on the hills within a kilo-

meter from the dam. The rate of work envisaged is 300 .3 per day. Holes 1.5 m
long are drilled by compressed air and pneumatic drills. Blasting is done by
gelatine. The spacing of holes and charges are so adju.ted that large chunks of
stones ere obtained. These are split into smaller stones by stone cutters both
for random rubble work and for coursed rubble work. This secondary splitting

103
ensures sound rubble being obtained for the work. A crusher installed near
the quarry supplies the required coarse aggregate for the concrete. Rubble
is loeded into tippe rs at the quarry and unloaded in stock yards near the
block under construction. These are washed thoroughly by running water through
hoses and by brushing. They are taken by heed load or by bandhani to the spot
(Figure 3).
Sand : Sand required for the work is obtained from the river bed for
about 30 km upstream and downstream of the dam. Sand is collected from the
river manually, screened and loaded into lorries which take it to the sand
washing cisterns established at intervals along the dam. The sand is washed
by agitating the same with watar and compressed air coming from perforated
pipes installed in the cistern. The sand is then taken out of the cistern and
heeped an d is ready for use. It is taken to the mixer sits by tipp ing wagons
or by head load if it is very near.

Cements Cement required for the work is obta~ned from the nearby
cement factories in the adjoining districts of Tamil Nadu namely (1) India
Cements Ltd., Talayuthu, (2) Tamil Nadu Cements, Alankulam and (3) Madras Cements
Ltd. Tulukapatti. They are ~t supplied in bags of 50 kg. Storage sheds of
gross capacity 4,000 t. are available at dam site. Cement comes by rail to
Thenmala Railway Station which is got cleared and conveyed by lorries and stored
in the stores, Cement re-quired for work 1S taken out daily and conveyed to
sit e partly by lorry an d pertly by head load.

Mixing of mortar and its Supply to the Masons

The mortar is mixed in concrete mixers b.y batching the ingredients

on weight basis. The mixer is so located that the mixer mortar empties into
tipping wagons which run on rails. Thesa tipping wagons are m~ually hauled
on the rails laid on the dam over concrete pillars and steel beams. Mortar ie
ubloaded in platforms from where they are showelled into pans and taken by boy
mazdoors to the masons (Figure 4).

CANAL WORKS

Excavation, In most locations, the earth contains a large number 0 f boulders.

Hence manual excavation is being resorted to. Wherever possible earth moving
equipment such as bull dozer is also engaged. The section of the cenal is
rather narrow and deep. Truck lines are laid at berm level and the excavated
materiel earth or rock ara loaded into trucks for disposal. The trucks ere
heuled by labour and off loaded in spoil .dumps. Alternatively if the earth
is required for embankment work, the excavated material is loaded directly
104
 FIGURE 3 Rubble being dumped by tippers.

FIGURE 4 : Mortar mixing and conveying by tipping wagons.

105
into lorries or tippers and conveyed to embankments (Figure 5).

Embankmentsl Earth is conveyed to the forlllation by lorries 0 r tippers and

unloaded. It is then spread by labour engaged for the purpose and rolled by
means of power rollers. In high embankments, the embankment is filled up
upto F.S.L. in the canal prism also and the canal formed later by excavating
the canal prism in the embankment. Wherever possible bull-dozers have been
engag ed to loosen the borrow pits. Loading is don e manually.

Cut and Cover I In deep cuttings and in steep side long ground, the canal
is taken through closed conduits. The work is being carried out manually as
mechanical excavation is not feasible.

Aqueducts: As stated previously, skilled workman required for these works

are available and so the work is being carried out manually utilising such
common machinery as concrete mixers, compressors, jack hammers, etc.

Tunnel: There is only one tunnel in the R.B.C. which is 537 m long. The ex-
cavation is carried out using compressed air and jack hammer with suitable
drills. Quite a number of workmen experien ced in such work are avail abl e and
work is baing done and almost completed.

CONCLUSIONS BASED ON EXPERIENCES IN THE TECHNOLOGY

Works which can be done purely using labour strength are few and if
adopted are bound to be slow. Hence depending on the nature of work a
combination of mechanisation with labour intensive technology has to be
adopted. There must be good labour employer relationship. Otherwise at the
slightest provocation, there will be labour unrest with consequent loss of
man-days. But there will elways be a collective bargaining tendency on the
part of the labour. This will have to be kept to the minimum by humouring the
labour with appropriate benefits. In a State like Keral a where unemployment
is high mechanisation alone will not be successful. A judicious combination
of man and machinery is the need of the hour.

106
FIGURE 5 Main canal in cutting in laterite ready for
trimming. Laboures are engaged in trimming
the rocky sides of the canal.

107
 MODERNISATION OF PERIYAR-VAIGAI
IRRIGATION SYSTEM TAMIL NADU
J. N. DAWSON
Special Chief Engineer P.W.D.
Periyar-Vaigai Project, Madurai

HISTORY OF THE PROJECT

The Periyar-Vaigai baain in Tamil Nadu is of great importance next to

the Cauvery Delta both in the extent of irrigated erea end aleo in the history
of development of irrigation.

The river Veigai flows through the districts of Madurai and Ramanatha-
puram and joins the Palk Bay near Mandapam. Flaah floods, generally short
lived, have been the flow characteristics of the river. Diversion works and
tank storage heve been devaloped as irrigation sources in the first stages in
Vaigai Basin. Even now es many as 10,907 tanks lie in these two districts,
out of which 1314 numbers, big and small exist as part of the Periyar-Vaigai
Irrigation System.

Perhaps as one of the first attempts to link a west flowing river of

floods to an east flowing river of drought, across mountains, Periyar Project
3
wae contemplated in the 19th Century. A large dam with a live storage of 278 Mm
has been constructed across an inaccessible gorge in the Periyar Valley. A
tunnel of length 1.8 km. has been bored through the water shed to the east to
carry the waters of Periyar Lake to the plains of Madurai. The water flows
into the Suruliyar, a tributary of the river Vaigai. After irrigating about
5665 he. in the Suruliyar Basin, the water is again picked up at Peranai
RegUlator across the Vaigai in the plains, about 120 km downstream of the
tunnel. From here, it is diverted into the Periyar Main Canal along the left
side of the river. The canal is 58 km long and irrigates about 66,505 ha in
Madurai Disctrict. The Project was completed in 1897.

In 1958 another storagB reservoir known as Vaigai Reservoir was created

across river Vaigai 8 km below the confluence of Suruliyar with Vaigai. This
facilitated generation of power in the syst •• taking advantage of the fall from
ghats to plains without affecting the irrigation interests. holding up of
additional storage for the system and ensuring better time bound regulation
which enablad stabilisation of the old ayacut under Vaigai River. An additional
extent of 8740 ha of new area was brought under irrigation.
1 De
 NEED fOR THE MODERNISATION

The total quantity of water that could be annually abstracted from

the Periyar Lake is limited and the prospects of exploiting further additional
water potential are poor. Therefore improvements if any, can be only by way
of reduction of losses, in the conveyance system. The unlined conveyance
system has high seepage and operational losses. farm irrigation practices, on
the other hand, are relatively advanced and the farmers achieve some of the
highest paddy yields in India. Therefore the scope for reducing water losses
on the fields is limited and substantial eaving can only be achieved by improv-
ing the conveyance system.

THE PRESENT MODERNISATION PROJECT

The project is dssigned to substantially reduce the high water losses

in the existing Periyar-Vaigai Irrigation System. Through lining of all canals
and the provision of new structures to properly regUlate all canal flows, an
This ~uld enable a 35 percent
3
estimated 190 Mm of water would be saved.
increase in the irrigated area from 57,000 ha to betwesn 100,000 ha and 105,000
ha. The net anticipated savings in water utilisable after the transportation,
3
regulation 106ses, is 168 Mm (5.95 TMC). Making use of this quantity of weter,
it is proposed to extend irrigation in a new ayacut of 16000 he (39,500 acres)
in Madurai and Ramanathapuram Districts under the MOdernisation of Periyar-Vaigai
Irrigation System. In addition, an ay~cut of 68aO ha (17000 acres) in Madurai
District which are called Mamool Kodai/Hard cases under this system, will also
be regularised.

SALIENT fEATURES Of THE PROJECT

The main components of the project are as follows •

(a) Lining of Existing Canal

The main feature of the project is the lining of all irrigation canals
in the project area down to the turn-outs of 10ha irrigation-unit-blocks. The
canals are being lined with the concrete mix of 1.2.4 using 20mm broken stone.
Lining thickness will be 7.5 cm for Periyar Main Canal and 5 cm for branch
channels and distributaries. While the bed of canal is lined with cast-in-situ
concrete, during the irrigation closure period, the sides of canal are lined with
pre-cast concrete slabs Df size 60 cm )( 45cmx 7.5 cm with 20 percent by weight
of cement replaced by flyash available from Neyveli Thermal Power Station.
109
Tests undertaken by the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee,
showed that flyash increases not only the workability of the concrete but
also be resistance to cracking of the slabs. Major portion of lining has
been completed in Periyar Main Canal and Thirumangalam Main Canal by the
end of May 1979 ( Figures 1 and 2).

(b) Formation of the Link Canal

The construction of a lined Link Canal to convey the river waters

from a new diversion weir called pick-up anicut just downstream of the
Vaigai Dam to the Paranai regulator is to be taken up shortly. This canal
would considerably improve the operational efficiency of the project. The
lined link canal would have a length of 32 km and a design capacity of
3
66m /S. The Thirumangalam Main Canal, enother offtake on the right side of
Peranai Regulator would be supplie~ with water from the Link Canal through
a syphon under the Vaigai River just upstream of the Peranai Regulator.
Construction of the Link Canal is expected to be taken up after finalisation
of construction agency.

(c) Rehabilitation of Old Structures end Additional Control Structures

The existing structures are 80 years old and are in need of repairs.
These structures ere being rehabilitated and additional control structures
like regulators would be constructed to enable the full design discharge to
pass through head sluices and turn-outs when the canals are running et half
capaci ty (Figures 3 and 4).

(d) Additional Farm Turn-outs

Water distribution within the Project area would further be improved

by reducing the size of irrigation unit blocks to ebout 10 he from the
present average of 30 ha resulting in the construction of some 2000 additional
farm turn-outs.

(.) Improvements to Existing Tanka and Supply Channels

At pree.nt, several of .ajor tanks are connected with canal syste.

through other tanks which hampers ti.ely deliveries. These tanks would be
provided with independent supply channels. In addition, the tank control
.tructures would be rehabilitated and SOMe embankments would be strengthened.

110
FIGURE 1 Existing Periyar Main Canal of varying widths
heavily 9il ted.

FIGURE 2 Newly lined Periyar Main Canal - 1979.

111
FIGUR E 3 Repal.rs to lJamageCl Apron below 5uperpas'sage
at 19643 m of Periyar Main Canal. by Manual Labour.

FI GURE 4 Construction of Under Tunnel at 10260 m of

Periyar Main Canal by Manual Labour.

11 2
'f) Formation of an Extension Canal

The canal ~vstem woul~ be extended to serve an additional 9000 ha gf

rain red land by the proposed extension canal about 16.6 km length, from
Pulipatti Regulator, where the Periyar Main Canal ends.

Cv' Operation and Maintenance Roads

The existing roads along the main canals and the larger branch channels
are too narrow and not possible in rainy season. They are being widened and
improved (145 km) and new roads are being constructad along all branch channel.
and larger distributaries (610 km).

{h) Communication System

A radio telephone system would replace the out-dated canal telephon.

system which presently is used for communication to the nine section officere
responsible for Operation and maintenance of the irrigation system.

(1) Village Roade

To provide all weather access throughout the area, to facilitate the

agriculturists to carry the produce for marketing, about 625 km of Village
roads would be improved. About 250 km would be widened to a formation width
of 7.5 km and would have a 3.0 m wide water bound macadem pavement. About
375 km of gravel roads would have a 2.5 m wide pavement on a 5.5m formation.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Labour intensive technique is being used in the various spheres of

construction of this project, as plenty of labour is available in the rural
areas around the work sites. Since the entire Periyar Vaigai Project spans
through predominantly agriculture area, most of the manual labour employed
are agriculture workers, who are mainly available during the closure period alone,
i.e., March to May, which also forms the main working season for our project.
During the ather periods we have to depend upon the imported labourers from
the nearby districts. However, for laying cement concrete, slabs and conveyence
of materials the following machineries are deployed in this project, wherever
essential.

1. Lorries 54 Nos. 2. Concrete Mixers 86 Noe.

3. Table VibratDrs - SO Noe. 4. PUIip set. 114 Nos.

113
 for blasting of rock during excavation the following machineries
are us'eds
1. Air Compressors - 12 Nos.

2. Jack Hammers 26 Nos.

3. Road Rollers - 20 Nos. for laying roads and
consolidation of earthern embankments.

The following are the main items of works, contemplated in the project.

(~) Earth Work

Earth work excavation in the cutting area is carried out by manual

labour. for blasting of hard rock, drilling of holes is done generally by
man-power. When a large area of hard rock is to be removed, air compressors
are used for drilling of holes in large numbers. In embankment reaches the
earth excavated in borrow areas by manual labour is loaded into vehicles
and conveyed. If the lead is very short, earth is conveyed by head load.
The compaction of earth before placing lining is done by hand rollers, or
road rollars depending on the availability of working space. Watering of
earth for compaction is done by man power. Compaction of earth in narrow areas
adjoining cross masonry works and trimming of sides of canal ere generally
done by menual labour.

(b) Concrete Lining Works in Periyar Main Canal

Coarse aggregates of 20 mm size is obtained by using stone crushers,

from the manually quarried granite boulders. Except mixing of concrete, all
the works in concreting ere done by man power with the exception of using
table vibrators for the compaction of P.C.C.slabs. A number of concrete
slab yards have been set up in the project area to pre-fabricate on a year
round basis, the slabs required for lining the sides of the canal. Standard
quality control tests are being carried out frequently (Figure 5 and 6).

(c) Lining of Branch Channels and Distributaries and Water Courses

In case of branch channels and distributaries where the cross-section

ranges from moderate to very small, most of the works ere being carried out
by intensive labour force. Hera deployment of machinaries like rollers, etc.,
are not at all possible for want of space. There are about 1363 km lengths
of such branch channels and distributaries in whole of project. Only manual
labour is employed for all kinds of works except for pre-fabrication of P.C.C.
slabs where essential machineries like mixer machines, table vibrators and
11 A
 fIGURE 5 Side Lining ~ork in Progress.

FIGURE 6 Laying of concrete for Bed of Periyar Main Cane.

by Manual Labour.

11 S·
pump-sets are used additionally (Figures 7,8 and 9).

A case study on the works carried out during 1978-1979 in the reach
1185 m to 2195 m (1010 m) of III branch channel of Periyar Main Canal was
reviewed. The contractor waB expected to 8Xllcute the following main items of
works.

1. Manufacturing of P.C.C. slabs of 60 cm x 45 cm x 5 cm size III 20,000 Nos.

2. Earth work both cutting and filling ... 3,860 m3
3. Bed Lining ... l,500 m2
Toe wall and flange concrete • 66 m3

MASONRY WORKS AND REPAIR WORKS TO THE EXISTING STRUCTURES

For completion of 90 percent of works in this closure period, the

labour potential required were 14300 mandeys in the time spell of 25 days for
the first work and 80 days for the remaining works. In total, 14300 mandays
of ell cetegories cost ~. 44,428 which is about 45 percent of the estimated
value of the work.

Cd) Rehabilitation of Structures and Road Works

Granite blocks and coarse aggregate obtained from quarries by man power
in the project area are used in the rehabilitation works on old structures and
road works. In latter case, rollers are used for the compaction of earthen
roads a8 well as for water-bound macadem roads. Except the compaction of road
with rollers, all other items of works are carried out by manual labour.

LABOUR TECHNIQUE

The works are executed through contrectors. Due to eesy availability

of labour from other sectors like agricultural and building sectors both from
loe.~ araa a~d outside district, the contractors engage more of labour force and

minimum-machinery. For works involving deep earth cutting to be done in a short

span of time, the human labour force cannot accomplish the job within the time
constraint. Under such situation alone earth moving machinery is used to keep
up the time schedule. In a specified work-reach the implementation programme
was reviewed as a caSe etudy. The agency entrusted wes expected to execute the
following works for the Periyar Main Canal reach 8273 m to 9023m.

11 6 •
fIGURE 7 Watering and concolidation of Earth work for
the sides in 12th Branch channel.

fI GURE B Branch channel before lining and 0 & M Road

just formed by manual labour.

117
(A) Pre-fabrication of Cement Concrete 5laba,~uring Non-closure
Period: 22.11.1978 to 22.12.1978

For a length of about 750 m of main canal, 23100 P.C.C. slabs were
required to be manufactured for which the labour force engaged for 24 days
consisted of masons 503 Nos., man mazdoor 1132 Nos. and woman mazdoor572 Nos.,
in addition to the labour for preliminary works and collection of materials to
tha casting yard and labour for machine operation, atc. Besides, machineries
like pumps, vibrators, mixer.machines have to be engaged separately for a
working time-schedule of about 150 hours each during the 24 days under
consideration.

(B) Bed and Side Lining after formation of Embankments

Period: 13.3.1919 to 27.4.1919

There is nothing special to be specified in this espect of the work

except the fact that the construction agency should complete the work entrusted
to him within the Rho~t closure npriod of 3 monthR, i.e., March, April and May.
In this oarticular casp. the rate of progress of work on a daily average by
enganing 11 masons, 8 head mS 7 doors, ?6n mazdoors is about 200 m3 of embankment
work, 220 .2 of side lining and 450 m2 of in-situ bed linino of 10 cm thick.

COST ANALYSIS OF LABOUR FORCE

An anRlysis on cost. of labollr WRS made for a reach of 117m in the

reach 10,169 to 10,876 n~ Periyar Main Canal. To complete the entire work,
labour potentiAl of about 36,000 mandayQ of all categories like, fitter,
machinist, mazdoors, atc., were required in a time spell of 28 days for Drecast
works and 35 days for embankment and cast-in-situ concrete lining works.
The total cost of this much of man power works nut to ~.2,43,346. This i~
about 35 nercent nf estimated cost of this particular reach or 6,69,000. Had
we mechanised the works in this narticular re~cn by using mixing plant, con-
veyor belt syqtem, etc., the cost o~ labour would have been in the order of
10 t" 15 oercent on the estimated value. But the entire works in the project
are not similar to this natu~e. Snme works like rehabilitation works nf
exiAtinQ structures, improvements to tank structures cOI~d not be mechanised
due to the volume of works bsina scattered and very smell to be economically
handled. In euch cases. the cost of labour force to be enQRoed would have been
in the order of about 50 percent (figure 10).

118
FIGURE 9 Bed lining of a Branch Canal showing the concrete
as well as the consolidated sides.

FIGURE 10 A view of men and machinery wOl:king in laying of

bed concrete in Periyar Main Canal.

11 9
 GENERATION Of EMPLOYMENT

fa) Labour for Project Construction

Most of the unskilled labour potential required for the construction

works is from the agricultural sector and tha labour availability is high. It
is estimated that total manpower (both skilled and unskilled) required for the
construction of the whole project would be 14.4 million manday spread over
5 years. About 25 percent of the project works has been completed in the
first 2 years, and the generation of employment during the two years in cons-
truction works is given below.

Employment of labour in 1977-78 1.20 million mandays

Employment of labour in 1978-79 2.16 •
for the coming years the labour potential required for completion of the
remaining works is anticipated as specified below s

1979-80 3.60 million mandays

1980-61 -do-
1981-62 3.79 -do-

Besides this quantum of labour the construction works of the project have
induced scope for a substantial rise in generation of employment in industrial
sector like in supply of cement of 0.155 million tonnes, and supply of tools
and plants, etc.

(b) farm Labour

The average cultivated area per family is small and labour availability
is hiQh. Estimated farm employment opportunities which at present are low
(11.4m mandays per year, or about 23 percent of agriculture labour availability)
under the project may increase by about 3m mandays an increase of about
25 percent over the present employment by completion of this Modernisation
Scheme.

(c) Indirect Employment Effects

The oroject would offer scope for a substantial ~ise in agricultural

income and hence generate additional income and employment in the non-farm
sector. The lack of reliable data on non-farm employment at the present
f20
situation and data on consumption pattern in the project area; makes it
extremely difficult to project accurately the employment effect in the future.
However, in the opinion of the World Bank, the appraisal report envisages that
-experience from similar areas in Asia indicates that an increase in agri-
cultural production of ~.1S-20 thousand would generate one man-year of employ-
ment in the local non-farm sector. As a result of the project, the gross value
of agricultural production may increase by some ~.1S0 million, the increase in
non-farm employment would be on the order of 8000 man-years".

