AFS Casting Defect Handbook PDF

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Appendix Title Page

Credits Introduction
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Chapter Page
1 Broken or Cracked Castings.............................. 5
2 Crushes, Pushups and Clamp-offs.................... 8
3 Cuts and Washes ............................................... 12
4 Dirt, Slag and other Inclusions .......................... 16
5 Drops .................................................................. 25
6 Erosion Scabs .................................................... 30
7 Expansion Defects ............................................. 33
8 Gas Defects ........................................................ 38
9 Gross Segregation and ...................................... 46
Carbon Flotation (Kish)
10 Hard Spots, Hard Areas and Chilled Spots ....... 49
11 Hot Tears ............................................................ 55
12 Inverse Chills...................................................... 58
13 Mass Hardness................................................... 61
14 Metal Penetration and Fusion............................ 63
15 Misruns and Cold Shuts..................................... 68
16 Off Dimensions Related to Cores ...................... 75
17 Open Grain Structure ......................................... 79
18 Poured Short ...................................................... 82
19 Ramoffs or Ramaways ....................................... 83
20 Rough Surface.................................................... 85
21 Runouts and Bleeders ....................................... 88
22 Scars, Seams and Plates ................................... 93
23 Shifts................................................................... 96
24 Shot Metal or Cold Shots ................................... 100
25 Shrinkage Cavities and Depressions ................ 102
26 Stickers............................................................... 106
27 Swells, Strains, Sags and Core Fins ................. 108
28 Veins and Fins.................................................... 113
29 Warped Castings................................................ 116
American Foundrymen’s Society, Inc.
Des Plaines, IL 60016
Reprinted 1998
The American Foundrymen’s Society as a body Is not responsible for the statements and opinions
advanced in this publication. Nothing contained in any publication of the American Foundrymen’s
Society is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for manufacture, sale or
use in connection with any method, apparatus or product covered by Letters Patent, nor as insuring
anyone against liability for Infringement of Letters Patent.
Copyright 1972, 1984, 1997
Credits
This manual was prepared by the Molding Methods and Materials Group, Special Publications
Committee 80-G, Section 2, Casting Defects:
George W. Anselman, Victor Rowell, Vice-Chairman

Chairman Sales Representative
Consultant, Anselman Foundry Construction Aggregates Corp.
Services
Albert M. Prewitt, Edwin H. Phelps

Secretary Research Supervisor
Campbell, Wyant & Cannon American Cast Iron Pipe Co.
Foundry Co.
Joseph Cunningham LeRoy E. Taylor

Cunningham Patterns Sales Representative
Manley Brothers
Richard A. Green Charles W. Ward

Foundry Sales Mgr. Foundry Consultant
International Minerals & Benjamin Harris Co.
Chemical Corp.
James C. Lee AFS Staff

Superintendent Ezra Kotzin
Frank Foundries Corp. Technical Director
This software version was prepared by:

Clifford E. Couture Peter M. Wendt
Vice President President
Datalab, Inc. Datalab, Inc.
Software & Imaging Software & Imaging
Introduction
Quality control implies both prevention and cure of casting defects. This text deals with the diagnosis and
correction phases of quality control in the area of rejected castings or castings that require costly repair,
grinding or cleaning.
Every business prefers a minimum of rejects. Intelligent effort in this direction will yield excellent returns on
the investment of time and energy needed to make every producing individual zero-reject conscious.
There are correct and incorrect methods of approaching any problem. The steps in corrective procedure are
expressed in the following outline:
1) Identify the defect

2) Obtain the facts. The record should answer such pertinent questions as where? when? how? how
often?
3) Research for missing facts
4) Verify the defect
5) Try corrective action-one change at a time
6) Follow up.
Broken or Cracked Castings - Chapter 1
Description
This refers to castings, which have been broken or cracked by mechanical action, rough handling, or thermal
shock.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Irregular sections, sections, such as isolated heavy sections, light sections or
projections require careful handling at shakeout, cleaning, finishing and heat-
treating.
2) Lack of fillets
3) Lack of proper reinforcing ribs, tie bars or stress relieving
II. Pattern Equipment
1) Failure to provide proper break-off notches on the gates and risers
2) Flask bars that extend into deep pockets, not allowing normal collapse of the
sand.
III. Gating and Risering
1) Lack of adequate fillets
2) Incorrectly placed or dimensioned cracking strips and tie bars
3) A gating system which promotes stresses or segregation due to turbulence
Early rough shakeout of this gray iron casting broke the gates into the castings while they were hot and weak.
V. Molding Sand
1) Poor sand collapsibility due to excessive hot or dry compressive strength
2) Low sintering point materials in sand
3) High hot compressive strength coupled with hot sand deformation
5
VI. Core Practice
1) Poor collapsibility due to excessive hot compression strength
2) Low hot deformation when coupled with poor collapsibility
3) Rods or arbors that are too close to the surface of cores
4) Over-reinforced cores
VII. Molding Practice

1) Mold rammed too hard
2) Rods, arbors, and gaggers which are too close to the mold surface
3) Risers or sprues too close to a flask bar
4) Excessive swabbing or sponging
5) Improper use of chills or excessive chilling
Poor design of the cracking strip increased the breakage of this malleable casting in the hard iron condition
VIII. Metal Composition
1) Improper metal composition for the application
2) A composition having too high a shrinkage characteristic
IX. Melting Practice