SPECIAL PROBLEMS

(a) Collection of Materials:

The main construction materials involved are cement, sand, flyash

and broken stone. There is no difficulty in supply of the first three. But
in the latter case, great difficulty Was experienced. During 1911-18 the
following important schedule of works were targetted for completion, to the
end of June 1918 in Periyar Main Canal alone.
2
Bed lining 4,06,000 m
Side Lining 2,21,000 m2
Because the construction circles and divisions were formed in stages during
1911-18, most of the construction agencies were in a position tn take up the
work around December 1917. They were expected to complete the pre-casting
of slabs by end of february 1978. During March, April and May 1978, they \'Jere
to achieve the targetted bed and side lining works. Consequently a sudden
demand arose for an enormous quantity of broken stone - 20 mm gauge - about
15,000 m3 for the first J months for the manufacture of P.C.C. slabs and about
28,000 m3 for the next J months for the bed lining works.

In the approved qUarry sites, hardly 600 numbers of quarry labour Came
forward for crushing the metal. Certain amount of skill is required to break
the rough stone which all men cannot do. There are limitations in engaging
.ore labour in the quarry sites due to the sloping rocky terrain and due to
injuries suffered by new labour engeged in quarries while breaking the stones.
Because of these conditions, the losses of quarries are unable to cope up with
this increased demand which is several times more than the normal requirements
of various construction organisations. This had resulted not only in shooting
up of cost of metal (even to the tune of 200 percent) but also in supply of
oversized metal which could not pass the rigid quali~y control tests. Most of
the construction agencies were thus compelled to import special labour from the
nearby districts outside the project area to blast out granite rubble and to

121
erect metal crushers of their own to get the correct sized broken stone.

In cases of branch channels and distributaries, a large number of

quarries are available in their vicinity. So, in spite of increased demand
the quarry people manage to cope up with our demand in quantity, but not in
quality. A second breaking is necessary to bring it to correct size by engaging
extra labour.

(b) Pre-Casting of Concrete Slabs

P.C.C. slabs of 7.5 em thick for Periyar Main Canal and 5 cm thick
for the branch channels and the distributaries are being cast at yards, specially
constructed in a few selected places. In mast of the cases, each yard will be
•
allotted for two or more agencies for the precasting of slabs during the non-
closure period. Each agency will be given a specified duration for the production
o~ their targetted quantity of slabs. Within the stipulated time, manufacturing

of slabs to the required standards by hand mix and by hand compaction cannot be
achieved. We have to necessarily go in for the use of concrete .ixer machines
and table vibrators in these cases to keep up the steady and uniform mixing and
compaction to achieve the required standards. So, usage of such machineries
cannot be dispensed with in this project(Figure 11).

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE

The project has been commenced during 1977 and would be implemented in
five years. ro expedite completion within the project implementation schedule,
modern techniques such as PERT and CPM are being used in programming the work.
Except Link Cansl, for which the fixing up of agency for execution will take
some time, the construction of other project works had already been initiated and
reached good tempo of progress. Canal lining and related earth work are under-
taken during the closure period (March to August) in single crop area and March
to May in double crop a~ea. when either the entirs p~oject area or part of it i.
not being ir~igatBd. The project is scheduled for completion by 1982.

COST ESTIMATE AND CONCLUSION

The project was formulated to modernise the ~eriyar-Vaigai System at

a cost of ~.410.4 million. For the above scheme, the World Bank has agreed to
lend U.S.S 23 mil~ion (Equivalent to ~.~O( million). As on date Periyar Main Canal
to a length of about 56.5 km has been almost fully lined and Thirumangalam Main
Canal has been improved to a length of about 27 km and village roads have been

122
 FIGURE 11 A view of Men and Machinery working in a Casting Yard.

improved to a length of about 145 km. So far about ~.105 million have been spent
on this project. Further works in all spheres except Link Canal are in full
swing and the Periyar Vaigai Project is scheduled to be completed as per target.
The project is the first of its kind in India in conserving water in an existing
irrigation system where there is no scope for additional yield. The use of
labour intensive techniques will serve as a Pilot Scheme for similar projects in
other irrigation systems in the country and will also be a model for other
developing countries.

123
 MAYURAKSHI RESERVOIR PROJECT

B. N. AICH
Chief Engineer
Irrigation and Waterways Directorate, West Bengal

Even after three decades of sustained progress in industrialisation

since independence, India is still predominantly an agricultural country.
It is about one third the size of U.S.A. in area but has to feed and clothe
about thrice its population. ~bout 70 percent of this population Which live
in the village. draw their sustenance partly or wholly f~m agriculture. A
•• jor part of this vast rural population has either no land at all or has so
little of it that the income drawn from it is not 8ufficient to payoff the
minimum basic needs. Consequently, a large labour force exists which is
dependent on agriculture. Unless artificial irrigation is available through-
out the year, agriculture in our country is largely centered round the monsoons
(15 June to 15 October) during which most of the rainfall occurs. As a consequ-
ence the agricultural labour force is thrown out of employment during the rest
of the year. from the present t~.nd it is also apparent that industrialisation
alone will not be able to absorb this eurplus labour in the near future.
Consequently, any development strategy which is oblivious to tha need of this
group of labour is bound to have very little effect towards alleviating the
condition of the people in general. This consideration, therefore, has resulted
in a bias for labour-intensive technology in the developmental strategy of the
country particularly in the execution of river valley projects, which, while
providing employment during execution to a large section of surplus labour,
is cepable of generating fresh diverse activities, which may creete more and
more employmant for the rural population. ~gainst this backdrop, it is worth-
while to anelyse the Mayurakshi Reservoir Project, a river valley project
undertaken by the Govt. of West Bengal in the early fifties with a visw to find
out how far the aims and object. of this strategy have been realised.

Mayurakshi Reservoir Project is located in the eastern part of

India. Water is stored in the reservoir behind the 47.27 • high Messanjore
Dam and irrigation is effected through two main canals drawn from either side
of the Tilpara barrage, a diversion structure, which is about 33 km. downstream
of the da.. Gross command area is 3,60,400 ha. and not irrigable area is

124
2,26,720 ha. for kharif (.oneoon) and 20,833 ha. for Rabi (Winter) cultivation.
B.sid.s, there are four pick-up barrages at the crossings of Bakreshwar, Kopai,
Dwarka and Brahmani Rivers. Installed capacity of the hydro-power generation
unit at M.ssanjore dam i . 4,000 kw. The overall esti~at.d cost of the project
comprising 3 componente namely the dam, the diversion barrage and the canal
syste. was ~.204.6 .illion as estimated in early fifties end thus the cost of
the scheme per hectare of irrigated land wae ~.902.

Ths impl.m.ntation of the project, the river being an inter-state river

brought in completion of certain formaliti.s before the work could be started.
The major probl.m was rehabilitation of the p.ople living in the other state who
would be submarged in the reservoir area. The rehabilitation process of displaced
persons, by it ••lf, is elow and has dictat.d, to a large extent, the technology
to b. adopt.d for execution of the sch.... Another point which also influ.nc.d
the t.chnology for the implementation process was the availability of good rock
at a very cheap cost at the site. These two basic considerations primarily acted
as the guiding factor for adoption of a labour-int.nsive technology in preference
to any other technology ai.ing at a speedier completion programm.. The working
progr.mme, therefore, was prepared spreading over 4 years to accommodate the time
necessary for construction of a boulder masonry dam which has cut down considera-
bly the conaulllption of ce.nt. The advantage of selecting the technology lays
in the fact that this would provide employment to the people of the submerged
ar.a who would otherwise be without work for quite soma years during the transi-
tion period and also the ti.e r'.quired for impl.menting the rehabilitation
prograMme. Th. local labours known as "Santal Labours~ although accustomed to
excavation work were not fa.iliar with maeonry and other allied works. Thie
initially posed a very serioue problem for adopting this particular type of.
labour intensive technology. However, this could be solved by importing a team
of South Indian Stone-workers who were not only skilled in the making use of
dressed ston •• for the face work r.quir.d for the spillway, but aleo to train up
the local people for the rubble IMsonry work, which is an art by itself. With
appropriate cera this type of construction became thoroughly water-tight even
though the use of the cement could .e reduced to only half the quantity otherwise
required in cement concrete.

About 50 percent of the total volume of .asonry had to be done below

the ground level, although a lit Ue over 30 • height of the da. had to be built
above the ground. Thie meant that for the firet 50 percent of the work • • aterials
were to be lowered down to the foundation area from the ground level. The exca-
vation which was done also _nually was so trimmed as to enable use of chute.
for lowering the materials. Chutes were erected from ground leval to the botto.
of the foundation pit. Mortar-.ixers were placed on the 9 round and the lIIixad
125
mortar was directly discharged into the chutes. Dressed stones and concrate
facing blocks were lowered by suitable method to prevent damage. For lifting
the mortar and boulders for construction above the ground level, hoists were
used for working on the downstream slope of the dam. These were of simple
design with automatic tipping buckets moving on trollies shuttling up and down
along the downstream slope of the structures fixed temporarily on the body of
dam. Extension pieces of the rails were laid as work progressed. For the
upstream side, vertical swinging-plateform hoiets were imported and were found
very convenient. The vertical posts of the hoist were fixed on the vertical
fece of the dam temporarily and were extended as the construction progressed.
A tower crane was imported for placing the concrete on the spillway. Use of
p~ec.st face-blocks in pisrs obviated the use of shuttering. The progress was,
however, slowed down by this process, yet by taking up 20 piers simultaneously,
overall progress was achieved as planned.

The background of adopting the labour intensive method was to enable

starting the construction without waiting for the import and erection of the
machineries, c~tting down the cost of the spares, and to give employment to the
people of the submerged area but without reducing the efficiency of the work
in any way.

The construction was taken up in 1951 when the enginesrs engaged for
this work were acquainted only with a limited variety of construction equipments
and that also being obtained from th e surplus equipment s made available after
the Second 'AIorld War. Full advantage of the few number of machines such as,
tractors, draglines, etc., which could be procured from Defence disposal was
taken for excavation of the canals which also were largely supplemented by
manual labours. Concrets mixers were preferred to batching plant because of
the scattered location of work sites. To man the tractors, draglinss etc.,
personnel were also drawn from the Army surplUS. Training units for repair
and operation had to be opened with those people under the general guidance of
the departmental engineers.

In adopting the labour intensive technology there wers initial diffi-

culties in training up the masons for the desired typs of work. However, with
time they got accustomed to tha work. For boulder masonry towels were not
allowed at site so that stone boulders were placed on mortar and not mortar on
the stone. Dressing of the granite-gneiss stone for face blocks posed a
serious problem. It transpired that this art of dressing had been developed to
a very high standard in South India through the centuries and could hardly be
achieved within a short time by local artisans. The art involved correct
te.pering of the chisel points and use of hammer and chisels of correct size
126
and weight. To solve this problem a self-contained team of workers was brought
from South India. They came with their own blacksmiths for making and t~mpering

chisels, cutters for cutting stone blocks without damaging the same, priests
for their religious functions and even undertakers for arranging funerals when
necessary. They had their own co-operative stones, canteen for consumers and
some sort of banking arrangements by use of coupons for all internal transactions
amongst themselves. They proved their worth and helped to achieve the standard
of work as desired.

The construction was by and large dona under the labour intensive
programme, the lifting by hoist and cranes eliminated use of scaffoldi~ alto-
gether. For finishing of joints, cradles were lowered from the constructed
part of the dam. The method also gave considerable relief to the workers and
there was practically no accident during the entire working period.

While being employed in works connected with the project, workers

acquired new skills or improved upon their own skill. In this way a new set
of skilled workers in various fields like stone quarrying, dressing of stones,
stone masonry, concreting work, fabrication, hoisting and fitting of heavy
gates, etc., emerged. In the agricultural front, irrigation also assured a
regular production of the crop during most part of the year in diversified farm
products. This provided steady quantum of agricultural employment each year
and also released a part of the agricultural income for utilisation ~thBr in
improvement of agriculture or any other sectors in Commerce and Industry.
Considering all these aspects, the adoption of labour intensive technology in
an area where labour was mostly under-employed has proved to be the correct
approach for solving the perpetual unemployment of the locality.

An analysis has also been made for the deployment of labour in different
fields. It has been seen that out of the total estimated cost for earth-work,
70 percent of the cost was only for the labour component, whereas, for the
masonry, it was only 30 percent of the total cost. The labour rate at that time
was ~.2 per day of e hours for a skilled laoQur and ~.1.50 for an unskilled
worker and they were mostly employed in the work between 180 to 200 days in a
year leaving the rest of the period for being employed in agricultural activities.

121
 MAHANADI RESERVOIR PROJECT
TATALDOH PROJECT AND GODAVARI
BARRAGE PROJECT
D. R. SIKKA
Chairman & Managing Director
National Projects Construction Corporation, New Delhi

Construction of irriqation & power projects play an important role in

the economic developm'3nt of India having popul~tion more than 600 million - the
second largest in the world, not only in respect of augmentation of irrigated
agriculture, power potential so very vital for food production and industrial
transformation to keep pace with the growing population, but also for providing
adequate employment opportunities to a large population who are otherwise at times
fully or periodically unemployed. Planning and implementation of these national
projects is thus ~ continuing activity in our annual development plans.

On an appro~imate estimate that one million rupees of construction and

its maintenance in India directly or indirectly may deploy man-power to the extent
of 31,800 man-days of skilled or semi-skilled and almost equal number of unskilled
workers with 13,500 man-days of managerial and technical hands, it could be deduc-
ted that these projects under the various sectors in our national plans may give
an employment opportunity for about 15 million of labour force besides managerial
and technical hands, over a period of 5 years assuming 300 working days.

In construction of large dam projects we have seen that full mechanisa-

tion is not a solution to the year round employment opportunity when we have
abundant man-power, nor does it result in over-all advantage and economy on an
integratad concept of minimum cost alternative. Besides meChanisation poses
several hazards necessitating prior skill and education, training and other basic
changes in pre-requisites. Our experience is that labour intensive methods
related to the unskilled/semi-skilled labour rates of the order of Rs. 6 to Rs. 8
per day and with good supervision and production incentive to be quite competitive
with the operations based on fully mechanised ones keeping in view capital cost
a nd running expendi tures.

With this background, it would be worthwhile to mention the experiences

of labour intensive technologies adopted in the construction of Mahanadi River
Project and Hasdeo Projects Phase-I, II and III constructed in the South-Eastern
belt of Madhya Pradesh the largest State of India occupying about 14 percent of

128
its area. In this part of the country. the present cropping pattern is mostly
rice growing which involves engagement of the villAge population from the period
May end to November with the result after the harvesting of the crops. by the
large, the man-power of the villages in the Region comprising agricultural labour
force is thus available for being engaged in the construction activity. Thus the
agricultural cropping season does not coincide with that of the construction
working season and this is an asset.

Mahanadi Reservoir Project (MRP) is a major multipurpose project on

River Mahanadi. The dam site is about 93 km from Raipur. I t has a catchment area
of 3670 sq km and shall store 909 M cu m of water. It has two existing upstrea.
reservoirs, viz., Moorumsilli and Dudhawa. Another reservoir on Sondour River i .
also being taken up for construction, water from which shall be led into Dudhew.
Reservoir. Ultimately all these four reservoirs shall constitute an integrated
single complex, harnessing about 1782 M cu m of water equal to the entire 75 pg~.nt

dependable yield for industrial and irrigation uses. I t is also contemplated to:' '.
provide an install~d capacity for generation of 10 MW incident~l hydropower ot "_,
taking advantage of water releases for kharif/rabi irrigation. Con,struction of
MRP was commenced in October 1973. The project is scheduled for completion by
June 1978 about one and a half years ahead of the target date (Figures 1 and 2).

On completion of MRP complex, the following benefits shall accrue:

(1) Existing protective rice irrigation from the run of the river shall
convert to assumed irrigation 1.6 lakh ha (3.95 lakh acre).

( 2) Industrial water supply for expansion of Bhilai Steel Plant 255 M cu m

annually.

( 3) Additional kharif/rice irrigation - new area - .14 million ha (.346

million acres).
( 4) Additional rabi/wheat irrigation - new area - 0.30 lac ha. (0.75 lakh
acres).
Total additional new area - 1.70 lac ha (4.20 lakh acres).

( 5) Water supply to Raipur city - 10 to 20 M cu m per year.

The important highlights of the various components involved in construc-

tion were as under:

(1) Earth dam on the main Mahanadi River rests on 15 to 18 m thick sandy
strata over lying base rock. The foundation treatment for the main dam
comprises two rows of 60 em thick each RCC diaphragm walls penetrating
1 m into the base rock. The cost of diaphragm wall works out to about
~.775 per sq m of wall area. It involved highly mechanised operations.
The total length of earth dam is about 1200 m and its maximum height
above river bed is 33 m.

( 2) Masonry spillway comprises 14 bays each of 15 m clear width. Radial gates

of 10 m height shall be provided. The foundation rock comprises
129
.
¥i$.":l,- .
."

"'fat
FIGURE Masonry cum Concrete Spillway for 23,500
CUS8CS peak design flood under construction
on the left bank.

FI GURE 2 Main Earth Dam across river Mahanadi constructed

in one working season involving highly mechanised
and labour intensive operations.

130
 quartzites interspersed with bedding joints containing shale or disin-
tegrated quartze occurring at frequent vertical intervals of 0.3 m to
1 m. In order to prevent failure by possible sliding along one of these
weakplanes, sizeable concrete shear keys have been provided at the toe
of spillway and roller bucket.

( 3) 4 Nos. embedded penstocks each of 2.2 m dia are being installed in the
power dam block to provide for generation of incidental hydro-power at
a future date.

( 4) Rockfill dam for a small length of about 130 m has been provided on th3
extreme left abutment wh8re there was exposed rock on the surface.

( 5) Desiqn of the earth dam section, left and right guide bunds rockfill
dam, etc., have been formulated in a manner as to ensure 100 percent
utilisation of excavated stones and other soils from the foundation of
masonry dam and spill-channel, etc.

( 6) A micro hydel power station capable of generating about 300 kW of power

is proposed on the feeder canal by harnessing a 4.26 m fall.

An alround high efficiency in construction planning both in regard to

quality and quantity was obtained resulting in record production in respect of
earthwork, stone-wo~k9 masonry and concrete rel~ting to the earth dam. masonry
spillway construction and feeder Canal thereby advancing the schedule date of
commissioning of the Whole project by about two and a half years. Some of the
important figures of progress touched and sustained throughout the peak working
season 75-76 are as below:

(1) Daily excavation in all types of soils and rock 8,500 cu m on headworks
land feeder canal.
( 2) Daily earthwork involving lsad of 3 km duly compacted 16,000 cu m per
day or 2 million cu m in one working season.

( 3) Stone work comprising of filters, rip-rap, crated wire stone pitching

etc. - 2,000 ~u m per day or .4 million cu m in ane working season.

( 4) Concrete an~ masonry - 1,000 cu m per day.

( 5) Percentage utilisation/efficiency of BEML heavy earthmoving machines -

12 percent.
( 6) Total km run by 12 Nos. scrapers in the working season 4,86,500 km -
(Figures 3,4,5, & 6.).

Meticulous planning in design and construction thereby rejucing the time

required for completion has resulted in a direct saving in construction costs of
the order of ~.70 million besides indirect benefits of ~.250 million by way of
additional food production in the period saved.

The project has qiven continuous employment to about 15000 persons on an

average over the last four years. The project management has also been able to
turn out about 200 skilled technicians in maintenance, repairs, and operation of
heavy earthmoving equipment and other construction machinery - (Figures 7 and B).

1 31
fIGURE ~ : Masonry non-over flow Dam portion under construction -
labourers taking the hand-quarried stones for use Dam
section.

fIGURE 4 120 to 160 Lbs. stone being lifted

by two workers for carriage to the
dam site.

132
 fIGURE 5 : Skilled masons and labourers working in mortar
laying operations for the stone masonry in
Mahanadi Dam.

--- ------ -~~

fIGURE 6 Excellent team work of women labourers in

taking the mixed concrete to the various
locations in the dam sections _ Mahanadi Project.

133
fIGURE 7 Skilled and semi-skilled workers in the foundations
of the Earth Dam of Mahanadi Project.

FIGURE B After excavation of foundations & fixing up of

anchor rods-with Mixers and chute arrangements
upstream.
134
 Construction of this project on the whole and in particular the massive
river closure operations involving construction of the main earth dam across
Mahanadi River in one working season involving about 2 million cu m has been a
land-mark. The labour intensive technologies were so worked out for all the above
items as would be indicated in' the figures in this paper that wherever it Was
absolutely necessary only the mechanised operations were introduced particularly
by heavy earthmoving units comprising mixers, scrapers, bulldozers, tractors,
vibro-compactors, concrete mixers, vibrators, drilling equipment and so on. The
remaining jobs were done either with intensive use of labour force comprising
even several thousands of women working in a systematic manner to achieve the
desired production of the various physical quantities. Similarly, in respect of
the canal works of this project as well as in Hasdeo Right Bank Canal Phase II,
thousands of lady-labourers were engaged in the earthwork excavation of the main
distribution and watercourses running in hundreds of kilometers.

The sailent features of the Hasdeo Right Bank Canal are as under:

Works involved completion of about 72 km of main canal to carry a

discharge of 38.2 cumecs (1350 cusses) during its present pilot stage and 85 cumecs
(3000 cusecs) on completion of Hasdeo Bango Project which was also being started
as Phase III of the Hasdeo Project. Herculean efforts were made during the last
working season completing the works of distributaries and minors involving a total
length of 500 km and about more than 1000 structures required for providing irriga-
tion to about 42493.5 ha (1,05,000 acres) out of which 80,000 acres were proposed
for irrigation during 1976 kharif season itself. Hasdeo ReC is irriqatinq on the
Right Bank from the run-off of the river from the Hasdeo Barrage constructed in
record time initially for providing cooling water requirements of 200 MW Super
Thermal Station at Korba.

Likewise in Case of Totaldoh Dam which is being constructed near Nagpur

by NPCC - a joint venture of two States of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, the
construction operations involved are in a composite dam, Masonry portion for non-
overflow section and concrete for the overflow of the spillway section. This is
an example which will indicate the use of labour intensive methods in case of the
non-overflow sections in the masonry portion as will be clear from the figures.
The dam which is about 80 m high from the average bed level and about 652 m long,
involves a total quantity of concrete and masonry to the order of about 0.925
million cu m and the dam is expected to be completed by 1982. The masonry work is
a major item in the non-overflow section which requires use of 15-30 kg stone/rubble
and the work is being done by manual labour including skilled labou~ers to handle
heavy size of stones (figures 9,10,11). We have planned to do masonry work manua-
lly upto the levels where easy approaches and working space is available where after

135
 FIGURE 9 View of crushing stone involving highly
mechanised operations. of Concrete Dam.

FIGURE 10 View from left flank of Totladoh Dam Project

in Maharashtra State - Masonry Sections.
136
FIGURE 11 J View of Spillway Po r tion Across lIlain t'iver Pench and
Masonry Dam Section, Quarried Stones being Carried by
Manual Labourers at the Various Levels •

..
--~
~
• ""I:l •

.-' "

F I GURE 12 : Sheet Piling Operations involving Highly Mechenised

Approach in Progress by NPCC

131
the material will be lifted by mechanical means. It may be mentioned that the
daily average turnover of masonry by labour force comes to cb out 500 cu m and this
quantity is being done by more than 1,000 labourers.

The overflow section with chilled controlled concrete has been planned
for pouring the concrete enti~ely by mechanical means by using Crushing and
Screeing Plant, Batching Plant, Ice Fake Plant, Trolley and Locomotives, combina-
tion of trestle bridge and lifting and placing of the concrete that comes in
concrete buckets by monotower cranes. Thus construction of Tataldoh Dam Project
is onB of the good examples where labour and mechanised intensive operations both
have to be adopted for achieving the targets of construction in the 2 types of
Dams - one masonry and the other concrete and this has been built to provide
adequate employment opportunities in Nagpur region in Maharashtra where also in
certain drought conditions employment 'of labour force is more a necessity for the
welfare of the society.

In case of Godavari Barrage Project (12 and 13), being executed

by NPCC in Andhra Pradesh - estimated to cost about Rs.220 million, comprising
construction of Barrage 3,593 m long with 175 bays is spreadover four Arms with
2.10 m wide piers at a distance of 18 m with a two lane prestressed concrete bridge
at the top connecting all the four Arms, both labour intensive as well as mechanisec
intensive operations ha\le been adopted which have given commendable results. It
would be apparent from the following quantities of work involved:

Earthwork for foundation 3.00 lakhs cu m

Filling back 1.55 lakhs cu m
Concrete (for sub-structure, 2.20 lakhs cu m
s u per-s truc ture, CC bloc ks etc.)
Reinforcement steel 0.125 lakhs MT
R iprap, pi tching, filler works 1.01 lakhs cu m
Sheet pile works 36, 000 ,;.

The coffer dams wh ich had to be co n struc ted in stand ing wa ter of Godavari
more than 20 to 25 em (8-10 m), we.re construe ted upstream wi th the help of boats
called PPunts'. Out of 3 lakhs eu m of earthwork, about 0.2 million cu m heve been
done at the end of March 1919 by utilising several hundred labourers. Ths sheet
piling work is a mechanically oriented operation being carried out with the help
of vibro-sinkers and so also the crushing plant for aggregates and batching plant
for mixing of concrete. The transportation is also being done by dumpers in view
of the distance involved from the centre of the project. The laying of concrete
in the rafts and piers again involves use of massive man-power as indicated in the
figures. For example, the total quantity poured 'so far has been of the order of

138
FIGURE 13, ~echanised as well as Labour Intensive
Operations - Reinforced Concrete Operations.

139
0.12 million cu m with a peak quantity of 5,500 cu m being poured during March 1979
in one of the Arms. Thus laying, pouring and of concrete in rafts, piers and
downstream CC blocks of the barrage provide an ideal base for utilisation of
manpower alongwith the connected mechanised operations.

From experience of the above four large Dam Projects, one could see that
labour intensive operations have been successful not only by providing facilities
for maximum utilisation of the local resources available but also wherever
necessary requiring importation from the other areas of the States. The labour
wages being adopted at present with the agriculture labour available periodically
in these Projects result in the overall economy in the cost of the project besides
providing a'sense of deep involvement of the people of the Region in the constru-
ction of these National Projects from which on completion of the benefite of
irrigation and power are going to be reaped by many of these people who work, day
end night during the construction period in achieving the targets. It is a truth
to see and appreciate the team work which the labour force including the women
labourers develop at site in the various operations of concrete and masonry their
carriage in short hauls and dumping, placement of the earthwork by removing from
the trucks. The construction of large or high dam projects particularly in case
of masonry dams and hydraulics structures to be constructed with stone masonry,
the canal excavation and dressing and dumping within a lead of 35-50 m etc., would
all be able to provide employment opportunities for thousands and millions of
labourers. The scope for mechanisation would be more limited to construction of
concrete dams or reinforcement cement concrete hydraulic structures requiring
special efforts. Tunnels of bigger diameters (the smaller ones like Baria-Suil
Project in Himachal Pradesh constructed by NPCC in a length of B km with the help
of manpower) may need mechanised operations including those required in intensive
excavation and blasting.

140
 EXCAVATION OF VENKATAYAPALEM DEEP CUT
IN THE CANAL SYSTEM OF
NAGARJUNASAGAR
DAM PROJECT
R. C. RAO
Managing Director,
A. P. State Construction Corporation

The Nagarjun~sagar Dam one of the World's tallest Masonry Dam

wit~ earth ban~s on either flank across River Krishna is situated in Andhra
Pradesh.

The height of this dam is 124.7 ~ waterspread area is 284.9 sq km

and the ayacut for this project is 8,71,724 ha (21,54,000 acres) fed by
canal system on right and left flanks of River Krishna. The Right Bank Canal
is named as Jawahar Canal and Left Bank Canal as Lalbahadur Canal.

SALIENT FEATURES OF CANALS

dawahar Canal Lalbhadur Canal

(Right side) (Left sids)

1. Depth of Flow:
Ultimate 4.572 m 6.7362 m

2. Max. Head Discharge:

Phase 311.49 cu mls 339.802 cu mls
UI timate 594.656 cu mls

3. Total Ayacut 1.144 mill ion hectares

4. Food grains 3 million tonnes
5. Value of crops ~.400 crores per annum.

The Nagarjunasagar Left Main Canal ~eyond 177 km is named as 21st Main
Branch Canal and thisVenkatayapalfltm deep cut is from KM 8.90 to KM 12.0 of
21st M.B.C. after completion of which water can be released to Bonakal Branch
Canal which creates an additional ayacut of 60705 ha (1,50,000 acres).

Deep cut as the very name indicates is a pa~ticular stretch of a canal

that runs in deep rock cutting and canal with more than 9.14 m (301 ft) depth
of cut will be named as a deep cut. The maximum depth of cut in this work is
FIGURE 1: Left Flank Canal - View from Upstream - May 1979.

142
32.6 m (107 ft) and length 3.2 km (2 miles). Depending upon geological conditions
of the hill formations and if clear depth of hard rock could be obtained above
the bed level of canal, then the canal can be excavated as a tunnel through
the hill. But where geological formations do not permit or where the height
of hill does not permit, then the canal has to be excavated as an open channel
of great depth (Figure _ 1).

As the deep cuts are designed as flume sections the bed width of canal
is far less and due to the greater depth of cut the seepage problem is enormous.
The working space for men and machinery is very limited when compared to normal
reach excavation of canals.

Limited working Space, seepage, lifting of spoils from deeper depths,

and seasonal conditions are the main problems f0r such works. In view of all
these facts such works cannot be executed only with man-power in view of economy
and are to be tackled by both men and machinery. Though the work is programmed
for execution by men and machinery simultaneously, uninterrupted power supply,
availability of required material such as drill rods, explosives, etc., efficient
operation and running of machinery to maximum possible extent in addition to
proper planning and availability of funds are the factors for successful comple-
tion of the work as per programme.

Man-power is used for operation of different machinery, for mucking

and loading of excavated debris obtained from canal excavation into winch
tubs and tippers. The transportation part of work is got done by winches and
tippers as lifting of debris from such deeper depth is not possible by man-power.

The excavation work of the Venkatayapalem deep cut involving

7,48,900 cu m (26,450 units of 1,000 cu ft) including lining costing ~.27 million
has been entrusted to the Construction Corporation. The period of completion
is 24 months; the excavation is mainly in hard rock strata.

Preliminaries such as construction of sheds for accommodating offj~es,

etc., laying and repairing the haul roads for the work are completed and ma~n

part of the excavation is taken up for execution.

METHODS OF EXCAVATION

For depths up to 9.14 m (30 ft), excavated debris is removed and

disposed off outside the canal by manual labour head loads. For depths from
9.14 m to 16.28 m (30 ft to 60 ft) excavated debris is removed by means of
143
10-T tippers hauling to the outside on ramps specially formed on the edges of
the canal slopes. Loading of these tippers is done in the canal bed by manual
labour. For depths, deeper than 18.28 m (60 ft) the debris is removed by means
of winches erected on the canal slope at suitable locations. Debris is loaded
into the one cu m, tubs by manual labour and hauled up on a track by electrically
operated winch to the top of the canal bank. This tub unloads into the one cu m.
Tipping wagon kept at the top of canal bank and hand pushed to disposal yard.

Sufficient number of winches are got manufactured and required tippers

are procured in addition to the compressors, jack-hammers, loaders, dewatering
pumps transformers and other equipment including transporting machinery, etc.,
whioh have costed much. Diesal generators were kept as stand by. As explained
already efficient running of machinery plays vital role in economic execution
of work. Such difficult works are to be got executed only by imported labour
from other districts and local labour will be utilised for miscellaneous items
of work (by imported labour is meant, labour brought from other districts).

Materials such as explosives for the work are arranged by the Department.
As there is acute shortage of geletine, we have used ammonimum nitrate. In
addition to this, for underwater blasting Formadyne & Superdyne were used.

The chain-wise quantities involved are arrived and the spacing of

the winches, location of ramps for running tippers are decided based on the
availability of working days for completion of the work. In this deep cut
27 winches are erected and 6 ramps are used fo~ transportation of the muck
from the canal. The planning in location of winches and ramps for this work is
important for arranging continuous work for the labour by arranging sufficient
blasted muck from canal excavation.

OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN EXECUTION

(1) Erection of Winches: The excavated debris from the canal is lifted by
winches from bed level of spoil bank and unloaded into trolley tubs for transporta-
tion.

A fabricated winch tower of designed angles will be erected on

fo~ndetion located on berm and spoil to the level of unloeding point is
built up by manual labour. The leading rail line from the point of winch to the
outer face of spoil bank is laid, over which the trolley with bucket will be
toed by manual labour. The winch is run by 15 H.P. electrical motor and the
winch tub will be pulled up with the help of designed wire-rope (with the help
of drum driven by winch motor with forward and reverse gears). The rail line
144
runs along the side slope of the canal over the sleepers fixed in random
rubble masonry in cement mortar. The slope of the rail line from top of winch
tower to the bed level of the canal will be fixed to suite the designed slopes
keeping in view the easy operation of the winch and generally conforms to the
final finished slope of the canal. As and when required the rail line in side
slope and over spoil bank will be extended for easy loading and unloading
operations. The excavated muck from the canal bed will be loaded into winch
tub, lifted with the help of winch, unloaded in tipping tub mounted on tram
track and towed manually on rail line, unloaded on spoil bank by tipping arrange-
ments and spread uniformly by manual labour. for all th,:, se operations nearly
50 labour a re required for each winch and in this deep cut 27 ~-Jinches are erected
at 33.53 m (110 ft) intervals along the length of the canal. Each winch gives
an out-turn of 2 units 5.6 cu m (200 cu ft» a day which mostly depends on all
other connected factors (Figures 2 to 3).
/

(2) Tip?ers: Secondly the excavated muck is conveyed by tippers. The tippers
with body specially built for conveyance of rock spoil are used for this operation.
The location of ramps are fixed based on the quantity of work to be tackled
and programme of work for completion. Ramps are provided with easy gradient of
1 in 15 for conveni~nt running of the loaded tippers. Nearly 50 labourers are
engaged for each tipper for spl~tting, mucking and loading the same into tippers.
Each load of the tipper gives an out-turn of 2.83 cu m (100 cu ft) solid
or 4.53 cu m (160 cu ft) appx. loose and makes nearly 20 trips for 8 hours shift
of the day, giving an out-turn of 2 units 56.64 cu m (2,000 cu ft ) per day. The
transported muck is unloaded machanically by tipping arrangement of the tipper
and the spoil is levelled manually (Figures 4 & 5).

(3) Trimming: The trimming ?art of the work of the side slopes of this deep
cut involves most difficult nature of work as drilling operations in side slopes
are to be attended with utmost care taking necessary precautions against accidents
and over-breaks which are very costlyo Drilling is arranged using pusher air legs
by providing supports and landing space for the drillers arranged with safety
belts. The out-turn is also considerably less as blasting in slopes gives very
less useful out-turn and the spoil obtained has to be lifted from bed level of
the canal involving more number of lifts. The ramps and winches are to be removed
by completing the canal excavation to the designed slopes and the muck is to be
transported through the balance winches involving extra leads for the spoil. finally
the muck from canal at the end ramp or winch is to be lifted only by head loads.
This part of work of trimming is the most expensive item of work.

145
fIGURE 2: Left Flank Canal Excavation of Venkatayapalem Deep
Cut - Disposal of Excavated Debris by Means of
Electrical Winches Erected on the Canal Slope -
May 1979.

FIGURE 3: Left Flank Canal Excavation at Venkatayapalem

Deep Cut Close Up View - May 1979.

146
 fIGU~E 4: Left flank Canal Excavation at Venkatayapalem Deep
Cut - Disposal of Excavated Debris by Loading into
9Ton Tippers in the Canal Bed and Hauling out on
the Ramps.

fIGURE 5: Left Flank Canal Venkatayapalem Deep Cut - Drilling

Blast Holes on the Slopes and Disposal of Blasted
Debris by Tippers.

147
(4) Dewatering: This being a deep cut the sub-soil seepage posed a very
serious problem for the execution of the work as drilling and blasting
operations are difficult in wet conditions. The dewatering is attended and
the bed of excavation is kept dry with the help of large No. of pumps both
electrical and diesel driven.

(5) Drilling: Drilling is attended with the help of portable and ~tationary
comp ressors and jack hammers. Sp eCially skilled drill ers are eng ag ed for this
operation in addition to operators and helpers of machinery. The compressors
are located according to the necessity and compressed air is arranged to the
point of drilling by pipe line. Each jack hammer requires 2.26 to 2.69 cu m/m
(BO to 95 cfi/m)of air at 5.97 to 6.32 kg/sq cm (B5 to 90 psi) and drills
12 m/hour (40 rft/hour) giving an out turn of 3.54 cu m (125 cu ft) of solid
rock excavation. Thus for B hours shift of compressor and two jack hammers
the out-turn is about 56.64 cu m (2.000 cu ft).

(6) Blasting: The holes will be drilled with the jack hammers and the
depth of drilling is based on exposed face of the rock excavation for giving
maximum out-turn with minimum expenditure on drilling and blasting operations.
The blasting is done by geletine, Ammonium Nitrate, Superdyne or any other
chemicals generally used for blasting operations. Consumption of geletine is
observed as 350 kg/1000 cu m in this deep cut.

For this work 300 tonnes of geletine and about 24,00,000 detonators
were used.

Adequate precautionary measures in blasting operations are taken by

getting the blasting done through licenced blasters and by providing caution
boards, danger flags and proper vigilance by whistling, etc., during blasting
to avoid accidents.

(7) Muckinga The blasted muck obtained from excavation is split into
convenient sizes so that the debris can be handled manually for loading operations
either into winch tubs or tippers for transportation.

(B) Transportation: The transportation of the spoil is arranged by tippers and

winches as explained already.

The working cost for execution of such difficult nature of works involv-
ing men and machinery directly depends on efficient operations of machinery
failing which the labour engaged cannot be utilised on work and the progress
gets affected resulting in increase in cost of execution.
14B
 In addition to the deep cut, the work on approach and exit of the
deep cut, i.a., from M 5/0 to M 5/4 and M 1/4 to M 9/0 of the canal was also
entrusted to the Corporation. The volume of work involved in these reaches is
2,28,625 cu m of different classifications and the rock excavation involved is
1 ,55,344 cu m.

In addition to dewatering and drilling equipment for the work, special

equip~ent such as Poclain excavators and dumpers to convey the spoil are engaged
on thesE! approach and exit cuts of the Venkatayapalem deep cut. As the canal
bed in these reaches is sufficiently wide, these loaders are put on use instead
of manual labour. The drilling is done by wagon drill (Down the hole hammer)
using 10.16 cm (4 in.) drill bits and blasted. The consumption of geletine per
unit of rock will be around 525 kg/1000 cu m. Each loader gives an out-turn
of 85 cu m (3000 cu ft) per day and both the excavators put together gives an out
turn of 6 units 170 cu m (16.000 cu ft ) per day. It is Very economical to use
these large size bits for blast holes. There is saving in explosives and also
saving in time there~y speeding up the work.

It is observed from the data that the percentage of expenditure

components on these items of work is as follows:

1• Machinery 31 percent
2. Materials 27 percent
3. labour 36 percent

Thus there is a balance between the employment of labour and utilisation

of machinery.

149
 BHATSA DAM

M. D. DESHMUKH
Chiei Engineer.
Irrigation Department Maharashtra

I NTRODUC TI ON

Bhatsa Dam under construction with the Government of Maharashtra, is

the highest masonry solid gravity dam in the State being 88.5 m high above the
deepest foundation level. The Bhatsa Multipurpose Project costing ~.620.6 million
is intended to augment water supply needs of the Bombay City, to irrigate lands
in backward areas of Thane Dis tric t and generate power for meeting peak demands
in the grid.

THE HISTORY

Main objective of planning, for the last century was the fulfilment of
water supply demands of the rapidly expanding Bombay Metropolis. Initially the
demand could be met with frem the storages on the outskirts. Presently water
supply to the city is being made from the Vihar, Tulshi, Tansa, Lower and Upper
Vaitarna Lakes. A high level committee of experts constituted in 1961 suggested
additional sources for the purpose, and the Bhatsa Scheme is one suggested by the
Committee being the largest and most attractive.

THE DEVELOPMt:NT

InitiaJly, the scheme as planned in 1965 was solely meant for supplying
1138 mId water to Bombay City. Detailed investigations further revealed ample
scope for Flxtending benefits towards providing irrigation in Thane District and
generati!,1"g hydro power. Scope of the scheme thus enlarged to a river regulation-
cum-pufl'J9ing scheme for supplying 1365 mId water to the Bombay City, 455 mId water
f'Jr irrigation and installation of a 1,5 MW power station at the foot of the dam.