1) Excessive carbide stabilizers which promote high shrinkage
2) Composition having too high a shrinkage characteristic
3) Gaseous or over oxidized metal
4) Contamination
Careless finning caused this casting to break in the gate area.
The protruding section of bar on the casting shown tended to break off during cleaning, milling or shake out.
X. Pouring Practice
1) Insufficient pouring temperature to promote proper collapsibility of sand and cores
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shakeout too hot or too rough
2) General carelessness in handling at shakeout
3) Improper packing in tumbling barrels or barrel blast
4) Careless and rough handling in loading or tumbled with light thin section castings
5) Careless and rough handling in loading or tumbled with light thin section castings
6) Improper piling or stacking
7) Banding too tight on pallets
8) Any mechanical handling that drops castings any distance into containers
Tight banding of pallets broke this casting.
Crushes, Pushups and Clamp-offs - Chapter 2
Careless handling of the mold during assembly caused this crush on the cope section.
Description
Crushes, pushups and clamp-offs are indentations in the casting surface. These defects are caused by
disruption of the mold surface due to external or internal force or weight. The major cause of these defects is
carelessness particularly related to flask equipment, rigging, and molding practice.
Causes
None
1) Worn patterns and core boxes. A worn pattern can result in the core print
being too small for the normal core. Conversely, a worn core box results it the
core being too large for a normal print
2) Insufficient draft
3) Pattern not correctly mounted
4) Misalign cope and drag patterns, or plates
5) Worn pins and bushings
6) Core prints not properly marked
7) Lack of crushing strips
8) Core print too small to support the core
9) Warped or untrue pattern plate (cope and drag)
10) Excessive flexibility of matchplate
Crush caused by poor pin alignment.
11) Flask landing strips too high above parting line. This creates a condition of
excessive loading at the sand-to-sand contact
III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

1) Misalignment of flask equipment, pins, and bushings
2) Weights too heavy or uneven
3) Insufficient sand bearing surface
4) Warped or uneven flask joints
5) Worn stripping plate on molding machine
6) Improperly fitting, dirty, or crooked jackets
7) Worn pins and bushings
8) Uneven, dirty or burned bottom boards
9) Weak bottom boards
10) Improperly barred cope
IV. Gating and Risering

1) Gating and risering do not, by themselves, create a crush although mounting gate runners too
close to the pattern can result in an inadequate sand bearing surface.
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Low green tensile strength may permit the cope to sag
3) Low green deformation causes the sand to crush rather than give during closing of flask
4) Low dry strength in a dry sand mold may fail to support the normal load
VI. Core Practice

1) A core too large for the core print will fail to seat properly and cause a crush
2) A misaligned assembly will cause incorrect contact when the flask is closed
3) Core sagged out of shape may be the result of:
a. Rough handling while green
b. Soft ram
c. Low green strength
d. Excessive water in the core mix
e. Warped driers
f. Low warm strength such as from excessive solvent
g. Improper cure
h. Reinforcement i.e.: rods, wires, or arbors
4) Warped cores (including shell)
5) Excessive core wash can result in an oversized core

1) Careless closing of the molds
2) Uneven clamping of the molds
9
3) Faulty bedding of molds on bottom boards or plates
4) Improper setting of the jackets
5) Careless core setting
6) Use of wrong chaplets or failure to use chaplets
7) Setting dirty jackets
A lump of sand on bottom caused this pushup.
Crush on camshaft gear blank; finished casting on left.

8) Stem chaplets not properly wedged or seated
9) Unshaved core prints and joints
10) Failure to wedge flask joints
11) Careless handling of molds during carry-out or on the conveyor
12) Dropping of the weights

None
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Resting ladles or heavy objects on molds
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Rough handling during any part of the molding process can break or crush a mold
2) Resting heavy objects on the mold
10
Uneven clamping of the small mold crushed one side of the mold face.
11
Cuts and Washes - Chapter 3
Description
Cuts or washes are rough spots and areas of excess metal caused by erosion of the mold or core surface by
metal flow. This definition differentiates between a cut and an erosion scab, in spite of the fact that the two
defects are often similar or identical in general appearance. It is necessary to make such a distinction
because the cure for the two defects may be diametrically opposed.
Causes
1) A design that promotes excessive metal flow over any given area of the mold surface
2) A design which includes unavoidable nozzle effects within the casting

1) Pattern layouts which prevent correct gating. Equalized flow is essential if excessive localized
heating of sand in mold or core is to be avoided.

1) Flask too small to permit proper gating
2) Flask bars too close to pattern
1) A gate which forces metal to impinge on a mold or core surface as in the case of gating into a thin
wall of a casting
12
Drag view of cuts or washes caused by low strength sand.
2) A downsprue which does not provide a pool or well of metal ahead of the gating system
3) Too much metal across any mold surface will eventually redissolve the metal skin which is formed
during early stages of pouring
4) Excessive metal velocity across a given mold surface
5) Unequal distribution of metal through the gating system
13
Inclusions caused by the cuts and washes on drag side.
V. Molding Sand
1) Inadequate hot strength
2) Insufficient clay
3) Inadequate water to properly activate the clay and improper mixing
4) Excessive use of certain additives such as cellulose
5) Hot molding sand
6) Low hot strength self-curing binders
VI. Core Practice
1) Soft core surface
2) Overcuring or undercuring
3) Insufficient binder or water
4) Improper mixing
5) Improper application and control of core wash
6) Vents or reinforcements too close to the surface
7) Poorly patched cores or filled hook holes
8) Nonuniformly made cores
9) Low density
10) Damage in handling
11) Soft cores (rising self-curing binders)
a. Overmixing
b. Improper sand temperature
c. Use beyond bench life
d. Stripping too early
e. Excessive variation of acid demand of sand
1) Soft or nonuniformly rammed molds. Hot strength varies greatly depending on the mold
Hardness or moisture
2) Mold edges burned by excessive drying temperatures
3) Gaggers, bars or soldiers set too close to mold surface
None
14
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessive pouring temperature for molding or core materials used
2) Hard pouring
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Excessive parting or solvent such as kerosene can materially change the hot and dry strength
2) Hard pouring
Cut caused by low strength sand.
15
Dirt, Slag and Other Inclusions - Chapter 4
Typical surface imperfections (Inclusions).
Description
Inclusions are surface or subsurface particles of sand, slag, dross, oxides or other materials imbedded in the
metal. They may originate from the molds, cores, metal, ladles or careless practices.
Causes
1) Those design factors which contribute to scabs, cuts, washes and erosion will intensify the tendency
toward inclusions in a casting
1) Improper coating for materials involved. Some pattern coatings produce a tendency towards sticking
of the sand
2) Insufficient clearance for setting cores and closing
3) Lack of fillets
5) Loosely mounted pattern or gating system
6) Worn flask landing areas can create a crush or disrupt sand gains
7) Inaccurate partings
16
Use of excessive liquid parting material on the pattern left these kish tracks (classified as inclusions).