In view of the large outlay involved and phased incremental water supply
jemands, the scheme is planned to be completed in two stages as under:

150
 W~ter supply Irrigation
Stage I 455 mId 227 mId
Stage I I 1365 mId 455 mId

The projected water planning was based on runoff series of the adjacent
Tansa River Valley. Observations of runoff series at Bhatsa Dam site indicated
further enlargement of the scope. The project planning as it now finally stands
includes irrigating a gross command area of 47806 ha the irrigable area being
23,000 ha. The intended fulfilment of water supply demand of 1365 mId stands
unchanged.

CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION

Choice of an earthen dam Was ruled out in view of the great height of
86.50 m, the high intensity of rainfall and nen-availability of the impervious
core material. Based on the experience gained at the Koyna Dam completed recently
then, the rubble concrete technique was initially favoured. The masonry dam
construction was finally upheld.

THE CONSTRUCTION

Stage I work incorporating 1.14 million cu m of masonry costing~. 102

millions was initially entrusted and started through a contractor with February
1976 as the stipulated time limit for completion.

The contractor however, could de only about 40 percent of the work and
the contract had to be rescinded and it was decided to take up the balance work
departmentally, as expeditiously as possible and to create the required storage
in time.

DE PARTMENTAL WORK

Quantity of masonry in balance to complete the Stage I profile was about

0.66 million cu m. With the targetted date of June 1978 for creation of Stage I
storage, leaving just 350 working days in the two seasons available, the physical
achievement was impossible and adopting a trunkated section for Stage I pr6file
was must. Even this was an ambitious programme involving 0.3 million cu m of
masonry. With the inevitable time lag for observing the necessary formalities in
inviting fresh tenders, it was decided to start the work departmentally.

Departmental execution programme was thus launched under the supervision

of officers of the Department Who had earlier worked on masonry dams constructed

Hil
through contractors as well as departmentally. Departmental execution of works
based on ceiling rates for various sub-operations, sub grouping of the various
itema of works was taken up.

The completed item of masonry was split up into the following sub-works:

( i) Quarrying· for ~ubble and transportation to site,

( ii) Supplying sand at dam site,
( iii) Laying masonry including scaffolding, mixing cement mortar in
concrete mixers. transporting mortar and rubble to the construc-
tion spot, laying m9sonry, vibrating and curing the same.

Requisite equipment such as trucks, tippers, compressors, mixars, vibra-

tors, etc., were to be provided by the Department free of cost.

The aforesaid fragmentation allowed each group of workers and machinery

to work independently.

ACH IEVEMENTS

The balance three months of the 1975-76 working season, after the work
was withdrawn, were very crucial. Foundation level in the gorge portion was
reached and the same had to be cleaned and masonry thereon raised sufficiently to
avoid the situation of desilting next season. In this short time labour had to be
mobilised to site, which was very difficult particulnrly because it Was the mid-
working season, and the contractors hypothecated maChinery had to be reput in
working condition. Surmounting all these odds, 28,000 cu m of masonry was laid in
this short period of three months.

1976 monsoons allowed some respite for systematic planning. Buffer

stocks of rubble and sand were created to the possible extent for accommodating
the likely fluctuations during the working season. Unlike in the past, the work
of material collection continued in monsoons also.

For the 1976-77 working season, with the help of a labour force of 6000,
masonry to the tune of 0.23 million cu m was laid, the maximum output in a day
being 1600 cu m.(Figure I).

In the working season of 1977-78, the truncated section was raised to

create the required impoundage. This season about'O.14 million cu m of masonry
was laid. Partiel storaqe was created during monsoon of 197B to satisfy the
requirement of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Bombay. 3500 labourers were
employed on the works in this period.

152
FIGURE 1 Masonry under construction from the Dis side in
Gorge Monolith's

fIGURE. 2 Head load working from the DiS side in 2/78

t53
 During 1978-79, about 0.17 million cu masonry was laid against a
planning for 0.15 million cu m. The achievement has a special importance as,
during this period complicated R.C. C. work for outle t and energy d issipator was

simultaneously completed. The completion of the entire work by 1984-85 is now

well within reach (Figure 2).

MODE OF WORKING

The method of working adopted was at all times governed by the principle
that maximum opportunity is offered to deployment of labour, machinery being used
only when imperative (Figures 3 and 4).

(i) Stone Quarrying

This involved one labour per cu m of masonry. This labour component is
40 percent, the belance 17 percent being for explosives and 43 percent of transpor-
tation.

f ii) Sand Supply

Bulk of the sand required had to be brought from Kelyan and Kalhar creeks
situated 65 km away. In view of the monopolised mechanised dredging and long dista-
nce transporting, labour element i~ sand supply is only 1/2 labour per cu m of
masonry_ Some sand is also obtained by crushing quarry waste.

( iii) Maso nry Cons truc tion

Masonry construction is broadly divided into groups viz. (a) Manual
hauling and (b) Mechanised hauling of rubble and mortar to the workspot.

(a) Manual Hauling: With the limitations on the possibility of mobilisation of

labour, with 6000 souls working on the works, it is felt that rubble can be conve-
niently and economically hauled manually upto 20 m height. Experience on the
project indicates that rubble hauling Can be maximised during night hours as there
is no congestion on the scaffolding and also the heat of the sun. Throughout the
season, about 1000 labourers were engaged on hauling of rubble, during night hours,
by which about 40 percent of the day's requirement of rubble was at the workspot.

Mixers are installed at the foot of the scaffoldings and the morter is hauled
manually during working hours, making use of the scaffolding generally constructed
out of wooden ballies and planks.

(b) Mechanised Hauling: Where the lift involved is more than 20 m, mechanised
hauling of rubble and mortar is economical. Electrical Tower Cranes, Builders
Hoist inclined or vertical and electrically operated derricks are employed for the

154
 FIGURE 3 Energy dissipat~r under construction in 5/79.

fIGURE 4 Progress of head works (6/79) from right bank D/S side.

155
purpose. Once the rubble and mortar is at the top of the masonry monolith, it is
once again taken to the workspot manually.

ECONOMICS DF LABOUR ORIENTED CONSTRUCTION

Nearly 90 percent of the total masonry executed after 1976 is by headload

working only. Statistics maintained shows that in the completed item of masonry
labour element is 24.5 percent, 43 percent is the material component and the
remainder 32.5 percent is consumed by the machinery element.

LABOUR MANAGEMENT

Very little local labour is available as most of them find lucrative

employment in the adjoining Industrial Complex of the Bombay City. Mobilisation
of labour, thus, posed a serious problem to the Project Authorities.

As a matter of policy, it was decided to provide facilities at par to

all labourers from the vario~s contractors. Housing, which is a primary need,
was provided to all labour in the same scale. A sprawling labour colony with
G.e.I. sheets and bamboo mattings was, therefore, constructed at Government cost
for accc...ITImodating about 5,000 labourers.- The labour camp is provided with piped
treated water supply, street lighting med.ical assistance, market facility, flour
mills and a television set for entertainment. Timely payment every week was
ensured.

Accidents at such work are unavoidable. Some fatal accidents did take
place a~ in such Cases compensation was promptly paid by the Department as fixed
by the Labour C ommiss ioner.

As an encouragement to the pieceworkers for boosting their progress, an

Incentive Bonus Scheme was introduced. The Scheme envisaged fixing targets of
work, with due consideration to the elevation of the work space, beyond which an
increm,3ntal rate was paid at the close of the season. The scheme worked very well
in boosting up the progress of work.
RATE ANALYSIS

Rate analysis observed for construction of U.C.R. masonry in cement

mortar 1 :4Y2 proportion during 1977-78 on the Project is as follows

( 1) Supply of Rubble including

rehsndling whenever necessary Rs. 22.85
1.15 cu m @ ~.19.87

156
( 2) Supply of sand incluJing rehandling
whenever necessary 0.50 cu m @ Rs.65.66 Rs. 32.83

(3) Cement including transport and 5 percent

short weight 3.22 bags at ~.18.80 ~. 60.54

5 ub- Total Materials ~. 11 6.22

(4 ) Labour charges for laying masonry

includinq handling materials. %. 25.50

( 5) ElectriCity charges including site lighting Rs. 1.82

( E) Average incidence of Incentive Bonus. ~. 0.72

( 1) Supplying water for construction and

labour colony. ~. 0.08

( 8) Cleaning foundations by sand blasting and

airwater je tting. ~. 0.70

( 9) Charges for dismantling, transporting and

re-erection of cranes each season Rs. 0.35

( 10) Average incidence of workmen compensation paid ~. 0.40

( 11 ) Approach and Haulroads Rs. 1.52

( 1 2) Supervision charges Rs. 1 .50

Total Rs. 150.81

Say Rs. 151/cu m

Split-up of component works is as follows:

Labour 24 5 percent; Materials 43 percent, Machinery 32.5 percent

CONC LUSI ON

In a country like India, reeling under the stress of large scale

unemployment, all developmental activities need to be labour intensive to the
possible extent. Irrigation Projects can play an important role in this respect
as a large share of the budget at the Centre and the State is allocated to River
Valley Projects. For this, construction of project is required to be phased in
combination with machinery use in such a way that maximum scope is left to labour
utilisation which is abundantly available. This sort of interwediate technology,
though appears a little slow, is in the interest of the soc~ety at large. It is
a prime most need to otherwise enqaged labour on unpr:Jductive works for providing
them bread for survival without a proper return. Only in time bound Project
Planning, the absolute minimum targets, if difficult to be achieved by manual
labour, may have to be got executed by engaQing machinery.

157
 On this social environment and the obligation of an Engineer, an attempt
is being made to maximise utilisation of manual labour keeping the machinery
element to the barest minimum, with more or less the normal establishment requiring
about 8 percent of the total expenditure. As it is, today with an annual outlay of
about ~.45 million the Project is serving the needs of about 6,000 labours and
1 ,000 families of the supervisory sta ff, disbursing about %.12 million. I n Case
mechanisation is intensified, labour component will reduce to ~.9 million thus
depriving 25 percent of the workers of their livelihood. Intensive deployment of
machinery might be speedy and economical but the need of the Society wCl.Jld remain
unfulfiled. Only Government can undertake such labour oriented jobs as no profi-
teering motive is involved. To this end, labour ori3nted departmental working
might serve as a boon to the Society.

158
 EGS ACTIVITIES ON JAYAKWADI, MULA, KUKADI
AND BHIMA PROJECTS IN
MAHARASHTRA
M. D DESHMUKH
Chief Englnf'er,
Irrigation Department, Maharashtra

General
Residents in the rural areas of the State are, in majority, dependent
on their small holdings upto 2 acres of land, which is mostly rainfed. for
earning their livelihood. Excluding the rainy season, they have no other jobs
to earn money. Experience indicates that late arrival of the monsoons upsets
the schedule and in such bad years, it becomes incumbent upon the Government
to provide employment in the rural area for enabling peQple to earn their bread
and butter. Starting scarcity works, in the past, for this purpose was a pheno-
menon 0 f common 0 ccurrence wi th a gap of about 3 to 4 years.

With a view to provide assured employment in the rural areas and as

a part of the 15 points programme formulateo for development of the State's
Economy J the Governme nt of Maha rashtra int rodu ced the Employment Guarant ee
Scheme in the year 1972. The scope of the scheme was brought under Statutory
Powers by the EG'5 Act 1976.

The Aim

The aim of the tmployment Guarantee Scheme is to provide employment,

gainful to the individual as well as to the community, to all able bodied adults,
in the rural areas, by providing unskilled manual work to thos~ who are in need
and are desirous of work. It extends to adults requiring work and who give such
a notice of demand for manual work. The participants, however, have no choice
of work and the area of work, which is generally provided within a radius of
5 km. The implementation of the scheme shall not adversely affect the onfarm
activitiee. and concurrently the Agricultural Produce. Productive works are
given priority, though at times, unproductive works like village roads, etc., in
hilly and inaccessible areas have to be undertaken in unavoidable circumstances.

I rri gation Projects

Plan outlay for Irrigation Projects occupy a prominent place in the

159
State's budget every year. With a view to exp~dite completion and to create
irrigation potential, implementation of the Employment Guarantee Scheme was
introduced since 1972. Though the scheme is in operation for ~'linor Irrigation
Schemes, Local Sector tvorks such as percolation tanks, etc. t the article covers
four Major Irrigation Projects in the State, for which a prominent role is
played by the Scheme.

THE JAyAKWADI PROJECT

The Project comprises of an earthen dam across the GOdavari River,

near Paithan in the Aurangabad District, and canals on both banks of the river.
The volume of earthwork involved in the dam was so large that the only mode
possible was to construct it with the fleet of machinery available with the
State. The canal works involved unskilled works like excavation and small
embankment for approaches at the nall~ crossings which were tackled through
the EGS. A length of .J.4 km in patches, involving deep cutting for the canal
was also tackled in the scheme. Canal excavation work for 82 km length of the
Paithan Right Bank Canal (50 to 132 km) was executed through the scheme.

Priority was assigned to this work as regards making local labour

available, and at times other works, though of productive nature, W6re
differed and labour to the required extent was obtained. Huge labour camps
have been established and these helped the labour to attend works punctually
and giving maximum possible tl,lrnout, which ultimately resulted in better daily
earnings (Figures 1 to 4)~

Table I below indicates the year wise labour potential created, the
turn-oer and the expenditure incurred on the scheme.

TABLE I Figures in lakhs

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year Mandays of Turn-over Exp e n di t u r e Remarks
employment
generated cum. Rs.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1974-75 5.51 1.64 19.66 (i) Daily average
1975-76 28.93 11.58 85.65 earning was Rs.3/-

1976-77 95.34 50~36 307.58 (ii) Some groups obtained

1977-76 74.16 - 35.'54 267.89 about Rs.6 / head/day
1978-79 49.50 6.65 195 34
-----------------------------------------~--------------------------------------
THE MULA PROJELT
The project envisated construction of an earthen dam at Baregaon
Nandur across the Mula River with canals on both the banks. Major part of the
 ,

FI GURE 1 Paithan Right Bank Canal

Cenal Excavation Work under EGS Dhondrai
Zone (6-11-1915).

fI GURE 2 Jayakwadi Project Stage-II Paithan Right Bank Canal

Canal Excavation Work under EGS @ Jategaon Zone
@J KM 91.

161
 FIGURE 3 : View ofPathri Ridge Cut (Deonandra Site)
@ km 145 of Paithan Left Bank Canal of
Jayakwadi Projact Stage - I. The depth of
this cut has gone beyond a record depth of
20 m. Date: 21/5/76.

fIG URE 4 View of Pathri Ridge Cut (Deonandra Site) @

147 km of Paithan "Left Bank Canal of Jayakwadi
Project Stage - I. Date 20/9/76.

162
 Project viz., the Mula Dam, Right Bank Canal 61 km long and the Left Bank Canal
18 km in length is completed in 1972 and irrigation on these canals is in a
,developing stage. The available labour strength is, therefore, being utilised
for construction of the Pathardi Branch Canal taking off from the tail end of
the Right Bank lanaI. Out of its total length of 43 km work on the branch
canal and distribution system for the first 25 km length is in progress. About
2,uoO labourers are working on the Pathardi Branch Canal.

In addition, the following labour intensive works are being tackled

under the scheme

(i) Remodelling the Left and Right Bank LanaIs for entire length.
(ii) 5trengthenin~ distributary banks.
( iii) Improvement of service roads of the canal.
(iv) Nala training and drainage works in the entire command.
(v) Earthwork of minors and sub-minors to reduce the chak size from
2uo Ac to 100 Ac.
(vi) Tree plantation along the canals.

EGS has been implemented on the Project since 1974 and the details
of achievements are given in Table II

TABLE II All figures in lakhs

---------------------------------------- .-------------------------~-------------
Year Mandays of
Exp endi ture Average daily
emp loyment
generated earnings.
Nos. Rs.

1974-75 0.17 0.~4 3. 30

1975-76 3.43 15.11 4.40
1976-77 6.10 18.34 2.60
1977-78 6.76 21.09 2 .. 85
1978-79 11.01 51. 05 4.65

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE KUKA0I PROJECT

The project comprises of five dams, viZ., Yedgaon Dam (Kukadi

R1ver), Manikdoh Dam (Kukadi River), Dimbhe Dam (Ghod River), Wadaj Dam
(Meena Hiver) and Pimpalgaon Joge Dam, (Ar River). The canals taking off
therefrom are as follows:
 ( i) Kukadi Left Bank Canal 253 km
( ii) Dimbhe Right Bank Canal 72 km
(iii) Dimbhe Left Bank Canal 55 km
(iv) Ghod Branch of D L B C 12 km
( v) Meena Branch of D L B C 40 km
(vi) Meena Feeder canal 14 km

A total area of 1,09,750 ha will be benefi ted by this complex.

The present updated cost of the project is Rs.1203.8 million.

For similar reasons as for other projects, the dam works are
being executed through contractors or with the help of the fleet of heavy
earthmoving machinery available with the State, in case of earthen dsns.

Works under the scheme are in progress for the last two years
on the different canal systems. On an average about 6,000 labourers are
working on the project.

The achievements on the project are given in the Table III.

TABLE III All figures in lakhs

Year Mandays of Turn over Expenditure Average daily

employment rate
generated cu m Rs.
Nos.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1978-79 2.24 2.13 14.59
) 16.3-00
1979-80 2.27 0.65 3.73
~----------------------------------------------------- ------------------------

THE BHIMA PROJECT

The project envisages construction of a composite dam across

the River Bhima, near village Ujjani in Solapur District and canals on both
the banks for irrigating 1,19,800 ha. of land in 7 talukas of Solapur District.
The Left Bank Canal and the Right Bank Canal are respectively 126 km and 121 km
long. The Begampur Branch off taking in 125 km of Ujjani Left Bank Canal is
34 km long and the Mohol Karamba Branch beYBnu Saundane Cut is 53 km and the
Kuru1 Branch is 27 km long. The latest updated cost of the project is 132
crores. Though the work was started in 1965, it actually gathered momentum in
the year 1984-B5.
164
 In order to make use of the large man power available in Solapur
District which is drought prone and pr~dominantly a scarcity area, employment
guarantee scheme has been in operation on this project since inception of the
scheme.

The scheme has mainly b.en in operation on canal earthwork for mandaI
unskilled component on the following items

(i) Excavation in soft strata.

(ii) ["luck removal of the hard strata removed by drilling and blasting
dep artmentally

(iii)Embankments of small sizes where material conveyance, generally

within a lead of 100 m by head-load is possible.

EG5 has been successfully operated on 226 km of main canal and about
65 km of branch canals and distributaries. The area of operation covers 6
talukas of the Solapur district benefiting more than 100 villages (Figures 5 & 6).

Table IV below indicates the yearly labour potential created, the

turnout and the expenditure on the scheme.

TABLE I V

-------------------------------~---------------------- --------------------------

Year Average Turn-out Expenditure Remarks

daily
labour
Nos. (Thousand cu m) (Rs. million)
------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------~--
1914-75 3963 514 1.233 more than
1915-76 182U 547 1.421 60 percent of
1976-77 14,930 4973 10.7BO the labour earned
1977-78 21,blO 4287 36. U32 wages about
1978-79 23,995 6491 23.98EJ R s. 3/ - per dey. ,
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
F ecili t i es:
The following facilities are provided to the labourers working
under the Employment Guarantee scheme.

(i) Drinking water is supplied to the labour with a special care ta

see thet adequate quantity is available at about lunch hours.
(ii) Sui~able sheds are erected at the work site for labourers to
take shelter for lunch time.
165
FIGURE 5 Labour ~orking on EGS ~orks on Begumpur Branch
of ULBC of Bhima (Ujjani) Project.

FIGURE 6 Labour Working on EGS Works on Begumpur Branch

of Ujjani left Bank of Bhima (Ujjani) Project.

166
 (iii)first_aid facility is provided with medicines of normal
requirement.

(iv} A female labour is assigned the duty of taking care of children

during work hours.

(v) Arrangement for shi fting injured or sick labour to the nearest
medical centre are ready at site of work.

(vi) Labour is paid in kind by distributing food articles under the

World Food Programme at subsidised rates as indicated below.

------------------------------------------------------ -----~----------

s1 Commodity Ration Subsidised

No Quantum price
per mand ay Rs.

1. Wheat 400 gm, o .75/kg

2. Butter oil 30 gm 7.50/kg
3. Milk powder 30 gm 7 .SO/k g
4. Edible oil 30 gm 6.uo/kg
-----~~----------------------------------------------- -----------------

Experience on the abo~e four major project indicates that the

canal works can best be expeditiously completed under the scheme and the huge
manpower utilised for creating useful employment. Further improvement could be
achieved by supplementing the labour by transporting equipment.

While preparing the blue prints, generally prepared by the District

Planning and Development Council, preference to the works which would create
employment en a permanent basis, after comp~etion of the work under the scheme,
should be given, otherwise a tendency on part of the labour to depend solely on
the Government for providing employment would develop.
Concludingly it can be said that the Employment Guarantee Scheme
launched by the Government of Maharashtra has attracted considerable attention
allover the country particuiarly because of its impact on the economic condi-
tions of the weakest section of the community. The scheme haS been effectively
in operation since last seven years. It is constantly under review and exami-
nation with a view to achieve the objective in a quicker and better manner.
The system of disbursing wages to the labour directly has eliminated
the middleman and the entire turn out goes to the labours' credit. Weekly
payment of wages has reduced the tendency of labour to approach lwcal money
lenders which has resulted in reduction in exploitation of labour. As male and
female labour are paid equally, it has ensured financial freedom to some extent
to the female labourers.
EG5 has thus created a greater impact on social life particularly
in rural areas.
167
 SRISAILAM HYDRO
POWER PROJECT

SRI M. L. SWAMY
Chief Engmeer. (ProJects)
Srisallam ProJect. Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION

The Srisailam ftydro Power Project, named after the sacred place
called "SRISAILAM", is under construction across the river Krishna, one of the
major rivers in the peninsula India. Essentially intended for hydro power
production, the project provides for irrigation and drinking water supply also.
It comprises of a dam across a narrow gorge, a water conductor system, a power
house and a tail race system.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS ADOPTED

India and especially Andhra Pradesh state, being endowed with a

huge unskilled and semiskilled labour force, a systematic labour intensive
technology has been adopted in the construction of the 5risailam P~oject.

But, as th~ project is a highly complex one, it has not been possible to constr-
uct the project with purely labour intensive technology. Nor was it feasible
or desirable to completely mechanise the works, to solve the complex problems
problems of construction. Hence in the construction of the 5risailam Project,
a happy blend of both the labour intensive techniques and the mechanised
techniques is adopted, which has suited the local conditions and also had given
good dividents.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The Krishna River drains a catchment of 2,06,030 sq km upto the

dam site and 2,48,448 sq km up to its confluence with the sea. The annual
rainfall in the catchment ranges from 635 mm to 1016 mm, most of which occurs
between June to October. The maximum flood observed in the river at the dam
site is 30,245 m3 /sec.

The dam site is about 200 km South East of Hyderabad city, the state
capital of Andhra Pradesh. The dam is of straight gravity type having an overall
168
length of 512 m at its road level, at El. 214.32 m and stands 144 m high,

above its deepest foundation level. The Spillway with its crest level at EI.
252.9Smwill be provided with 12 Nos. of radial crest gates of size 16.29m x
16.16m and is designed for a discharging capacity of 37,360 m3 /sec (1.32 million
cft/sec) •

Two river sluices of size 3.66mx 3.96 m with discharging capacity

3
of 1014 m /sec are located in the right flank blocks adjacent to the spillway
for the river flow diversion during the construction stage and as irrigation
outlets ultimately.

The total volume of rubble masonry/concrete required to be placed

in the dam will be about 2 million cubic metres.

The water conductor system comprises of an intake,. a 140 m long and

15 m diameter tunnel to carry 1000 cumecs at a velocity of 5.65 m/Sec. Seven
penstock tunnels of 6.09 m diameter partly steel lined and partly concrete
lined, take off from the main tunnel at 45 0 downward inclination. The Power-
House is designed to house seven generating units of 110 M.W. each coupled to
francis Turbines of 1,70,000 B.H.P. The tail race system comprises a tail
race tunnel followed by an open channel. The project is in an advanced stage
of construction and the first unit is programmed to be commissioned by June,1980.

The diversion arrangements consist of a 9.14 m diameter tunnel to

carry 566 m3/s&~ a diversion channel to carry 28Jm 3 /sec and two calcrete
coffer dams to isolate the deep river course area of dam foundations.

DAM CONSTRUCTION

Choice of Masonry or Concrete Dam

Being a high dam across a narrow gorge, it was orginally planned to

build the dam in concrete adopting mechanisation. But suitable equipment
required for concrete placement was not readily a vailable. Waiting till such
time the machinery is imported WaS considered undersirable as it would delay
the starting of dam construction. Construction operations were, therefore,
propos ed to be started resorting to rubble masonry construction without 100 ing
time. Just then, the work on the Nagarjunasagar dam across the same river about
160 km downstream was also getting completed and it came in handy that-a good
number of masons and workers experienced in masonry dam construction were
available readily. Engineers had also gained lot of confidence and experience

169
in rubble masonry construction, as the major dams constructed in the country
had not shown any signs of distress. The technique of rubble masonry laying
in dams was also prefected. It was also felt that the labour oriented technique
would create vast employment potential. It was, therefore, decided to build
the dam in rubble masonry and raise till such height beyond which rubble
masonry construction would become difficult and un-economical (Figure - I).

Construction Operations of Dam

The construction operations on the dam started during 1967-68

with very meagre construction equipmento A batching plant, a few dumpers,
a couple of cranes and bulldozers, were procured from other projects of the
countryfor doing about 400 cu m of masonry every day_ Despite teething troub-
les, a considerable headway could be made in the construction operations with
this machinery.

In the initial stages, the construction operations usually started

during the month of November, when the river flows dwindle down to within
the diversion capacity of about 283 cumecs (10000 cusecs). Approaches were
formed first for providing access to the site of work, and for obtaining a
platform to stock the quarried rubble. A shovel dumper unit waS deployed for
the job as approaches had to be formed in about a weeks time. Application of
machinery for this job was inevitable as no human force could have hCfldled
such mammoth quantities of earth work in such short durations.

Material Feeding for Masonry Construction

(a) Rubbeb Quarried rubble of size of about 0.03 cu m is

transported from about 5 Kms. distance from e number of quarry points through
trucks and stocked as close to the work site as practicable. Rubble is carried
from the stock pile to the actual site of placement by stone carriers called
"JAWALI LABOUR". As they have to carry heavy stones, to heights upto 30 m
through tortuous paths on the wooden scaffolding, they do the most strenuous
part of the job in the entire operation of masonry building. These "JAWALIS"
carry rubble in groups of either two, four or six people. Two to four stones
with a steel chain are slung to bamboo poles and are carried on their
shoulders. stones weighing about 100 km, are usually carried by two people
called "DOWALIS". Slightly bigger stones weighing about 200 to 250 kg. are
normally carried by a group of four people called "CHARWALI5" who has come to
be known as a "JAWALI". Much bigger stones weighing about 300 to 400 kg are
carried by a group of six people called "CHEWALIS".

170
FIGURE 1 Geno:ral View of the Srisailam Dam under Construction

fIGURE 2 "JA~AlI"Group Carrying Rubble on the Scaffolding.

171
 On an average, a "Jawalitt group will make five to six cycles per
hour over an average lead of 60m and a lift of 20m. In a shift of eight hours,
each group will transport about 3 to 4 cu m of rubble (Figure - 2).

(b) Cement Mortar: In the earlier stages of construction cement

mortar was transported from the Batching plant through trucks and unloaded up
on platforms at vantage points from where it was conveyed by head loads in
iron mortar pans (Gamelas) in small quantities weighing about 10 to 12 kg
to the site of placement. Women labour are USUally engaged on this aperation
(Figure -3).

Scaffolding: Bamboo scaffolding is used to carry rubble and mortar

from the platforms to the top of dam blocks by "Jawalis" and mortar carriers.
It consists of a 2.5 to 3.0 m wide inclined walk ways made of solid bamboos
of 25mr.: dia., nailed to 100mm dia., hard-wood runners, 1.5m apart. 75 mm
diameter wooden pieces are introduced in the walk ways in between the bamboos
at 500 to 600mm centres to provide firm foot grip to the workers walking with
load.

These walk ways are supported on 125mm diameter solid core wooden
posts fixed at about 2m centres to 100mm dia. horizontal runners. These
runners rest on M.5. brackets embedded in dam masonry along the rear face of the
dam.

The entire supporting structure is braced with wooden ballies

(country-wood posts) to make i t rigid. IZmm diameter bolts and nuts are used
at the joints. These walk ways are erected at about ZOo inclination with suit-
able landings provided for every 6m lift and they are dog legged. 5uitable
wooden hand railing is also provided. Such bamboo scaffolding can be erected'
upto 50 to 60 m height (Figure - 4).

Rubble Masonry construction Carts

Experience has shown that one mason will be able to build about 10 cu
m of masonry per day of eight hours shift, with the material fed from a lead of
60m and a lift of ~Om.

The infrastructure required for constructing 10 cu m of rubble mason-

ry is detailed below to have a proper appraisal of the labour oriented technique.

172
fIGURE 3 s Women Labour Engaged in Transporting Cement
Mortar in Iron Mortar Pans.

fIGURE 4 :The Scaffolding Arrangements Made on the Rear

face of the Dam for Transporting Rubble and
Masonry.

173
 (i) "Jawalis" 3 groups of 4 people plus one extra for setting the
stones in heaps 0 n t he platform before t hey are card ed by the

Jawalis. Wage is Rs.13 per head per B hours shi ft.

(ii) 1/2 stone dresser to remove the weathered skin etc. on the
platform. Wage Rs.13 per head per eight hours shift.
(iii) 10 mortar carriers plus 2 women labour for filling the pans
(each mortar carrier will be able to make 150 to 200 trips in
a eight hours shift). Wage per mortar carrier Rs.5.50 per
head per eight hours shi ft. 5mall incentives are paid fo~'

carrying more number of pans.

(iv) Two packers for packing with spalls into the mortar.
Wage Rs.5 0 50 per head per B hours shift.
(v) One person for cleaning the residual mortar. Wage Rs.6 per
head per B hours shift.
(vi) 1/4 operator for air water jetting of the old surface before
commencing masonry. Wage Rs.ID per head per shift of 8 hours.
(uii) Petty supervision 1/2 person. Wage Rs.IO per head per shift
of 8 hours.
(viii) Manufacture of rubble required for 10 cu m of masonry will cost
about Rs.60
(ix) Transport charges per 10 cu m will be Rs.105
(x) Explo~ives and Hire charges for jack hammer etc. for quarrying
rubble will cost As.lDO per 10 cum.
(xi) Cost of rubble masonry including cost of cement mortar would be
~.185 per cu m.

Free hutting, water~ lighting, and medical aid will be provided to

the 1 abour (Figure - ~.

Semi Mechanisation of Masonry Construction

In the following years, as the dem blocks started rising, the mode
of supply of mortar was changed from time to time, to suit the particular
situation and convenience. Conveyor belt system had the unique flexibility
in its adaptation and therefore was extensively used for mortar transport
( Fig ur e - 6 )•

At the junction of surplusing blocks and non-overflow blocks on

right side, where erection of scaffolding waS not possible, a mono tower was
erected to supply mortar and rubble (Figure - 7 ) •

As the tempo of wcrk increased further and the blocks were rising
174
FIGURE 5 : Rubble Masonry Construction - Stones Being
Set in the Cement Mort~r.

FIGURE 6 ~ General View of Rubble Masonry Construction on

Dam Blocks with the Conveyor Belt Arrangement
for Transporting the Cement Mortar in the Beck
Ground.
175
higher and higher, scaffolding arrangemen~s had to be done more elaborately.
It is our experience that for lifts beyond 30m, mortar and rubble supply
platforms had to be shifted to higher elevations to limit the lift, since
carrying mortar and rubble over excessive lifts will be hazardous and slows
down the pace of construction considerably.

Mechanisation for Concrete

During 1974, a review of the entire operation waS made when i t waS
decided to switch over to concrete from the conventional rubble masonry for
spillway blocks and continue rubble masonry in the non-overflow blocks.

The entire concreting operations were then completely mechanised.

~ stone crushing complex consisting of a main crushing plant having 300 tonnes
per hour capacity and supplementary crusher of 70 to 80 tonnes per hour capa-
city together with a screening plant waS erected for manufacture of aggregate.
A refrigeration plant for pre-cooling the aggregates and a Winget Batching
plant were also erected. Two cableways of 13 tonnes capacity each were also
erected for transportation end placement of concrete in 4 and 6 cubic yard buck-
ets. These installations are designed for laying about 500 to 600 cu m per shift
of 8 hours.

In the earlier stages of their operation, there were many teething

troubles and the dasired out turn could not be achieved. There were frequent
break downs in the equipment. All these troubles are overcome now (figure -8~

CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS IN TUNNELS

Head Race Tunnel

The construction operation of the 15m diameter (finished) Power

tunnel is entirely machine oriented with very little labour component.

Drilling of blast holes waS done with jumbo mounted pushers and
jack hammers. Mucking operations on the entrance wide were done with tip-
tubs of 1 cubic yard capacity running on tracks, hauled by Simplex locos.
Loading into tip tubs was either done manually or with 1.5 cft capacity
pneumatic loaders. On"the exit side mucking was done with dumpers or 7Y2
cubic yards capacity, and loading was done either with bigger size loaders
or a showel.
The operations for concrete lin-ing consisted of mixing at the
weight batching plant, transportation by agitator cars hauled by locos on
tramway lines, pumping by a pneumatic placer and vibration by electrical vibra-
tors. Although the operations were mechanised, certain items like loading of

176
FIGURE 7 : Mono Tower Crane Being Used for Transporting
Rubble and Cement Mort.,r.

FIG URE 8 : Side V iew of Srisailam Dam as Seen From Left

Flank with the Intake Structure in the Back
Ground and the Concrete is being Laid by
Cable \·Jays.

177
aggregates into the bins, washing of aggregates, preparation and cleaning the
areaS before concrete placement were done manually.

Penstock Tunnels

Seven Penstock tunnels of 6.096m diameter (finished) take off from

the tunnel at 45° inclination and run for a depth of 65m and then run horizon-
tally for a length of about 85 m. They are partly steel lined and partly
concrete lined.

full face excavation was done from t he tunnel side and the muck was
hauled up with winches mounted on plat-forms and unloaded into dumpers of 7Y2
cubic yards capacity.

To speed up the construction, excavation was done from another face

opened in the horizontal portion of penstock. Muck was lifted by wi nches
through shafts in tip tubs and hauled away manually. Loading is done either
with 1.5 cft loaders or manually.

The concreting operations are just similar to the operations in head

race tunnel, excepting that in the inclined portions concreting is done by
chuting. 5 hop fabricated steel ferrules were lowered into the penstock tunnels
by winches.

T ail-race Tunnel

The tail race tunnel runs parallel to the river flow and is located
at • depth of 35m below the average ground level. Two construction shafts are
provided initially for lifting the muck and ultimately to serve as surge shafts
to dumpen the fluctuations in the tunnel. Even here, the muck is loaded into
the tip tubs and lifted by means of winches through the shafts and hauled
away manually on tramway lines.

POWER HOUSE

The Power House had to be receded and pushed into the hill side so
as to obtain a steadier flow conditions at the tail race. It is semi under-
ground, involving cutting of hill slopes for about 100 m depth from [1.245 to
El. 146.

Stripping of hill slopes from El. 245 to El. 187 was done by op en
excavation and mucking was done by tip tubs hauled on track lines by manual
178
labour. Loading into the tip tubs was also done manually.

The above method of mucking was continued limiting the lift to 6 to

10 m and there after through motor operated winches (Figure - 9 ).

In the initial stages, mucking was done with "PALk\MURI" labour which
has specialised in handling rock muck. They work for eight hours continuously
from 6.00 AM to 2.00 PM. Their out-turn will be 1/2 to 3/4 cu m per head in
a eight hour shift.

A 5 tonne capacity tower crane having 40m reach was also erected
for mucking operation. Mucking from the POI"ier House pit is done partly by
the tower crane and partly by winches. In both the operations loading into
the buckets is done manually. Loading with loaders is not preferred due to
the space limitations inthe pit. It was possible to muck about 100 cum per
day of eiJht hours shift with the tower crane and four winches. Even here a
combination of machinery and manual labour is found to suit very well under the
prevailing circumstances and also proved to be economical (Figure - 10 ).

OUR EXPERIENCES

In the labour oriented technique, the work is rather slow compared

to the work with the machine oriented technique. Elaborate infrastructure has
to be created in the former case to streamline the operations. Amenities to
the labour will have to be provided on a large scale. Since, a large labour
force is involved in the labour intensive technique, frequent l~bou~ unrest
cannot be avoided. Multiplicity of labour unions in the project has resulted
in loss of more number of mandays due to strikes and agitations. On the other
hand in the machine intensive technique, trouble free equipment is required to
prevent break-downs. It is often seen that the entire work will get stalled
if a link misses in the chain of operations in t he mechanised system. In many
a case constly machinery had become immobilised due to various factors both
on the operational and the personnel side. Due to the dearth of trained
personnel and handling of unfamiliar equipment, expected results could not be
achieved.

co NCLU5I ON

The various operations at Srisailam Project have clearly indicated

that certain degree of mechanisation is no doubt advisable to ensure rapid
execution. It has been however proved that aiming at excessively rapid

179
 FIGURE 9 Winches used for Mucking Operations of the
Power House Pit.

FIGURE 10 tGeneral View of the Power House Building under

Construction - Showing t~e Erection of Scroll
Case for Unit No.1. The Tower Crane is also
Seen in the Back Ground.
160
construction by resorting to too high a degree of mechanisation is un-dependable
since handling of unfamiliar equipment will lead to frequent break downs.
Excessive mechanisation no doubt results in lesser numbers of workmen. But
the few workmen, manning the strategic equipment, like batchin g plant, cooling
plant, crushers, cableways etc., will always keep the employer at ransom,
with their frequent strikes and go slow tactics to press their unreasonable
demands. Thus the very object of going in for mechanisation to expedite the
works, is vitiated. Judicious application of machinery to the extent available
with a blend of labour oriented technique will yield better results.

181
 SRISAILAM DAM
CONSTRUCTION

R. C. RAO
Managing Director.
A. P. State Construction Corporation Hyderabad

In the first few years there were numerous problems like foundation
problems, problems of coffer dam and river diversion arrangements, paucity of
funds, etc. The work is now in full swing and is in advanced stage of
construction.

The total quantity of dam masonry and concrete involved in the

construction of dam is 1.869 M cum (66M eft). Initially the construction of
dam blocks in the deep channel portion and to some extent on the right side
ledge have been taken up by entrusting it to the private contracting agencies
and also Andhra Pradesh State Construction Corporation ltd., (A State
Government Undertaking) on yearly contracts. The Department used to supply
mortar from a central batching plant and raising of masonry including
quarrying and conveyance of the required rubble and face stone was being
carried out by the contractors. Thus a quantity of 0.6584 M cu m (23.253 M cft)
was done on yearly contracts leaving a balance quantity of 1.2106 M cu m
( 42. 747 M cft).

Subsequently, in order to expedite the completion of the work, it

was decided by the Government in October, 1975 to call for tenders for the
entire balance portion of the dam structure and entrust the Same to a single
agency with time schedule. It was also planned to construct the central
blocks in concrete with cableways and the flank blocks in masonry, and complete
the work within 3Y2 years. Before adopting cableways as the only alternative
for lifting of the construction materials, in lieu of the conventional
scaffoldings and monotower cranes. the techniques adopted at other major dam
sites were also studied and comparative costs also were worked out. The
decision was naturally in favour of mechanisation to suit the topography of
the dam site where much space is not available, apart from the idea of tackling
the whole work by labour intensive method having been discarded on merits
discussed hereunder.
182
 Masonry work requires abundance of labour force. The area available
on the flanks and on the downstream is very much limited. The maximum work
that can be done in the working season was estimated to be around luOO cum
to 1100 cum. The working season starts from February or at the most sometime
in mid January to middle of May and the working days will be 90 days only and
floods are expected in last week of Mayor early June every year. In these 90
days the low level blocks which are surplusing blocks have got be raised, and,
only at a maximum rate of llOO cum per day, they can be raised owing to the
limited working space available for a dumping rubble and mortar etc. The same
problem will arise even for the flank blocks which are to be raised during lean
seasons. It was thus estimated that it would be possible to do at the most
1100 cu m in summer and 700 cum in rainy season and at this rate it would take
more than 7 years for successful completion of the dam.

Another difficulty is that all the labour cannot be shown work inthe
monsoon season if the man power requirements are complied with for 2,000 cum
per day. This was also, mechanisation on a large scale has got to be relied
upon so that the work can be completed within 4 years and thereby economising
the cost.