1) Any factor in the rigging which creates a rubbing or gouging effect during the closing of the mold, or
setting of cores
2) Warped or dirty flasks
3) Worn or crooked pins or bushings
4) Inaccurate core setting assembly or inspection jigs
5) Dirty pins and bushings
6) Inadequate locators

1) Factors causing scabs, cuts and washes
2) Gating systems that create slow pouring can cause scabs particularly on cope surfaces
3) Gating systems which create a non-filled runner should be avoided since the cope of such runners
will eventually scab and drop sand into the gating system
Ineffective slag trap permitted ladle slag to locate at top of the boss.
4) Gating which promotes high velocity metal flow

5) The choke or the area of the choke core in the gating system may be inadequate to stop the flow of
slag or dross
6) Exothermic materials if used in such a way as to permit the by-product of the reaction to enter the
mold or casting
17
Defect caused by contaminant (boric acid) in molding sand.
V. Molding Sand
1) Sands with low physical properties, such as low green, dry and hot compressive strength
2) Mold gas-metal reaction
3) Low fusion point materials
4) Coatings too heavy, not dried, or wrong for the purpose
VI. Core Practice

1) Improperly bonded or cured cores
2) Excessive core gas-metal reaction
3) Improperly cleaned cores
4) Premature collapse of cores in molds and gating system
5) Core wash too heavy, not dried, or wrong for the application
6) Broken cores
Result of broken core.

1) Any molding factor which contributes to displaced or loose sand in the mold cavity
2) Sloppy or careless molding
3) Excessive use of liquid parting
4) Loose sand from cores or molds
5) Loose sand from molds left open too long
18
Result of coarse seacoal in molding sand.
Broken edge of mold caused by low strength sand, which

permitted sand grains to wash into other sections of the casting.
Loose sand left in the mold caused these sand inclusions on the drag face.
19
Inclusions of aluminum in a copper alloy caused by contamination during melting.

1) In many metals, it is possible for off-analysis to create a separation of slag or slag-like materials
2) In cast irons, high sulfur may lead to sulfide slag, which could separate during cooling
3) Oxides and intermetallic compounds in steel, copperbase or light alloys

1) Undissolved alloy addition, inoculant, or deoxidizer
2) Dross resulting from alloy addition or inadequate fluxing
3) Too low a melting temperature may result in the inability of the slag or dross to separate
4) Insufficient slag cover during melting to maintain metal cleanliness
5) Thin watery slag
6) Refractory-metal reaction can easily release impurities into the metal
7) Excessive fluxes or deoxidizers
X. Pouring Practice
1) A wet or boiling lip on a ladle can promote, or interfere with proper separation of slag
2) Careless skimming of the ladle can result in excess slag being carried into the mold
3) Low pouring temperature
4) Intermittent or slow pouring
5) Dirty ladles
6) Ladle linings must be adequate, to avoid mechanical or chemical loss
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Careless maintenance. handling, and general housekeeping
20
\
Metallic oxides from ladle entered the mold to cause this (can be corrected by proper gating).
Poorly designed pouring basin prevented proper choke and permitted slag to enter mold.
21
Section of a centrifugal casting showing slag inclusions originating from refractory lining material.
Intermittent pouring trapped slag in the metal

stream and permitted it to enter the mold.
22
View of an inclusion caused by a rag left in mold.
View of an inclusion caused by a rag left in mold.
Core wires in casting cavities.
23
Core wires in casting cavities.
Poorly designed pouring basin prevented proper choke and permitted slag to enter mold.
Poorly skimmed ladle permitted slag to enter the mold cavity.
24
Drops - Chapter 5
Typical result of the drop of one part of a green sand pocket.
Description
A drop is a casting defect due to the loss of a portion of sand from the cope or other overhanging section. In
appearance, the defect resembles a sticker.
Causes

1) Deep pockets or inadequate draft
2) Protruding or overhanging sections

1) Insufficient draft or backdraft
2) Improperly designed parting creating narrow pockets

1) Too many patterns for the flask size
2) Insufficient cope height
3) Weak, loose, or springy flasks and bars
4) Misaligned, bent, or sprung bands can result in the lack of rigidity
5) Not enough bars, or bars improperly designed
6) Rough handling due to faulty equipment
7) Improperly fitted, dirty, or crooked jackets
8) Weights too heavy or uneven
9) Flask bars too close to risers or sprues
25
Backdraft on the cracking strip weakened sand pocket and permitted a drop.