For non-mechanised method of construction, every year, huge earth

platforms are to be constructed in the river bed from where the wooder. scaffol-
dings have to be erected and raised. As the dam goes higher and higher, the
difference in height of dam from bed level to the top being 110 m and more, it
will be very monotonous and uneconomical to have conventional scaffoldings which
encroach upon the little working season available for construction, besides
retarding the rate of progress, due to delay in handling the stones by Jawalis
and also rehandling of the mortar even if it is dumped at one point by conveyor
belt system. Also, due to too much height, the lifting charges, become very
heavy which reflects on the overall cost of masonry. Further, it is in-human
to lift heavy loads of stone and mortar to such great height and it becomes very
slow. Normally scaffolding will be economical up to about 100 ft height.

Further, the scaffoldings have to be erected at the beginning of each

seaSon and removed at the end of each season before floods.

It was thus decided to go in for cableways for concreting the dam

central blocks after considerable deliberations.

For maes concreting on the dam, in addition to cableways for

183
handling the concrete on the dam blocks, aggregate crushing plant, refrigera-
ting plant (to cool down the ingradients of concrete except cement 50 that the
heat of hydration developed in the concrete is taken care of) and batching
plant are also required. The salient features of the cableways and the concre-
ting plant are briefly described below:

Ct1.EL EWA YS

Two cableways were supplied by Mis Usha Breco Ropeways, Calcutta.

The contract includes design, manufacture, supply and erection. The main
features of the cableways are as follows. They are of the standard radial
travelling type with the following specifications.

Span 710.84 metre's

Working hook load 12.9 tonnes
Traversing of load 360 m Iminute
Hoisting of loads 90 It

Main A.C. Motor 550 E.H.P.

Travelling speed of
tail car 7.5 m/minute
Cycle time average is 3 minutes (approx.)

There is a fixed head mast tower on the right flank hill and a mo~ng

tail car on the left flank and the cableways work between these two towers.
The tail car runs on a track. All operations are done electrically and
controlled from a single operation cabin on the right flank. There are auto-
matic electronic controls for checking the faults. The entire operational
sequence of the cableways can be studied by the operator at the control room
by indicators and meters to check current, voltage, speed and faults in the
circuit etc. Concrete is transported to the exact work spot with the help of
cableways by means of 6 cubic yards capacity concrete buckets, directions being
given by a telephone system (figures 1 and 2).

300 T.P.H. CRUSHING PLANT

To meet the requirement of the broken metal for placement of concrete

on the dam blocks, it has been necessary to purchase a crushing plant. The
300 T.P.H. crushing plant was sup~lied by MIS Sayaji & Co., Baroda including
underground conveyor system and conveyor structures. The total H.P. of the
plant is about 850.

184
 fIGURE 1 : Srisailam dam construction - view looking upstream -
cableways used for concreting'- mono tower crene is
used for lifting rubble end ",ertar for masonry work.

fIGURE 2 Srisailam dam construction - concreting in progress using -

cableways.

185
 The aggregates are crushed in the following proportions:

6" to 3" 60 T.P.H. 2010

3" to lY2" 45 " 15%
lY2to 3/4" 42 " 14%
3/4 to 3/8 tt 61 " 20%
3/8 to 3/16" 46 " 16%
(- ) 3/16" 44 " 15%

300 T.P.H. 100%

The plant consists of the following crushing units.

CHI\NNEL - 1 CHf\NNEL - I I

Primary Jaw Crusher - 1 No. Secondary Jaw Crusher - 2

900 mm x 600 mm (36" x 24") Nos. 750 mm x 375 mm
150 T.P.H. (30" x IS") 50 ToP.H.
each.

Cone crushers - 2 Nos.

for recirculation to
obtain aggregates of
40 mm and below.

The crushed material from secondary jaw crushers and cone crushers are
conveyed to screening plant through conveyors 2 and 3. The screeing plant has
(i) two vibrating screens each having 75 and 40 mm operative apertures and
(ii) two vibrating screens each having 20, 10, and 25 mm operative apertures
whereby the aggregates from 6" to (-) 3/16" are conveyed to different stock
piles through conveyo;rs. The approxima te capacity of each stock pile is BOO

tons each.

The screening plant chutes have been desi~ned by providing gates and
trolleys (shuttle-chutes) so that the 6" metal and 3" metal can be diverted
for recirulation to cone crushers as. per the demand or when 3" - 6" stock piles
are full.

The plant is designed in two channels so that one channel can give the
production in the event of break down of machinery in the other channel(Figure 3).

166
 300 T.P.H. CRUSHING PLANT

AT SRISAILAM DAM.

ALTERNATE
PLANT fEED
PRIMARY
8UNCKER
DIRECT FEED
JOO mm(12')

1 APPRON 150 TPH

SECONDARY
C~~,' FEEDER
CON'NOs 20 HP.
900 X 2,500

A B C

APPRON.
fE EOERS CON'. NO.4
RECICULATION
+40 + 7S
~.r--;-L .J"1I.. .J1l. .f2I.. .J2L (150 XHOO) ('00 X 2,500)
~' ~ ~ ~. 'L..:.J' ~ 10HP ZOHP.

Vl8RA TlN6 SCREEN 2 NOs.

75 X 40mm.

888888 2S HI'.

JAW CRUSHERS C ONE CRUSHERS.

tJ VIBRATING SCREEN Z.NOI.
JCl ec, 1100 P 14_...20 Xl0X Smm.
750 X 375
JO'X 15' 1Z 15 HI'
JCl eCl } 115 HP E "CH , 10
'0 HP
E"CH.
~
JC] • 1 15
JC,
} SPa Sf's ~.J
II SP, 1 SPZ 1fSP,

PRIM"RY, 900 X 600 (],"X z()

7SH.P.
~~ ~~~
CRUSHING PLANT COHo NO 21 Rt;LL"IM11N~ TUNNEL CONYfYOR.
MA TERIAL FLOW CHART
will be hauled by loco to the point of cableway, for hoisting and delivering
on the block.

CONCLUSION

Concreting of the Dam is being carried on round the clock using cableway,
and highly mechanised operations. Excellent quality of work and high speed of
pl.cement are maintained. Altogether a total quantity of 8,47,660 cu m of
masonry and concrete has been completed out of the contract quantity of
12,10,600 cu m •

It may be seen that the labour element of this gigantic work is in the
order of 15 percent the component of machinery and materials being 65 percent.

190
 300 T.p.H. CRUSHING PLANT

AT SRISAILAM DAM.

ALTERNATE
PLANT FEED
PRIMARY
BUNCKER
DIRECT FEED
300 mm(I2")

! APPRON 150 TPIl

SECONDARY FEEDER
20 HP.
900 X 2,500

A B c
APPRON
FEEDERS
CON'. NO.4
1 2 REtiCULATION
+40+ 7S
~.r;--L ~ ~ ~ .J"21-. (7SOX1SOO) "DOX2,500)
~'~ ~ 'L..:....J~ 'l...:....S ~ 10HP 10HP.

VIBRATIN6 SCREEN Z NOs

75 X40mm.

888888 25 HP.

~--=-==- CON.NOZ
.. --=

JAW tRUSHERS CONE CRUSIfEAS.

VIBRATING SCREEN Z.NO•.
Ct, 1100 ~
750 X 315
14 _..20 X 10 X 5""".
JCI } 30'X 15' 12 25 HP
JC2 40 HP tCz .} 125 HP EACH • 10
EACH. , 1 15
~ Ll
JC3 • 13
JC4
,~ .. ~ ~'" .~ "',
PRIMARY' 900 X 100 (31'X H')
'5H.P.
~~~ ~~~~,=zo
CRUSHING PLANT CON. NO 21 REtLAIMING T UMMEL tOHVEVOR.
MA TERIAL FLOW CHART
 AGGREGATE CaOLING PLANT

According to the specifications, the concrete when placed in the forms

shall have a temperature of nSlt more than 60 0 F for lifts upto five feet or the
maximum value as determined by concrete cooling studies and appropriate
measures to precool the aggregates and concrete mixes should be taken to attain
this requirement. To satisfy this requirement, a cooling plant of capacity 170
tons was purchased from M/s Voltas Ltd., who had deSigned, fabricated, supplied
erected, and commissioned the plant. The plant was designed for a concrete pour
of 100 units (100 cft units) in two shifts (each shift being 8 hours) or 300
tons/hour. The following are the temperatures to be maintained for different
ingredients in the stock piles before they are takan for refrigerated cooling
before batching.

Aggregates 80 0 f
Sand 105 0 f
Cement 120 0 F
Water 180 F

The mix temperature at the concrete mixers near the batching plant
is taken as 55·F, assuming that the temperature rise during the transit between
the mixing point and the point of placement will be restricted to 50'F so that
the placement temperature will not be more than 60· F.

For achieving a mix temperature of 55°F at the mixers, it is necessary

to cool the aggregate to 40 0 F by inundation with chilled water and also it is
necessary to cool the sand to 65°F and use chilled water for the mixing of the
concrete at 38 D f to 40 D f.

For this purpose, the aggregate and sand are passed through cooling
tunnel of length 368 ft which is completely insulated and cooled water of
3600 gallons per hour is made . available at the cooling tower.

The coarse aggregate and sand are drawn from the crushing plant stock
pile by a 250 tOnsper hour belt conveyor to a receiving bin with six compart-
ments of 60 tons each at the entrance of the fully insulated cooling tunnel.
The aggregates are inundated by chilled water of 45 D f (return water from the
cooling tunnel) continuously in the binE and this forms first p art a f the
cooling of the aggregates. The send is drewn from the crushing plant stock
pile by the same conveyor belt into the two chutes of the receiving bins. The
aggregates will be cooled over slow moving conveyors on which continuous spray
of water (J8° to 40 D F) is maintained. The sand also is conveyed over slow
188
moving conveyors and cooled by impingment of cold air, through ducting run
inside cooling tunnel.

The six conveyor belts (four Nos. for different sizes of coarse
aggregate and two Nos. for sand) are enclosed in the cooling tunnel. The
conveyors are maintained at a speed of 12 to 15 feet per minute so as to allow
sufficient time for inundation of the stones and cooling of the sand. The air
for cooling ~and is cooled is an insulated air washer (spray chamber) wherein a
spray of chilled water from the refrigeration plant is used for cooling the air.
Air from spray chamber is forced by mein coolers (fans) to the ducting inside
the cooling tunnel for distribution over the sand belt.

The first 260 feet of the conveyors is horizontal and the final lOB feet
is enclosed on a sloping bridge terminating on top of the batching plant so that
in the last lOB feet the water that has been used for inundation of the stones
drains back to the cooling tunnel.

The water for mixing (38° to 40°F) is piped form the refrigeration
machine to batching plant and the whole water formixing the concrete is taken
from here.

The total refrigeration load (for achieving the mix temperature of 55°F
it the mixer) works out 770 tons including losses and a plant with 5 Nos. of
chilling packages each 160 tons i.e., a total capacity of 800 tons is provided.
The total H.P. of this plant is about ~,700.

WINGET BATCHING PLANT

This bat ching plant consists of 4 mixers each of 3 cu.yd. capacity.

The total mixing capacity of the plant is 240 cu ,'yd per ttour. Taking Glie mixer
as a stand-by the working capacity of the hatching plant is lBO cu yd per
hour.

The v~riou. operations of starting and stopping of mixers, swivel chute

movement, spout operation, charging and discharging of aggregates, tilting of
mixers, etc~ are carried out from the operation panel board by manual 88 wall as
auto.methods.

The weight'betching is by means of a sophisticated electronic system.

The concrete mix collected in the wat hopper will be discharged into
6 cu yd buckets (air operated) and 3 cu yd buckets (manually operated) which
189
will be hauled by loco to the point of cableway, for hoisting and delivering
on the block.

CONCLUSION

Concreting of the Dam is being carried on round the clock using cableway,
and hiqhl~ mechanised operations. Excellent quality of work and high speed of
pl.cement are maintained. Altogether a total quantity of 8,47,680 cu m of
masonry and conc~ete has been completed out of the contract quantity of
12,10,600 cu m.

It may be seen that the labour element of this gigantic work is in the
order of 15 percent the component of machinery and materials being 65 percent.

190
 IDUKKI HYDRO-ELECTRIC
PROJECT

c. ETTY DARWIN
Member. Kerala State Electricity Board. Trivandrum

PROJECT - DESCRIPTION

The ldukki Hydro-electric Project is located in the Western Ghats,

80 km from Cochin Port,in the southern IIIOst I ndian State of Kersls.

The first stage of the project as completed at a cost of Rs.1150

million consists of three major dams, viz., the 169 m high Idukki Arch dam,
138 m high concrete gravity dam at Cheruthoni and 100 m high Kulamavu masonry-
cum-concrete gravity dam fo~ing the two billion tonnes capacity Idukki
reservoir, a water conductor system consisting of 2,027 m long Power Tunnel
and 993 m long Pressure Shaft and an underground Power House at Moolamattom
housing 3 Nos. 130 MW six jet palton wheels. The tail race system of tunnel
and channels carry the Idukki waters after power generation to Valier, a
tributary of Thodupuzha River in ~he Muvattupuzha basin.

T HE PRO JECT CONSTRU CTlON MANAGEMENT

The Kerala State Electricity Board was vested

, with the responsibility
of investigation, design and execution of the project. The organisational
set up of the Board for Idukki Project was evolved gradually and its final
set up during the peak period of construction was an unusual one.

The organisation was headed by the Chief Engineer, Civil, responsible

for all works including designs. He was ~sponsible for co-ordinating and
accelerating all works connected with the project execution. During the peak
period of work, there were 2 Superintending Engineers, 7 Executive Engineers,
about 50 engineers and 20 draughtsman working in the design office, handling
the design and contract administration of the works in Idukki Project. During
the peak period of construction, there was a Chief Engineer for the project
sanctioned at the project site assisted by 3 - Superintending Engineers.

191
 During the period of its construction, the project experienced an
unprecedented number of strikes and labour disputes, almost from the very
inception of the project works. The organisation had to be geared-up to handle
the situation. To proceed on with the work, the Government had to declare the
project area as a 'prohibited area' restricting entry into the work sites.
Considerable strengthening of the security arrangem~nt was required on the
account and security guards and police personnel had to be stationed in the
project in strength.

The persistent labour unrest and the numerous labour disputes necessita-
ted the stationing of a labour officer of the Government with his staff, in the
project site exclusively, throughout t he construction period.

The Canadian Government offered aid assistance for the project and a
appointed the Canadian firm of Engineering Consultants MIs Surveyer, Neniger
and Chenevert Irtc., as the consultants for Idukki Project. The Consulting Engi-
neers had their own group of expert engineers stationed in the project through-
out the construction period. Among them were specialists in survey, rock mechanic~
geology, dam construction, concrete technology, power house equipments, etc.
and they were stationed in the project at various times" dictated by construc-.
tion requirement.

PROJECT WORKS MANAGEMENT

All major works of Idukki Project were got done through contract agenc~
among them Mis Hindustan Construction Company, Bombay, were the contractors for
two of the major works, viz., the construction of Idukki arch dam and Cheruthoni
concrete gravity dam.

The construction of Kulamavu stone masonry dam was initially entrusted

with a local contractor. When this contract came to a standstill, Kerala State
Electricity Board took up the work directlN and· completed e portion of the work
as e stop-gap arrangement. Subsequently the work was arranged through a number
of small piece work contracts, mainly for labour supply, with essential mechanisa-
tion and other facilities arranged by the department. The pace of construction
under this arrangement also was not satisfactory and this affected the programme
for commencing partial storage in Idukki reservoir. At this stage the balanca
portion of the dam was arranged to be completed in concrete and the work wae
entrusted with MIs Hindustan Construction Company Ltd.,

MIs Giovanola Binny Ltd., were the contractors for fabrication and
erection of steel liners for surge shaft and pressure shaft. All other works,
192
major and minor, ware got executed through local contractors.

The Kerala State Electricity Board entered the scene to directly

execute the works, mostly when contractors entrusted with the works fsiled in
completing the works, Kulamavu dam construction was the first work so taken up,
as already mentioned. A mejor portion of the concrete lining of power tunnel elso
was carried out departmentally when the contractors found it difficult to carry
on with the work because of labour disputes. The excavation of surge shaft and
pressure shaft were taken up midway by the department when the contractore neglec-
ted the work and left the site. Excavation in Kulamavu channel was cerried out
by the department with men and machinery available with the depertment.

The project works were arranged through a number of contracts, both

major and small, the contract amounts ranging from a few thousand rupees to
crores of rupees. The number of contracts for which the contract allount exceeded
&.5 lakhs vas 83. A list works the contract amount of which exceeded &.10 million
is given below~
Name of work (ontroet amount
in million of Rupees

1• Construction of Kulamavu Masonry High Dam. 24.123

2. Construction of 169 II high concrete erch
dam acrosS Periyar (Idukki Dam) 59.902
Construction of concrete gravity dam across
River ~heruthoni (Cheruthoni Dem) 145, .000
4. Balance concrete works for the completion of
Kulemavu Dam 36.191
5. Construction of tail race tunnel and channel 11.200
6. Construction of mesonry and concrete in Kulamavu
Dam ~pto partial sto~age level. 13.210

Besides the above, the following were the major contractss-

1) Excavation of undarground po war house 6.563

2) Excavation of surge shaft, pressure shaft
and ancillary works 8.260
3) Erection of steel liners in pressure shaft 6.330
4) Construction of Intake tower 5.425
-
5) Concreting and allied works of under-ground
power house 7.065

193
 NlTURE OF MAJOR COM~ONENTS OF PROJECT WORKS WITH SPECIAL REfERENCE TO
MAXIMUM UTILISATION OF LABOUR

Before taking up the major works, communication facilities to the

project site had to be established, colonies constructed and water supply, power
supply and sanitation arrangements had to be ensured. Nearly 200 km of roads
had to be newly laid for the project and improvements were required to be carried
2
out to already existing roads. The project required nearly 1,85,000 m
(2 million sq ft) of covered area comprising nearly 1000 buildings to house
departmental construction personnel and their offices. These works costing about
~.15 million were almost fully labour intensive, employing mostly unskilled/
semiskilled local labourers and there was practically no mechanisation involved.
During the construction of roads and buildings, when the foundation excavation
of dams was also started, the labour strength increased to the peak figure
of about 15,000.

Construction of the 169 m high Idukki Arch Dam and 134 m high Cheruthoni
concrete gravity dam, involving concrete pours of 0.46 million m3 and 1.7 million
3
m respectively necessitated mechanisa~i~n to a considerabl~ extent in view of
the nature and magnitude of the concrete placement required to meet the desired
rate of progress and sophisticated technology involved. The only component work
for the two dams, where maximum utilisation of labour could be adopted was tre
foundation excavation for the dams. Since excavation with minimum mechanisation
re~uired longer period for completion, foundation excavation for the dams were

commenced sufficiently in advance of the targetted date of commencement of

concrete, on separate contracts to ensure maximum employment of manual labour.
All operations, other than excavation for foundation, like quarrying, aggregate
p~c •• sing, aggregate cooling, transportation, batching and mixing of aggregates

ane placement of concrete were mechanised to a very large extent. An analysis

h •• shown that the labour content was of the order of only 2.5 men/m 3 of concrete
for the construction of Idukki and Cheruthoni Dams.

The 0.416 million m3 Kulamavu Dam was initially conceived to be construc-

ted as stone masonry dam with the objective of maximum utilisetion of labour~
Considering the constraints on maximum out-turn obtainable by adopting labour
intensive stone masonry construction for the dam, construction of Kulamavu Dam
was commenced three years ahead of commencement of works of the other two dams
at Idukki and Cheruthoni. However, considsring the magnitude of the work and the
height through which the construction materials had to ba hauled, part mechanisa-
tion had to be resorted to. The mechanisation pattern adopted meinly comprised
a batching and mixing plant for manufacturing centrally controlled mortar, system
of cableways, cranes and winches for carrying rubble and mortar and crushers for
processing aggregates. The labour content with such part mechanisation is assessed
194
to be 7.14 men par m3 of stone masonry constructed. In spite of the essential
part mechanisation adopted, Kulamavu Dam was the single major work in the
Idukki Project with maximum potential for employment of manual labour. During
the peak period of construction a lebour force of about 2500 was dir~ctly
engaged in the construction activities.

Kulamavu Dam could not be constructed in stone masonry to the full

height as originally conceived due to extraneous factors. During the closing
stages of the Idukki project works, the daily out-turn of masonry construction
was falling for short of the targetted rate and Kulamavu Dam construction
became critical causing delay to the partial commissioning of the project
on the targetted date. To speed up the work, mechanised concreting wes
adopted in the plsc·e of masonry construction. ~bout 0014 million m3 of
concrete was so placed and Kulamavu Dam was completed as a part masonry and
part concrete dam.

The major works involved in tha construction of the water conductoz

system comprising the intake, power tunnel, control shaft, surge shaft, but . . . .
fly valve chamber and pressure shaft were· rock excavation end concrete and/er
steel lining. The quantum of rock excavation involved was of the order of
0.225 million .3, concrete lining 60,000 .3. Mechanisation was limited to the
posaible minimum for excavation works with a view to achieve maximum utilisation
of labour. For driving the tunnels, the Swedish method of drilling using light
drills and tungston carbide tipped steel and blasting by 'burn out' or 'wedge
cut' method was adopted. Tunnel muck was removed in manually hauled tripp in,
wagons to the extent possible and hauling by locos or dumpers was resorted to
only when the distance involved was considerable. Alimak Raise Climber wea
made use for driving the pressure shaft from the power house end. for other
portions of the pressure shaft drilling from temporary platform using light
drills was adopted. Self .ucking and haulage using tipping wagons were edopted.
For vertical shafts either haulage by winch or self mucking supplemented by
removal by tripping wagons/locos was followed.

For lining of the tunnels, reliance on equipments comparatively higher

than for driving steel formwork was used. Setting and stripping of form.work
was done manually. The aggregates were batched outside the tunnel, carried
inside the tunnel by locos and wagons, mixed near the formwork using mixers
and forced into the formwork through placer equipment. As far as the steel
lining of the shafts were concerned, shop fabricated steel liners were jointed
by welding at site.
195
 On the whole it can be stated that optimum utilisation of labour could
be achieved in the construction of the water conductor aystem of the Idukki
Project.

The major civil works involved in the construction of the underground

Power House were driving of the aCca8S tunnel, excavation of power house cavern,
l

rock bolting ,gunniting of roof, concrating of powsr house and formation of tha
switchyard. Total rock excavation involved was of the order of 1,25,000 m3• For
the power house cavern moat of the drilling was carried out using jack hammers
an'd airlegs. The mucking was done using loaders, shovels and Sicard dUlipers.
Manuel re.aval of the muck was not resorted to, ae the power house being an under-
ground one, the cavern floor was lower than ths access tunnel inlet and the
muck removal involved lift. The nat~re of work Was such that only minimum number
of labour could be employed and that too mainly skilled labourars, the maximum
labour strerigth being around 300. For the switch yard formation the labour
strength Was about 200 mainly 'unskillsd/semiskilled workers.

The tail- race system consisted of a tail race tunnel, tail- race channel
and a bye-pass channa! involving excavation in saJ:th of the order of 1,07,000 .3
and in rock of 2,04,000 .3. Topographical conditions and nature of work necessita-
ted greater reliance on equipments. Wagon drills, different types of loaders
shovels, dozers and dumpers for transportation of spoil wera used. A work of
this nature which ordinarily could have offered employment facilities to more
labourers, had to be carried out giving more reliance on equipments because of
time constraints.

CONCENTRATION Of WORK fORCE

The Idukki Project works wtre spread over a vast area mostly in interior
reserve forests, the headworks and power stations being located as far apart as
40 km. The major worke were concentrated around three stations, viz., Idukki,
Kulamavu and Moolamattom. This necessitated concentration of labourers and
supervisory personnel of the contractors as well as the department around thesa
three stations.

The labourers engaged in the construction of Idukki and Cheruthoni

Dams were accommodated in camps around Idukki. During peak period of construction,
their strength WaS around 4700. In Kulamavu araa the labourers employed in
the construction of KulamavuDam, intake structure and a portion of the power
tunnel from the inlet side were stationed. A labour force of about 3000 had to
be accom.adated in camps around Kulamavu When works were in full swing. In the
Moolamatto. camp, the labourers working in pressure shaft, power house cavern,
196
switchyard, tailrace tunnel and channels were aCCOIDIDOC1a'teC1 1n C11f-Terent callps,
their maxilDum strength being about 1000. In addition to the three major callps,
there were mini campa in betw.~n Kulamavu and Moolamattom at the Butt.rfly
Valve Chamber area and intermadiate adit (of the Preesure Shaft) area. About
300 labourers were camped in these mini camps.

Besides these, Board's personnel consisting of engineers, supervisory

and administrative personnel, operators, skilled workers and Nzdoors Wera
camped in 4 colonies cOlllprising nearly 1000 buildings, constructed at Idukki,
Painavu, Kulamavu and Moolamattom.

LABOUR PROBLEMS

The stationing of a vast labour force of thia magnituda drawn up

frOID different parts of the country possessing diverse cultural and social
backgrounds, creatad conditions conducive to interference by external .l ••ente.
Politically oriented trade unions started their activities aMOng the labourers
from the very beginning of the project works. Almost all political partiaa in
the State had their own trade union factions in the project. Their efforts
in establishing their hold over the work force inevitably reeulted in serious
inter-union rivalry and consequent clashes occasionally viol ant in nature. It
can be said that lIIultiplicity and inter-union rivalry of politically oriented
trade unions were two lIIajor factors which precipiteted serious labour proble.s
in Idukki Project.

Almost all the major works wera badly affected by frequent resort
to strikea, go slow tactics and agitations of labour and consequant stoppaga of
works by contractors. General labour indiscipline had seriously ha~arad tha
progress of the work. It is estimated that about 2.88 million man days were
lost in Idukki Project construction on account of labour strikes and co~sequent
stoppage of works.

The Government and project authorities spared no efforta to keep the

labour force contented. A Labour Officer of the Government with his staff was
functioning at the project site throughout the construction period. Prompt action
waa taken to settle the disputes which could not be solved locally by convening
high level conferences participating Ministers, top officials of Govern.ent
and the Board and repreaenta'ives of project labour.

To prevent exploitation of labour, a minimum wages notification was

isaued by the Government, whereby all the labourers of the project were assured
of a minimum wage. By anothar Governmant Order all th~ lebourers were given an
anhancement of ~.1 per day as additional daarneas allowance.
191
 When disputes arose between the contractors and their labourers regarding
payment of bonus and other benefits the project authorities and Government
intervened and many a crisis were averted. Retrenchment benefits were paid to
the labourers by the Board where the agreement with the contractors did not
provide for the same.

The problems of the workers were periodically discussed in the Industrial

Relations Committee. consisting of the representatives of the project authorities
and labour.

LABOUR REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKS

The adoption of labour intensive teChnology in the construction of the

different component works of the project is mainly dictated by considerations
of availability of labour. cost of construction, time constraints, nature and
magnitude of work involved. environmental impact, problems associated with the
concentration of a large labour force at the project site, etc. Considering
the conditions available in the country, it is indispensable that execution of
the project works are to be planned aiming at maximum utilisation of menual
labour subject to the constraints mentioned above.

While planning the execution of the Idukki Project works, the project
authorities have taken full cognizance of the above objectives and ensured
maximum utilisation of labour by adopting ,suitable construction methods. The
extent of labour participation that could be achieved in the construction of
the three dams have been assessed and relevant data is furnished belows

Statement of Labour Requirement for one m3 of Stone

Masonry Construction for the Hearting of Dam
With mechanised handling With manual convey-
of construction materials, ance of construc-
manufacture of crushed sand. tion materials with
mortar. crushed sand.
(a) Rubble at place of construc-
tion inclUding extraction
from quarry 2.126 3.460
Cb) Sand at Batching Plant 2.1754 2.1754
ee) Cement at Batching Plant 0.045 0.045
Cd) Mixing 0.0982 0.190
Ce) Conveyance of mortar to place
of construction 0.1522 0.425
(f) Constructing masonry including
all contingent items. 2.544 2.544
Total --.J,. ,14,~Mi.liiIeol.ln_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...:B:U'L.::B,-=4:....:.M.:.::e::.:.n:..-_
"°198
 It may be noted that the essential mechanisation adopted in the
construction of Kulamavu Da. reduced the labour content by only 1.7 men/m 3
of masonry.

L.abour Contsnt per 100 CIJ ft (2.832 .3) of Mass Concrete

(for Cheruthoni Dam of Idukki H.E.Project)
Iia!!-!i;...-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_p!.-;fi£~!~;_-_-_-_-_-_- _-_-_-_- _-_-_- _r.~b£u1--1--;Il~fr!J.;~."-;'i
__1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _2_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3_____ _

1. Opening of quarry 1.01

2. Blasting rock 0.42
3. Dozing rock 0.004
4. L.oading by power shovel 0.005
5. Transport of rubble from qUarry to
processing plant 0.07
6~ Aggregate processing 0.07
7. Transport of aggregates from processing
to batching and mixing plant. 0.004
8. Transport of cement 2.00
9. Conveyance of cement from store to batching
and mixing plant and storage of flyash. 0.05
10. Batching and mixing 0.03
11. Convayance of concrete from batching plant ~o
cableway. 0.02
12. Conveying concrete by cableway 0.09
13. Sand blasting, cleaning and curing 0.20
14. form work 0.l8
15. Placing concrete 0.02
16. Erection and dismantling o~ heavy machinery 1.65
17. Setting out 0.51
1B. Dewatering, storage, cement slurry repetriation,
etc. 0·13
Total ••• 7.063 Menl
100 cu ft.
OR 2.494 Men/m 3 of Concrete
--------------~------------------------
LABOUR STATISTICS

8.1 It ie essessad that man power involvement in the execution of

Idukki H.E. Project is of the order of 22.5 million mandays.

8.2 Figure 1 gives the details of the total personnel employed in

.11 phases of the project construction during the period from 1966 to 1977.
During the working season 1966-67 the work forca exceeded 10,000 and touched
199
a peak figure of 15,000 when along with full scale operation in the construction
of roads and buildings, preliminary and enabling works of ldukki and Cheruthoni
Dams. as also foundation excavation for the two dams were taken up. Masonry
construction in Kulamevu Dam as well as excavation works in the water conductor
system, power house and tail race system also were going on at that time.

Figure 2 gives an analysis of labour employed in different component

works of the project- ,'in a typical month to indicate generally the man power
involvement in each component work of the Idukki Project.

Out of about Rls.1150 million spent on the Idukki Project local wages
(wages, salaries and other benefits) to the personnel employed in the execution
ot' the project (including K.5.E. Board personnel) amounted to Rls.400 million
WhlCh works out to about 3S percent of the ·total cost.

CONCLUSION~

The guidelines for the adoption of labour intensive technology in the

different component works of Idukki Project were mainly dictated by considerations
of availability of labour, skilled and unskilled, cost of construction, time
restraints, nature and magnitude of work involved, environmental impact, problems
associated with the concentration of a large work force at site, etc.

While planning the execution of the project works these items of

works the execution of which offered scope for labour intensive techniqueswere
identified and appropriate construction methods were adopted. Such activities
were taken up for execution sufficiently ahead of other activities, considering
tha restrictions on maximum out-turn obtainable to ensure that they did not
become critical in the overall programme of execution of the project works.

The works of constructing of the road systems and colonies, costing

over ~.75 million were carried out with practically no machanisation and
utilising manual labour to the maximum possible extent. Commencement of these
works were advanced such that these works could be completed before commencing
the major component works.

In respect of Idukki and Cheruthoni Dams, the foundation excavation

was carried out with maximum utilisation of labour. These works ware arranged
on separate contracts aiming completion much ahead of the targatted dates of
commencing dam concrete.
200
 The more labour intensive stone masonry (with part mechanisation)
was preferred to concrete for the construction of Kulamavu Dam. The lebour
3
involvement thereby could be enhanced to 7.14 men/. 3 against 2.49 men/m
of concrete construction, anticipating additional employment opportunities
of 2.2 million mandays. Kulemavu Dam construction also was commenced 3 years
ahead of the construction of the other two dems.

In the construction of the water ~onductor system also reliance on

mechanical equipments wes limited to essentiel items. However, for forming
the power house Cavern end tailrace system the mechDnisation adopted Wes
of e relatively large extent.

Concentration of a large work force of nearly 15000 at the project

site during the peak period gave rise to many problsms. In spite of concerted
efforts on the part of the project authorities and Government to safeguard the
interest of the project labour, progress of works was often affected by strikes
and general labour indiscipline. Altogether 2.88 million mandays were lost in
the construction of Idukki H.E.Project due to strikes and consequent stoppage
of works.

201
 FIGURE I

20000 r---- ------ - ---------

15000 _. -
~
~
w
.
~
w
z
~IOO 00 ------ .- c------ ---

l';
~
w I
iz .000

~
i
00 III. III 1\ il il II
JFMAMJJ ASO N J FM A MJ J A S OND J F "'AMJ J 1.50 N 0 J F hi AMJJ A SO N J FMAM J J A SO"D J F M AMJ J A SOH 0IJ FMAMJ J ... S 0 ND J F M ... M J J AS 0 N D J F M A M J J A SON ~ J F M AMJ J ... S O"D J F M A M J J AS 0 N D J FM AM J J A SO N D
I
19 IS IS 1967 "S8 1969 1970 '971 f972 1973 1974 1975 1916 1977

IDUKKI H.E PROJECT-STATISTICS

OF PERSONNEL EMI'lOYEO FOIl
PROJECT EXECUTION·

------- _._- - - - .. - - .. _---- -

 NO. OF RERSONNEL PER DAY

.. CIt '"o '"..

8 8 8 8

IOUKKl DAM • • • • • •

GHERUTHOHI DAM _ - - - - - - - - - - -. .

KILAMAVU OAM _ _ _ _ _••IW

--.

WATER CONDUCTOR SYSTEM _ ••

POWER HOUSE ..

TAIL RACE SYS'IIM . .

....
5
c
:u
'"
I\)
 INTENSIVE MECHANISATION
ON WARNA DAM

M. D. DESHMUKH