1) Any placement of runners and risers that results in narrow sand pockets.
V. Molding Sand
1) Inadequate green properties
2) Inadequate mold properties related to sand moldability
3) Low mold Hardness or insufficient mold strength
4) Low dry strength (dry sand molding)
5) Poorly prepared sand
VI. Core Practice
1) A weak or inadequately secured core or core assembly
2) Core failure in centrifugal casting appears as a drop
1) Nonuniformly rammed or soft rammed molds
2) Gaggers, nails, soldiers, bars, etc. too close to the mold cavity
3) Insufficient mold reinforcement
4) Careless core setting may fracture a portion of the mold surface
5) Improper closing of the mold
6) Rough handling
7) Separation of molded layers of sand such as a separation between a facing and backing sand
8) Insufficient venting
26
Inadequate draft in the pocket contributed to a drop, with this result.
A nonuniform ram was the major cause of drop in this large mold section.

None
27
None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Bumping molds with ladle
Inadequate green compressive strength in molding sand.
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Foreign material in sand
2) Mold explosions which occur when the gas ignites
Low green sheer strength of molding sand permitted

pocket to shear under the drop and float.
3) Vibration caused by heavy jolt machines or other equipment

4) Rough handling
5) Careless handling of weights or jackets
28
Sand broke off the core during setting and dropped into the drag.
During pouring the sand section floated to the cope.
Weight carelessly dropped on mold.
29
Erosion Scabs - Chapter 6
Typical scab on cope surface caused by excessive slicking

Description
An erosion scab is a defect usually occurring in the drag, in which the loosened sand has been eroded away
by the motion of the metal, and has left a solid junction between the casting and the defect. The defect can
be removed usually leaving a solid surface. The erosion scab may result in sand holes or sand inclusions in
some other part of the casting.
Causes
1) A design which necessitates gating through thin sections

1) Insufficient fillets on gates and abrupt section changes
2) Parting the pattern to necessitate gating through thin sections

1) Bars improperly placed, preventing uniform ramming
2) Bars, soldiers, and gaggers coated with wet clay and too close to the mold surface
3) Rigging in too small a flask so that the vertical pattern wall is too close to flask or bar
4) Plugged flask vents
Typical scab on cope surface caused by excessive slicking

Scab caused by metal impingement on sand surface (gates located on inside of the two bosses).

1) Gating which creates interrupted metal flow
2) Metal impinging on and disrupting sand surface
30
3) Gating which creates localized overheating of the sand
There is a fine line of distinction between an erosion scab and a cut or wash. As far as metal flow alone is
concerned, the two defects have the same cause. In the case of an erosion scab there is not enough
impingement to actually cut, in the absence of expansion, but is enough when expansion stresses exceed
the strength of the sand
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture content
2) Excessive volatile material
3) Insufficient carbonaceous (or cellulose) material for expansion control
4) Insufficient hot deformation
5) Improper conditioning of the sand, such as clay or moisture not uniformly distributed
6) Under tempered sand
VI. Core Practice

1) Excessive moisture in or on the core
2) A core blow may cause an erosion scab on the adjacent mold surface
3) Insufficient hot deformation
4) Core wash not properly dried
5) Insufficient penetration of the wash
6) Undercured cores
7) Excessive core wash
Excessive pouring temperature caused erosion scab on the cope surface.

1) Nonuniform ramming
2) Gaggers too close to pattern
3) Excessive clay on gaggers
4) Excessive slicking
31
Erosion scab caused by wet sand, aggravated by hard ramming.
5) Moldwash, not properly dried

6) Insufficient penetration of wash
7) Excessive wash

None

None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessive pouring temperatures
2) Interrupted, or slow pouring
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign body close to the mold surface
32
Expansion Defects - Chapter 7
Typical expansion defect on cope surface.
Description
Stage one in this family of defects is RATTAILS which are irregular lines caused by low temperature
expansion of the mold surface resulting in a fault in the mold surface.
Stage two is BUCKLES which are V-shaped indentations which may occur by themselves or under an
expansion scab.
Stage three is EXPANSION SCABS, which are rough layers of metal connected to the main body of the
casting by a vein of metal.
Stage four is COPE SPALLS or pull downs which are indentations in the cope surface of the casting.
Depending on the time of formation they may have the appearance of a buckle, rattail, shrink, or blow.
Blackening scabs are a special form of a scab in which the defect is related to the coating rather than to the
sand.
Since sand surfaces go through the process of expansion and contraction during the pouring and solidification
of the casting, it is a common practice to assume that the sand is the principal cause. This is a mistake, as
these defects are all closely related to all practices.
33
Typical rattail from interrupted metal flow.
Causes
1) Large uninterrupted flat surfaces
2) Inadequate radii
3) Large, smooth uninterrupted concave or convex surfaces

1) Inadequate fillets

1) Bars or flask too close to pattern surface
2) Rigging which prevents proper pouring speed
3) Flask too shallow

1) Gating which prevents adequate pouring speed
34
Buckle (which had a scab before cleaning) caused by inadequate carbonaceous or cushioning material.
Scab (with buckle underneath) related to inadequate hot deformation.
Blacking scab from inadequate penetration of wash.
35
VI. Core Practice
1) Low hot deformation
2) Green sand or green top cores (See “Molding Sand”)
3) Nonuniform shell thickness
4) Rods or arbors too close to the core surface
5) A nonuniform ram
7) Improper type of wash
8) Excessive wash
9) Insufficient drying of wash
10) Poor sand grain distribution