Chief Engineer.
Irrigation Department Maharastra

warna Irrigation Project in the Maharashtr~ State is one of the

major irrigation projects, which envisages construction of a 76.5 m high and
840 m long zoned rolled fill earthen dam, the highest of its kind in the
State, across the River Warna, near the village Chandoli in Kolhapur District.
The Warna River flows along boundaries of the Kolhapur and 5angli Districts.
The project is a lift-cum-flow irrigation scheme benefiting 61,328 ha by flow
and 18,097 he by lift irrigation. The main canal of 63.64 m3/second takes_
off from the left bank and in the 26th km bifurcates into left bank canal and
the right bank canal. Right bank canal crosses Warne River through an
aqueduct near the village Khujgaon. The total length of canal is 348 km.

Construction of the dam involves quantities of earth work, concrete,

masonry, etc., as follows:

Earthen Dam Masonry Dam

( Figures in 10 5 cu m)

Excavation 9.545 (33.40 M cu ft) 6.324

(22.21M cu ft)

(ii ) Embankment 142.40

(521 M cu ft )

(iii) Masonry & Concrete 5.385

( 25 .08 M cu ft )

CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMME

This project is one of those six major irrigation projects in the

State which are posed to the World Bank for financial assistance, which is
likely to be made available from October 1979 onwards. The work on the project
was started from October 1976. The work of the earth dam is being executed
departmentally with the heavy earthmoving machinery operated and organised by
the Mechanical Organisation of the State.
 The earth dam is proposed to be completed by 1965-86 for which the
yearwise quantities of work to be executed are as follows:

Upto 1978-79 2.55 M cu m (90 M cu ft)

1979-80 2.07 M cu m ( 73 M cu ft)
1980-81 2.07 M cu m (73M cu ft)
1981-82 1. ~S M cu m OOM cu ft)
1962-63 2.18 M cu m (11 M cu ft) Gorge filling
Upto 1983-64 2.12 M cu m (15 M cu ft)
1984-85 1.27 M cu m (45 M cu ft)
1985-86 0.68'M cu m ( 24 M cu ft)

(527 M cu ft)
Total 142.3 M cu m

It is proposed to complete the dam work, in all respects by 198~-87.

CONSIDER~TION fOR MANNING OF E~RTH wORK

The working area for the construction of the dam is very much restricted
because of the topography. The natural river course at the dam location is
curved, and a diversion channel had to be provided for construction facility.

From the quantum of excavation and bank work involved as above, it

was obvious that for the time-bound programme of completion, adoption of machi-
nery intensive construction waS a must. In Maharashtra, normally the excava-
tion of cut off trench is executed through manual labour. In the present case,
since the length of the dam was only 640 m and since a diversion channel for
the river could be economically provided inlet in the river bed the completion
of the COT in the portion of river, was of a great importance and had to be
completed in one season only. Excavating the COT manually was, therefore, ruled
out and mechanical equipment had to be deployed for COT excavation also.

In view of the programme of construction as indicated earlier and i t

was not possible to deploy labour intensive agencies for the work of earth dam.
The department had a large complement of earth moving equipment, owned and
operated by the department. It had the necessary experience of this type of work
over the last 20 years or more. Therefore, it was decided to take up the work
d ep artm en tall y •

Construction of earthen dam, involving 142.4 M cu m (527 M cu' ft) of

earth work, w.s started from October 1976 with the help of motorised scrapers
end conventional shovels. From 1977-78 working se~son full complement of
205
motorised scrapers and conventional shovels was brought on the project to
execute the earth work of about 1.45 M cu m ( 50 M cu ft) per year. Heerting
work is done with the help of motorised scrapers and casing is done by
conventional shovel-dumper units. As sufficient working space for hearting
zone was not available, motorisf:!d scrapers were also used for casing work.
The casing quarries contain bouldary strata and quarries are situated at high
hills. Material is, therefore, required to be brought by removing boulders,
which is a time consuming job. However, based on the experience of the work
done, so far, the rates for hearting, semi-pervious and casing zones works out
to ~. 12.00, 12.75 and ~.lO.60 per cu m respectively.

Presently the following machinery is working on Warne project, with

the machinery it will be possible to complete the wall of about 1.90 M cu m
(70 M cu ft) per year which othe~wisewould not have been possible if labour
intensive without even employed. In spite of the labour strength on the jobs
is about 1200. This inclUdes/excludes the operating staff which num~ers:-

(1) Motorised scrapers 15/21 cu yd 18 Nos.

(2) Porclain shovel 4.1/2 cu yd 2 Nos.
(3) Hind marion shovels 3 cu yd 3 + 2 Nos.
(4) Fiat-Allis wheel loaders
2 Nos.
4.1/2 cu yd
(5) Komatsu D-6053 tractor shovel 1 No.
(6) Crawler tractors 22 Nos.
( 7) Rear dump ers 25 T. capacity 25 Nos.
(8) Rear dumpers 35 T. capacity 16 Nos.
(9) Euclid water wagons 36000 1trs. cepe '2 Nos.
(10) 5eismppactors 9 Nos.
(11) Road rollers 10 Ton. 10 Nos.
(12) Tippers 7.5 Ton. 14 Nos.
(13) Water tank,ers 10,000 Itrs. cap. 14 Nos.

The length of the dnm is very short. As the he~ght of the dam goes
en increasing, the working space available will be less resulting in movement
of machinery in restricted space. This will necessitate in carrying out the
earth work with the help of bigger capacity production ~achinery such as
24/32 cu yd capacity motorised scrapers which will be received on the pEojec~
site by October-November, 1919. Similarly 4.1/2 cu yd wheel loaders which are
prepared to be used in combination with rear dumpers are already received on
the site.

With the help of the above machinery, it will be possible to carry out
the earth work of about 1.98 M cu m (70 M cu ft) per working season and
206
 fIG UR E Photograph Showing the General View of
C.D.T and Embankment from View Point at
Ch. 495 m.

FIGURE 2 Photograph Showing River betore Diversion of

River.

201
 .. IGURt: 3 Photograph Showing the Backfilling of C.D.T.
at R.L. 557 II Ch.900 to 1100.

complete the earthen dam of 557 M cu ft in the stipulated period.

After the work is completed the machinery fleet will be shifted

to simila~ earth dam being planned in the State.

CDNCLUS ION

The decision on employment of the machinery intensive techniques are

conditioned by the nature of the work, the condition in which the work is to
be carried out, the layout for such work as also the economics. The considera-
tion in which the decision to deploy earth moving equipment was taken only
demonstrate thiso

208
 SEAS SATLUJ LINK PROJECT

R. K MALHOTRA
Superintending Engineer
ConstructIon Circle III.
Beas SatluJ Link Project
Sunder Nagar HImachal Pradesh

Populatio~ growth, in developing countries, is exerting tremendous

pressure upon resources and there is an insatiable hunger for better life.
In this context, the construction of water resources development projects in
general and multipurpose rive~ valley projects in particular, assumes a great
significance. Such projects are requiring to be planned and constructed in
a phased programme in a reasonably short period.

MECHANISATION AND LABOUR INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY - THE

V ITAL INPUTS

Apart from the materials and other inputs "hich goes into construction
both the 'mechanisation' and 'Labour Intensive Technology' are the two important
inputs. Extent of deployment of each and the contribution required to be made
by them depend upon so many interwoven factors. Modern technology in highly
developed and industrialised countries has produced tools and equipment with
which accelerate many complex engineering jobs. But the numerous constraints
in developing countries require adoption of a flexible technique in handling
the numerous job components of a large irrigation and power project. For attain-
ing optimum progress, conditions have to be created by the management for a
happy blending of 'Mechanisation' and 'Labour uriented Technology'. IrJhere there
is no dearth of man power this vital force must Oe deployed alongwith 'Machines
in the various phases of construction.

In many crucial jobs on the ~o7150 million papers multipurpose Beas

Satluj Link Project, ~abour oriented techniques and a combination of these
with indigenous Mechanisation were deployed and the teams of workers, duly
organised and motivated, gave an alround impressive output some experience in
the tunnelling water are described in the subsequent paragraphs.

THE BEAS PROJECT

The 7,150 million rupees Beas Project, including tha power transmission
net-work, consists of two Units: The Beas Dam Project and the Beas 5atluj Link
209
Project. Both these projects have been constructed departmentally.

The 2598 million rupees Beas Dam Project is located at Pong, just as
the River Beas enters the plains of Punjab from the hills of Himachal Pradesh.
132.6 m high Beas Dam, completed in 1974, is the highest ear~hfill dam in the
country. Its live storage is about 7290 M cu m which almost equals to that of
Bhakra Dam. In the power house at the dam, four units, each of 60 M,~ capacity,
out of a total of six units, have already been commissioned.

Biggest Hydro-electric Tunnelling Project

Beas 5atluj Link is the first 'inter river basin transfer project'
which diverts Beas waters to the 5atluj basin. The diversion of Beas waters takes
place 8t Pandoh, 114 km upstream of Beas Dam at Po,ng. The project is designed
to divert about 4700 M cu m of Beas Waters in a mean year to Satluj basin. From
74.37 m high earthfill dam at Pandoh, the Beas waters are taken first through a
13.10 km long tun~el, thence through an 11.80 km open lined canal and then again
through another tunnel 12.38 km long to the bottom chamber of 131.37 m high surge
shaft from ,,,her.e the "Jater is fed to the penstock complex and by-pass works. In
the process of linking the two rivers, Beas and 5atluj, a head of 320 m is utilise,
to genarate power at Dehar Power Plant, located near the head of Bhakra Reservoir.
Four generating units, each of 165 MW have been commissioned and two additional
units of likewise capacity will be provided in the near future.

The Beas Satluj link was established in July,1977 when the waters of
River Beas from Pandoh Reservoir after traversing the water conductor system
cascGded down the steep slopes of the by-pass chute and ski-jumped from its
flip oucket to ming~e with Satluj waters. The first unit of Dahar Power house
was commissioned in .1977. The whole of the project was carried out departmentally
and tha project was su~stantially machinery intensive. Even then it is employed
540 engine3rs and 36,000 skilled and unskilled workmen who toiled round the
clock in three shifts during the peak period of construction and it took nearly
100 million candays for completion of the project (Figure 1).

CONSTRUCTluN O~ TU~NEL5

Driving Df 13.10 km long Pandoh 3aggi Tunnel and 12.38 km long head-
race tunnel, knm"n as 5underRagar Satluj Tunnel. of 7.62 m and 8.53 m finished
diametres respectively, through the unpredictable Himalayan rocks, was one of
the most difficult and hazardous job. Some typical experience in driving of these
tunnels are described hereafter. Normal Reaches - Mechanisation of Cycle Operation:

210
 fIGURE 1

In the normal reaches characterised by favourable strata, the round

was drilled and blasted full face at all the tunnel headings. In order to speed
up the excavation, the main operations comprising the tunnel cycle were fully
mechanised. At every tunnel heading, a three tier drilling jumbo fitted with
ladder driQling system, was provided for drilling the heading (figure 2). for
efficient mucking of the blasted rock, electric operated coneway mucking machine
of 1.1 cu m bucket capacity was used in combination with the side tipping mine
cars of 10 cu m capacity. Electric Diesel Locomotives were provided for hauling
the mine cars on a double rail back from the heading to the automatic side-
dumping £tructures installed outsides the adit portals. After completin~ the
mucking and clean up, steel supports of I-section 150 mm x 150 mm were installed.
Before firing the next round, the gap between the rock and steel supports Was
2
filled with lean concrete of 70 to 100 kg/cm strength. Precast concrete laggings

211
were placed inside the flanges of steel supports to act as shuttering. To do
this backfill concreting, 4.5 cu m electric driven concrete mixers mounted on
fl2t cars and pullered by Locomotives, delivered concrete to pneumatic placers,
of 0.8 cu m capacity mounted on the drilling jumbo itself. The light weight
pneumatic concrete placer was developed on the project and manufactured in the
project workshop at a cost of just ~.2,000. At all the tunnel headings, such
placers were extensively used for placing the backfill concrete. A progress
range of 95 to 100 mlmain heading/month was attained in the normal reaches with
the peak progress reaching 125 m in a month.

Tackling Weak and Trecherous Reaches

As against a rate of advance of the tunnel of 3 to 4 m per day the

rate of daily advance in reaches break and trecherous rocks came down to a few
centimetres. Sometimes, the advance came to a complete halt for many days.
Techniqu es to tackle the di fficul t situations varied. Intellig ent labour oriente!
techniques were required to be adopted in preference to sophisticated mechanisa-
tions.

Schist Bands and Shear Zones

In Pandoh Baggi Tunnel, well folliated schist bands of 40 to 50 m

thickness and dripping with water were frequently encountered during tunnelling.
Whon charged with water, schist flowed making the tunnelling conditions very
difficult.

Whenever schist strata or blocky granite with schist bands or shear

zone,etc.,were encountered, full face excavation was stopped. The portion above
the springing was tackled by creating a groove 1250 mm ~ wide and 900 mm ~ deep
from the springing to the crown. The groove was excavated manually by paving
breakers. Thereafter, I-section steel supports, 200 mm x 150 mm, from above the
base girder at springing level, were quickly installed, precast concrete laggings
placed between the ribs and the space backfilled with concrete. Manual excavation
of the narrow circumferential nitch and installation of steel supports in it,
was continued. After 10 to 12 steel ribs, closely spaced, were erected and the
concrete arch formed, the central portion was either removed by light blasting
or was cut with paving breakers. The vertical steel columns below the base girders
were erected one by one to the invert level to complete the portal pattern of
ribs. To avoid lateral displacement of steel supports during the bench excavation,
steel struts were provided a little above the base girder level. After completing
the mucking with Coneway mucker, the drilling jumbo was moveQ to the heading and

212
the process repeated till the schist band waS crossed. Similar procedure was
followed to cross the crushed zones and shear zones in Sundernagar Satluj
Tunnel (figure 3).

INADEQUATE ROCK COVER WITH UNfAVOURABLE GROUND WATER CONDITIONS

Sundernagar Satluj Tunnel in its head reach was aligned along a narrow
rock ridge buried below the Suketi Khad alluvium and between the Krol thrust
in the west and the Sobri Khad fault in the east. As a result of the tectonic
disposition, the component dolomites got completely sheared and crushed. Such
that the ground water in the overburden over the tunnel alignment flowed towards
the tunnel which was about 30 m below the adjoining natural drainage channels.
The following methods were used to tackle the tunnel ~xcavation in the reach.

Groove MethQQ

In the first 100 m, the rock cover was only 5 to 6 m and the entire
face seeped with water. The heading was tackled by cutting 900 mm ~ deep groove
with paving breakers right from the invert to the crown along the periphery
and erecting steel supports ribs at 0.45 m spacing. The portion behind the ribs
was backfilled with concrete. 900 mm deep holes were then drilled on the entire
face and lightly loaded. Half second delay detonators were used and blasted.
This cycle was repeated.

Column Rnd Rib Arch Erection

The rock strata after about 100 m was found to be so sheared and
crushed that the creation of grooves for accommodating the vertical column and
top arch segments of the steel supports was found to be not feasible. A notice
to accommodate the vertical column (I-Section 200 mm x 150 mm) was made on both
sides and the columns erected promptly and backfilled with concrete. The circular
groove for the curved segments of steel ribs was cut with pneumatic pavement
breakers and the segments erected and backfilled with concrete. Before the niche
for the next column was cut, the centre projecting portion was mostly removed
with pavement breakers.

Half Heading and Forepoling

When the seepage water from the face increased, deep drainage holes
were drilled to channelise the water. In the first phase, only the portion above
the springing was taken up. The Groove Method Was employed but since there WdS

overbreak both at the crown as well as in front of the last rib, to the extent

213
 FIGURE 2.

FIGURE 3.
214
of 2.5 m to 3.0 m, i t was essential to provide forepoles of 25 mm bars and
125 mm x 75 mm, I-beam section, at close spacing depending upon the exegencies
of the situation. Before advancing the heading, the gap was backfilled with
concrete in order to avoid formation of cavities.

Multi-Drifts and Forepoling

As the rock conditions deteriorated, the half h~ading was advanced

piece meal by driving a small section drift on either side by manual labour,
using paving breakers. The drifts were excavated gradually and segments of steel
supports installed, using forepoles and the g~p backfilled with concrete. Grooves
on either side of the crown were then excavated in turn and top curved segments
of steel ribs installed, held in position by anchors and backfilled with
concrete. The central protruding portion was excavated with paving breakers
and the whole cycle repeated.

~vhen t.he half heading by (iii) and (1v) methods covered substantial
length, the portion below the springing was taken up. Space for erection of
vertical steel columns belol'./ the base girders waS made step by step by taking
two ribs at a time. In this way portal steel supports were completed.

OVERBURDEN REACH WITH INfLOW OF GROUND ~ATER

Sundernagar Satluj Tunnel passed through 100 m long overburden reach

from R.D.748.47 m to 848.20 m. The overburden consisted of highly water charged
river borne deposits of sands, gravels and CObbles (Figure 4). Due to disintegra-
ted and cohesionless nature of material, with heavy inflow of water it was not
possible to excavate even the half heading in this reach. The half heading was
split into six small sections and supported with segments of steel rib of
requisite lengths one by one. Different segments of the ribs were welded together
for supporting the section excavated by paving breakers. The seepage water
washed away fines from the strata, thereby forming numerous cavities. In such
a difficult situation the ribs had perforce to be installed in an irregular
shape at most of the places along the reach. 40 mm diameter steel forepoles
had to be used for erection of ribs. Other sets of circular section ribs above
springing level had to be erected beloW these irregular ribs for safety of the
tunnel. The diameter of the tunnel was therefore inevitably reduced from 8.53 m
to 7.62 m in the overburden reach. The vertical columns below the springing were
installed in stages to complete the portal ribs.
Collapse of Tunnel Headings
Worst situations arose when during normal tunnel driving, some weak
215
 . c __
~
c: ~ [~'-;f.i.1 O'lerburden f' - - - ___ , foult //"_ _ _ GROUND WATER PROFIL~
97:5.36 ~.u: ~ Lim.. stone pink
'So.so ~-- BED ROCK PROFILE
-co '0'0 (highly broken)
~ ;;; ~ t:t: ~ DOlomite
- °0 (.h811r.dto crUShed)
914.40 a iii Q.(l. ICl
a:~ CIP _
883.92 ;:: ~.;
cc< .
8!S3."" cs- -~.~.,.
A. .•...

1!Z.4
!C)

co
. til .0
~ in f'- r,;
R. D. IN METRES

SUNDERNAGAR SUTLEJ TUNNEL HEAD REACH

914.40 _ m _____ .2. 13 ./ CRATER LIM CAVITY

SAND GRAVEL

1'3.92 • [GROUND
.:::/~l:::::-l C tA1yd,;.~-?-?-? m:=7-::::: I~ '~l'lfATER LnEL
'"==========~.....-::! ,n ~ ?-7_?f.R-1-!-fffl? . ~J \
r- V' V" -- I
lea..." ~------ ~ -------~------
~:--, --,-=-=-7~-
1 .---~ --
KD ROCK PROFLE - - - - . , _ 1 - / ' _1--;:7- C LA Y .
-1-7,-1-/-1 -'- h M-'-'
DRILL HOLE-----., RIVER ~ TERRACE". ~I /,:~ " GLIDDEDDOLOMITE.
co CAVITY REACH
92!S.40
822096
1 SUNDERNAGA R
815.02
<It C\I
<t en
R.O. 10 • C\I ('Ii .
Q) PINK LIME STOHE
!C) iD (J\ C\I
U) U) U) f'-
v'
f'-
EI792048 ... ~
FIGURE
~
and sheared patch charged with water, suddenly burst, causing break-through
conditions and involving a large scale movement of rock maSS just like lava.
Mechanisation receded to the background. It became a full scale struggl e of
the courageous and innovative labour and engineers.

A Sheared Patch Caused 18 m High Cavity

In Pandoh Baggi Tunnel, phyllites and phyllitic quartzites were met

for about 2000 m from Pandoh end and 750 m from Baggi end. Phyllites did not
present any difficult tunnelling problem. It was felt that in the granite the
steel supports could be dispensed with. However jointed granites charged
with water posed serious tunnelling problems. On one occasion presence of a
sheared rock patch in an otherwise good granite strata caused a collapse at
the heading upto a height of about 18 m above the crown. The cavity was tackled
by erecting a false set of steel ;ib some distance away from the last concreted
rib of the collapsed heading and welding 8 to 9 m long channel iron forepoles
to the false rib. The ends of channels were driven inside the muck pile and
concreting above the forepoles was done in stages and later on grouting of the
cavity portion was done. It took 18 days to resume tunnelling.

Collapse of Tunnel Heading

One more collapse of the tunnel heading occurred in Pandoh Baggi

Tunnel at 1,000 m where a small strip of decomposed granite was met with.
A small round of heading blast was done instead of the usual normal round of
3 m. When mucking was nearing completion, rock fall was noticed from the right
side at it developed into a cavity of about 3 m. The jumbo was taken to the
heading and steel supports were erected as quickly as possible under falling
stones. The rock fall however increased. It was then decided to move back the
drilling jumbo and while it was still in the process of moving there was a
sudden collapse of rock at the heading and the two newly erected steel ribs
Came down and were twisted in the form of screw. The cavity started increasing.
Seepage water caused the flow of rock in the form of lava. The pressure of the
flowing mass of rock boulders was increasing behind the heading. Taking jumbo
to the heading was out of question and a walkway along the sides was constructed
in order to have access to the heading. A small deck was quickly constructed
to act as working platform. Work on forming an umbrella of steel channels,
girders and pipes was undertaken by driving these pieces into muck, making the
last rib as the fulcrum. After the umbrella was formed, two temporary barricades
were constructed through the muck to stop its lateral movement. Tha barricades
helped in clearing the sides manually so that rib segments could be installed
on the sides and concreted~hen the top portion Was manually scooped out under

217
the protection of the artificial umbrella and top segments of steel ribs were
concreted, and so on. The entire treatment of this cavity took 41 days and
350 m3 concrete was required to be pouredo
Violent Heading Burst

One more heading burst took place in Pandoh 3aggi Tunnel at R.D.2545
m. A round of 3.1 m depth was drilled and blasted on 10 March 1969. The rock
was found to be very hard and only half of the depth elf the drilling round could
be pulled out by the blast and Secondary blasting had to be done when Mucking
of the blasted rock was started fall of rock was noticed from the left corner.
The tunnel heading was, however, dry. further mucking was stopped and arrangG~
ments for grouting were initiated o On 11 March, a platform was erected from the
steel ribs already in position to drill holes for grouting. One hole was drilled
to a depth of 7 m after which it seemed to have entered the cavity. However, on
12th March before grouting could be done, there was further flow of rock and
water from the crushed zone which damaged the grouting platform. By 12th night,
platform had been re-erected and grout-pipes w~re laid to start grouting
operations. Before grouting could be started in the 1st shift of 13 March, there
appeared to be a movement of few stones which hit the grouting plu:form. Taking
this movement of rock as a warning workmen were asked to vacate the site and to
withdraw all machinery. Only the Shift Engineer and a team of 10 workmen remained
at the site to weld and strengthen som~ girders. At about 1 a.m. there was a
rumbling sound and a great bang caused by the sudden burst at the heading which
left loose thousands of tonnes of muck and underground water with such a force
that 40 tonnes drilling jumbo, lying derailed, was pushed back through a distance
of 40 m.
Out of ten workmen who were on jumbo, only five shift engineer included,
survived with injuries though all of them had a ride on the jumbo. The cavity
brought over 2000 cu m of muck in the tunnel. The remedial measures were however,-
on the very next day - 14 March 1969.

A massive concrete bulk-head was constructed at the heading to stop

any further inflow of muck from the cavity. Drainage pipes of 150/200 mm diameter
were also embedded in the concrete to drain out water from the cavity, as any
build up of hydrostatic pressure could be dangerous. The rate of inflow of water
at that ti1ne was about 425 gallor.ls/minute. The overbulrden over the tunnel at
this point was about 600 m crushed schist upto the surface of the hill. A
programme was chalked out, to maintain drainage at all times and to consolidate
the roof of the tunnel by grouting as a first precaution for further operations.
A number of holes 9 to 12 m deep were drilled starting from the crown towards
the left side of the tunnel where the schist band was appearing. The grouting
218
was started from the lower most ~oint on the left side of the tunnel, after
drilling all the holes upto the topmost point. The groutin0 was continued till
the seepage water flowed only in the topmost holes. A further set of inter-
mediate holes were also drilled in the grouted area and grouted. Ajout 4500
bags of cement were consumed.

The concrete bulk-h~adwas then removed by chipping. After the removal

of the bulk-head, one foot space was prepared to erect only the top'sagments
of the ribs and when the rij was erected and before it was concreted, a number
of holes 3 to 4 '0 deap were drilled at 150 mm spacing all along the periphery,
having their inclination towards the top. Through these holes, 25 mm diameter
st~el dowels were inserted and these formed a sort of umbr~lla for protection
when the space for the next rib was to be prepared. This procedure was followed
with every rib. After concreting of the first rib, space for the next rib at
200 to 300 mm spacing was prepared and the same procedure adopted. The Sench
for the top segments was continued for a distance of about 3 m and only then
the bQck portion was removed for installation of the vertical leg of the rio.
In this way slolJly and gradUally, the cench method of tunnelling combined with
forepoling proved very successful and the complete schist band of 18 m width
was cleared in 80 days.

The Most berious Burst

Excavation of 5undernagar 5atluj Tunnel, upstream of Harabagh adit,

had proceeded to a length of 707 m through dolomite strata with full face
blasting and 1.2 m spacing of steel ribs. On 12 June 1969, seepage water
appeared conspicuously at the left corner. Drainage holes were drilled to
channelise water but the rock started falling gradually. Supporting arrangements
with steel channels were tried but on 13 June cavity developed which ultimately
burst forth. The crushed dolomite came out with gushing water and spread to a
distance of about 40 m. The jumbo was practically buried with muck upto the
top deck. Remedial measures were takan up in consultation with the resident
geologist. A bulk-head was constructed on the top deck of jumbo. An umbrella of
8 to 9 m long ste~l forepoles was made by drilling holes at close spacing in the
intdct portion, a little away fro~ the heading in the top arch soave the jumbo
deck. De8p drainage holes of 75 mm diameter were also drilled to release the
pressure of water. Mucker was hooked up to the remove the muck. The m~ck again
flowed from the left side corner for a few minutes. Injection of grout was also
tried to consolidate the loose rock. Inspite of the j~st possible measures, a
terrible ourst of the heading occurred dt 9 a.m. on 30 July,1969. Enormous
quantity of muck gushe~ for~h wi~h explosive violence in G couple of minutes
enveloping equipfusnt, m~terL3l. workmen and engineers. The tunnel got flooded

219
within minutes. The author alongwith other colleagu~s and workers had a face to
face near encounter with death, Deing directly involved in this awe inspiring
burst. Fortunately, there was no casualty. A~out 250 m length of tunnel was
filled up with slush and muck.

FIGURE 5 Heading Burst filled 250 m Length of Tunnel

A walkway was constructed quickly for providing access to the site.

After further geological investigations were carried out and it was decided
to shift the alignment of the tunnel as tunnelling on the original alignment
was considered an impossibility. The work of tunnel excavation on the changed
alignment c8uld start in full swing only after about a year of this accident.

220
 The experience indicated in the foregoing will demonstrate as to
how a machinery intensive technique had to be g1ven u~ although temporarily
and laoour intenS1ve techniques had to be deployed to ovarcome difficult
tunnelling situation in the Beas Satluj Link Project. The author 1S happy to
share th.se experiences in som~ of which he was personally 1nvolved with the
fellow engineers. There were numerous such instances in all the other works
of the proj3ct where a mix of th9 two techn1ques was adopted. The blend of the
mix ~eing dictated by the circumstances of each case.

221
NEW UNITED PROCESS, New Delhi