1) Nonuniform or hard ramming
3) Excessive wash
4) Insufficient drying of mold or wash
5) Gaggers, soldiers, and bars too close to mold surface
6) Excessive trowelling and slacking
7) Downsprue and risers too close to bars and flask
Expansion scab in dry sand mold after removal from casting. Defect caused by
excessive clay wash of a gagger close to the costing surface.
Uneven ramming of drag mold permitted pattern

plate to bend and prestress the mold surface, (defect
corrected by hard ramming the drag.
36
1) Metals vary in their tendency toward expansion defects as they vary in temperature and pouring
rate

1) Factors which control fluidity
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too slow
2) Pouring too hot
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Foreign material between centrifugal mold and sand, which appears similar to and
expansion type defect
37
Gas Defects - Chapter 8
Pinholes caused by excessive moisture in molding sand combined

with low permeability and poor grain distribution (6 screen sand).
Description
“Blows” or gas holes in castings are cavities, either spherical, flattened or elongated. They are related to
localized gas (including entrapped air) pressure that exceeds metal pressure in any locality during
solidification of the metal. One of the greatest problems with core blows is the ease with which they may be
confused with mold blows. Since gas travels upwards in the mold it is quite possible for a gas bubble to form
from a core and then travel toward the cope surface.
Pinholes, blisters, and body scars as well as certain types of porosity are variations of gas holes. In gas
defect problems, there are several possible sources, among which are cores, molding sand and metal. The
volume of gas may be kept unchanged but offset by providing easier escape or by providing more metal
pressure, forcing gas through existing vents.
Causes
1) Insufficient print or outlet provided for venting
2) Design that prevents adequate metal pressure
3) lnsufficient vents at the parting line

None
38
Pinholes from excessive permeability and moisture remedied by lowering permeability from 140 to 90-110 and reducing
moisture from 4.2% to 2.8-3.3%.
Gas blows caused by clay balls (excess fines).

1) Bars too close to the mold surface
2) Flask wall too close to mold surface
3) Cope too shallow
4) Sprues and risers too close to bars or flask walls
5) Insufficient venting in flasks

2) Gating causing turbulence
3) Gating design that causes interrupted flow of metal
4) Inadequate riser height or size
5) Improper sprue or gate design allowing air or mold gas to enter metal stream
6) Insufficient spinning speed in centrifugal casting of pipe
7) Insufficient vents and flow-offs
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture content
2) Inadequate permeability for the volatile materials involved
3) Foreign material in sand-shot, nails, coke, cinders, etc.
4) Clay balls
5) Poorly mixed sand
6) Coarse particles of gas-producing materials
7) Coatings containing excessive gas-producing materials
8) Excessive permeability in skin-dried molds, allowing sweat-back
9) Excessive or insufficient reducing volatile materials
39
Blow due to excessive moisture in molding sand.
VI. Core Practice

1) Underbaked or undercured cores
2) Excessive binder
3) Inadequate permeability for conditions involved
4) Inadequate venting
5) Excessive or wet core paste
6) Core wash too heavy, skin broken or not dried
7) Excessive gas-producing material either in the core sand or wash
8) Cores that absorb moisture either in storage or in the mold
9) Exposed hooks, wires or hangers
10) Chill or sealing materials not dried
11) Hooks or hanger holes filled and not dried
12) Foreign materials, such as roots, leaves, coke, coal, etc.
13) Excess nitrogen content in resin binders
14) Poorly mixed core sand
Improperly conditioned core sand (lumps of cereal

binder and excessive moisture are potential
sources of gas and can cause blows).
Broken surface of core wash permitted gas to back up into heavy metal sections.
40
Vents plugged with iron during pouring caused a major defect on the cope surface.
41
Blow in manifold at a hot spot, caused by a hard core.
Close-up of the blow shown above.

1) Combinations of hot and cold materials
2) Improper venting in green or dry sand molds
3) Insufficiently dried molds
4) Hard spots caused by improper ramming for conditions involved
5) Gagger, soldiers, arbors, or bars too close to pattern
6) Clay wash too heavy on gaggers
7) Excessive slicking and patching of green sand
8) Dough roll too wet or too close to mold cavity
9) Wet pouring basins and gating systems
10) Insufficient sand in flask
11) Excessive liquid parting (especially in pockets or depressions)
12) Mold wash or coating too heavy or not dried
13) Failure to lead core vents out of molds
14) Vents too close to surface causing sweatback
42
Gas blows-cold iron, high moisture.
Blow in the cope side of a pump impeller caused by wet sand and hard ramming.
Result of aluminum in iron.

1) Gas dissolved in molten metal
2) Metallic impurities e.g. aluminum, bismuth, lead, tin, antimony and boron
3) Greasy or rusty scrap
4) Enameled scrap containing boron
5) Incorrect balance of aluminum and silicon in steel
43
Blister on casting caused by hard ramming and wet sand.
Upper section shows a chaplet blow caused by improper coating

material or a damp chaplet. Lower section shows a good fusion.
Blows due to cold melted metal.

1) Steel
44
a. Too short a boil
b. Insufficient deoxidation
c. Wet refractories
2) Iron
a. Cold melted metal
b. Oxidized iron
c. Tramp elements (e.g. aluminum, lead, tin, antimony, boron, bismuth, enameled iron
d. Stripping too early
e. Excessive variation of acid demand of sand
3) Non-ferrous
a. Improper fluxing or degassing procedures
b. Excessive melting temperatures
c. Wet refractories
d. Wet or cold melt addition
e. Wet or cold skimmer
f. Metallic impurities or tramp elements
g. Oxidized metal
X. Pouring Practice
1) Cold, damp, or green crucibles or ladles
2) Pouring cold metal
3) Interrupted pouring
4) Ladle or crucible too high above mold
5) Slow or fast pouring
6) Improperly cleaned ladles
7) Heel of metal left in ladle
8) Insufficient spinning speed in centrifugal casting
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Chills, chaplets, wires which are rusty, improperly coated, oxidized or damp
45
Gross Segregation and Carbon Flotation (Kish) - Chapter 9
Dross in ductile iron.
Description
Segregation is the metallurgical or mechanical separation of one or more elements during solidification.
Normally this is a function of metal composition and cooling rates. Kish is free graphite separated from
molten iron.
Causes
1) Too great a difference in metal sections causes segregation due to slow cooling in the larger sections
if the composition is planned for the more rapid cooling sections
2) A section of mold or core that promotes heat retention and could promote localized segregation

None
Ill. Flask Equipment and Rigging

1) Rough running flask (out of balance) in centrifugal castings have been known to promote segregation

1) Distribution of gates and risers promoting heat retention in localized area
2) Localized hot spots at the gate or riser junction could slow down cooling to the point that gross
segregation is found in the gate junction or riser neck
3) Turbulent flow of metal changes the normal cooling rate
4) Incorrect use of exothermic molding materials can cause localized overheating
46
V. Molding Sand
1) Abnormally slow heat transfer due to the use of insulating materials or molding aggregates can
change the cooling rate of a given section
VI. Core Practice

1) Underbaked oil-bonded cores which create an exothermic reaction causing excessive heating of the
core could change the cooling rate of an adjacent metal section
2) Insulating gas films such as in shell cores may act to change the rate of heat transfer from the metal
section into the sand

1) Introduction of any insulating material such as asbestos or perlite can produce localized slow cooling
2) Incorrect use of exothermic molding materials changes the cooling rate of metal sections adjacent to
these materials
VII Metal Composition

1) Gray iron and malleable. The carbon equivalent may be too high for the cooling rate involved. The
eutectic point in these systems is seldom found exactly at 4.3 percent carbon equivalent
Kish caused by high carbon equivalent.
2) Phosphorus too high for the application has an influence on the eutectic formation.
3) Insufficient carbide stabilizers permit free carbon to segregate in high carbon equivalent irons
4) Excessive use of graphitizers may have a direct effect on kish formation in addition to their
obvious influence on carbon equivalent
5) Spheroidal graphite iron (ductile iron) . There is an added influence from the use of either
excessive magnesium treatment or excessive secondary inoculation
6) High sulfur can contribute to segregation of magnesium sulfide and other segregations which are
thrown out of solution by the nodularizing treatment
7) Aluminum plus titanium in excess of .10 percent produces a segregation of ternary carbide
eutectics in iron
8) Steel does not usually exhibit gross segregation except in high or special alloys. High sulfur or
leaded steels can show segregation. Special high copper steels may also show segregation if the
copper is in excess of approximately .6 percent
9) In aluminum, copper or other alloy additions exceeding the solubility limit may show as gross
segregation

1) Cupola melted gray iron and ductile iron may develop segregation as a result of faulty melting
practice which produces an unintended change in composition. Improper balance of air to coke
promoting carbon pickup will produce an undesirable level of carbon equivalent
2) Melting too hot causing excessive carbon pickup at the beginning of a heat can produce an off-
analysis and kish.
3) Nonuniform chemical composition, due to variation in size of materials charged, produces
variations in carbon and possible segregation
4) Careless charging or careless weighing of ingredients of the charge result in nonuniform
chemistry
47
5) Malleable: Melting too hot, too fast, or with a carbonizing flame can result in excessive carbon
equivalent, or may result in a direct seeding effect which then starts kish accumulations
6) Steel: Improper melting or deoxidation
7) Aluminum: Excessive superheat starts a grain growth phenomenon which may induce or show as
segregation
8) Magnesium: Careless makeup of the charge introduces undesirable and segregating type
impurities
9) Brass and Bronze: Leaded bronzes not adequately stirred will show segregation of the lead
10) Dirty or skulled ladles causing contamination introduce segregation either because of a
composition change or because the impurities are only partially absorbed by the melt
11) Carelessness in segregating returned scrap permits the alloy to be melted with an incorrect
analysis
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring below the temperature of solubility is most apt to occur when alloying elements differ
widely in their solubility temperature
2) Cooling before pouring permits some components to come out of solution even though the
original melt was adequately blended and alloyed
3) Pouring too hot in the case of leaded bronze permits the lead to segregate during the
solidification process. These alloys must be poured as close to the solidification temperature as
possible and be stirred immediately before pouring
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Cooling rate too slow for the composition
48
Hard Spots, Hard Areas and Chilled Spots - Chapter 10
Flask bar close to casting surface caused hard spot, corrected by

cutting out one section of the bar (see diagram).
Brinell hardness indentations indication nonuniform hardness.
Description
Hard spots, hard areas and chilled spots in a casting
are localized zones of excessive hardness.
Causes
1) Thick and thin sections
2) Metal chemistry, as related to casting section thickness

1) Worn or warped patterns and core boxes cause thin sections
2) Mismatched pattern equipment causing thin sections

1) Mold cavity too close to bars or wall of flask
2) Shift created by worn flask pins and bushings
3) Weak or warped flasks and bottom boards
4) Not enough sand between bottom board and casting

49
1) Gating that fails to provide adequate heat to thin sections
Hard spots caused by use of core wash contaminated with tellurium.
V. Molding Sand
1) Wet spots
2) Tramp materials
VI. Core Practice

1) Wires or rods too close to surface
2) Improper or wet coating
3) Warped cores (causing thin sections)
4) Improper print size (causing thin sections)

1) Careless core setting (causing thin sections)
2) Arbors, rods, gaggers, bars too close to mold cavity
3) Excessive nailing
4) Wash too thick and not dried
5) Excessive or improper chills

1) Metal composition not suitable for section size
2) Tramp elements from the charge
50
Nonuniform section, which required dense hub, promoted chilled edges on the outer sections of the vanes.
Nonuniform casting hardness.
Nonuniform casting hardness.
Chilled edges caused by low carbon equivalent.
51
Typical hard spot that showed up on machining.
Hard spots from undissolved ferroalloy additions.
52
Nonuniform section, which required dense hub, promoted
chilled edges on the outer sections of the vanes.

1) Cold melting that results in poor alloy distribution
2) Excessive Superheat and oxidation
3) Wet refractories in furnaces and ladles
4) Crucibles or ladles containing residue from prior heats
5) Incorrect inoculation
a. Wrong inoculant
b. Inoculant added at the wrong time
c. Failure to use inoculant when required
d. Improper inoculant that does not go into solution readily.
e. Metal too cold to dissolve inoculant
X. Pouring Practice
1) Cold metal because of cold or wet ladles
2) Skull left in ladles
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shaking out too hot (insufficient sand for insulation on casting)
2) Localized heating from cut-off torch or grinding
3) Failure to heat treat after welding
4) Wrong composition of welding rod
5) Uneven temperature of metal mold
6) Wrong exothermic compound or sleeves for metal poured
53
View of hot tear in chilled casting caused by low phosphorus content.
54
Hot Tears - Chapter 11
View of hot tear in chilled casting caused by low phosphorus content.
Description
A hot tear is a crack in the casting which occurs
while it is still hot, or either solid or semisolid.
Causes
1) Lack of adequate fillets
2) Abrupt change in section thickness
3) Any design which causes the mold to resist metal contraction
1) Incorrectly placed or sized cracking strips and tie bars
1) Flask bars too near the riser or sprue
2) Flask bars preventing casting contraction
3) Pattern too large for the flask
1) Gates and risers that prevent normal contraction
V. Molding Sand
1) Poor collapsibility
2) Low sintering-point materials which form a ceramic bond
3) Sand that gives a rough surface which prevents normal contraction
Hot tear caused by sharp corner.
55
VI. Core Practice
1) Poor collapsibility
2) Low hot deformation with poor collapsibility (high hot strength)
3) Reinforcement rods too close to core surface
4) Failure to shake out reinforced core soon enough
1) Hard ramming
2) Rods, gaggers, etc., too close to mold surface
Cracked casting caused by failure of core to collapse.
Crack in drag section due to excess amount of pitch binder in core.
56
Core rods too close to casting surface.
3) Riser or sprue too close to bars or flask wall

4) Excessive swabbing or sponging
5) Failure to use chill when specified
6) Uneven ramming that causes swell and prevents contraction

1) Wrong composition for the design

1) Excessive carbide stabilizers
2) Wrong composition due to careless charging
3) Presence of tramp elements
4) Charging contaminated scrap
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring temperature too low to promote collapsibility
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shakeout too soon
2) Cooling too fast after shakeout-fans at shakeout
3) Spinning speed too high in centrifugal casting
4) Rough flask or mold in centrifugal casting
5) Moving a mold in a rough manner too soon after pouring
57
Inverse Chills - Chapter 12
Inverse chill on test bar caused by cold metal and wet sand.
Description
Inverse chill, also known as reverse chill. This condition is common in gray iron, ductile iron and malleable
castings. Casting sections where the interior is chilled or white, while the outer sections are mottled or gray.
Causes
1) Thin sections adjacent to heavy sections in malleable iron

1) None

1) None

1) None
V. Molding Sand
1) Wet sand and cold metal
VI. Core Practice

1) Excessive gas and cold metal
58
Inverse chill caused by cold metal on wet sand.

1) Any practice involving excess or free water
VIIl. Metal Composition
1) (carbon equivalent too high for casting design
2) The presence of non-ferrous metals in the iron
3) Carbide stabilizers, such as tellurium, chrome, etc.
4) Sulfur content not balanced with manganese
1) Any condition which would allow or lend itself to the solution of free Hydrogen gas in the metal
2) Hydrogen atmosphere from low coke bed in the cupola
3) Wet linings in cupola, electric, or air furnace
4) Use of contaminated metals in charge, such as die cast non-ferrous metals
5) Boiling metal caused by wet runners or spouts
6) Wet bottom sand in the cupola
7) Moisture in the blast, particularly in hypereutectic iron, such as piston rings
8) Inadequate inoculations for the conditions of the melting previously described
X. Pouring Practice
1) Wet ladles or ladle lips
2) Holding too long after inoculation
XI. Miscellaneous
None
59
60
Mass Hardness - Chapter 13
Chill sequence indicates occurrences of charge material contamination

when stainless steel scrap was inadvertently charged instead of regular steel scrap.
Chill sequence indicates occurrences of charge material

contamination when stainless steel scrap was inadvertently
charged instead of regular steel scrap.
Description
Mass Hardness is a condition in which the entire
casting is too hard for the application.
Causes
61
None
None
None
None
V. Molding Sand
1) Wet sand in combination with off analysis
2) Use of other material, such as zircon sand or chromite sand that has a more rapid transfer of heat
VI. Core Practice

1) Excessive use of chill coat
2) Too thin a layer of sand over arbors

1) Improper use of chill techniques
2) Misapplied chill washes
3) Low temperature of the molds in die casting or permanent molds
4) Inadequate insulation in permanent mold

1) Incorrect metallurgy
2) Steel-excessive carbide stabilizing alloys
3) Gray and ductile iron-too low carbon equivalent
a. Tramp element
4) Lack of inoculation in thin sections
5) Malleable-tramp elements that prevent nodulizing or malleablizing
6) Aluminum-alloys that increase mass hardness, e.g. iron, magnesium or other trace alloys
7) Magnesium-excessive silicon or aluminum
8) Brass and Bronze-incorrect composition, excessive impurities
a. Wrong combination
b. Contamination
c. Careless control of various alloy returns

1) Off analysis
2) Oxidizing melting conditions
3) Super heating of most metals
4) Careless charging
5) Low coke bed in cupola
X. Pouring Practice
1) Oxidized metal
2) Wet, dirty and contaminated ladle spouts and runners
3) Pouring too cold in thin sections
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Air quench due to early shakeout
2) Improper heat treatment
3) Over-chilling with water-cooled permanent molds
4) Unintentional water quench
62
Metal Penetration and Fusion - Chapter 14
Penetration due to soft-rammed core.
Description
Metal penetration is a condition in which the metal or metallic oxides have filled the voids between the sand
grains without displacing them or by chemically changing the silica or binder. In conventional molds or cores
this can take place because of an open grain or surface porosity. In high density molds iron oxide readily
combines with the silica to form a fayalite which is fluid at several hundred degrees lower temperature than
that of the original metal. Generally, the higher the free moisture content at the metal sand interface the
greater will be this phenomena.
Fusion is a related surface defect having a rough glossy appearance resulting from metallic oxides acting as a
flux on the sand or low fusion binders which melt leaving voids on the surface. Controlled fusion may result in
a hard cake or fused layer which peels away from the casting leaving a smooth finish. As the fusion
progresses it results in penetration.
Causes
1) Sharp corners
2) Overhanging or protruding sections
3) Thin core or sand section surrounded by heavy metal

1) Pattern equipment constructed so as to promote uneven or soft ramming
2) Improper location of parting line which induces soft ramming
3) Improper location of the pattern on the plate causing narrow pockets
4) Multiple patterns mounted too close together
5) Improper location of sprues, risers, and runners
6) Inadequate draft
7) Pattern equipment constructed to promote excessive metal pressure such as a vertical rather
than horizontal mounting.
8) Inadequate provision for mold and core venting in high density molding

63
1) Design and construction of flask equipment which promotes uneven or soft ramming
2) Excessive cope height
3) Lack of venting of flask and bottom boards in high density molding
4) Metal inserts or chills which act as condensers for moisture

1) The location of gates and risers which promote localized overheating of the sand
2) Incorrect ratio of sprue, runner, and gate permitting metal oxidation during pouring
3) Pouring cup or sprue designed so as to permit aspiration of air
4) A riser neck which overheats the sand
Photomicrograph showing type of metal structure often found

between sand grains and at a considerable distance from
mold / metal interface; original photo 400X.
V. Molding Sand
1) A low sintering or low fusion sand or binder
2) Any sand condition that promotes nonuniform density
3) Improper distribution of the sand grains which induce poor ramming
4) Poor flowability or moldability caused by: moisture segregation; poorly mixed sand; excessive
moisture;
excessive cereal; excessive green deformation; and prepacked or lumpy sand
5) Nonuniform coating of shell sand
6) Insufficient carbonaceous or deoxidizing material which will prevent the water vapor from reacting
with
the metal
7) Excessive mold permeability or, in the case of high density molding, insufficient permeability
VI. Core Practice

1) Too low a sintering or fusion point of sand or binders
2) Grain size which is too large or improperly distributed in uncoated cores
64
A typical hard mold penetration caused by using a green sand mold rammed to 85-90 hardness.
3) Soft rammed cores

4) Plugged vents
5) Improperly tucked sand under loose pieces
6) A rough or porous core surface
7) Core surface which is bruised or abraded
8) Improper or insufficient release agent
9) A partially disintegrated core surface due to overbaking
10) A broken or disturbed core wash due to rough handling
11) A dirty core box
12) In self curing binders; improper ratio of catalyst to binder
13) Poorly mixed core sand
14) Any condition promoting veining or finning such as a core crack
65
Fusion of silica on steel and ductile iron.
Complete fusion of iron into the core because the core was underbaked.
Insufficient drying of mold wash created a penetrated area.
15) High cereal, low core oil, or low moisture

66
16) Low hot compressive strength
17) Poorly cleaned or finished cores
18) Dipped or sprayed cores that are not redried
19) Cores that have picked up moisture during storage
20) Low air pressure for core blower or rammer which results in soft-rammed cores

1) Soft or uneven ramming
2) Excessive ramming or density
3) Poorly patched areas
4) Loose fitting stop-off
5) Uneven or insufficiently dried mold coatings
6) Excessive use of parting compounds
7) Insufficient facing to cover the pattern
8) Low air pressure on molding machine or rammer
9) Any combination of hot and cold materials which can cause condensation
10) Combining high permeability facing sand with a low permeability backing sand particularly in high
density molding

1) Metals which form fluid oxides
2) Low melting constituents such as lead or tin
3) Excessive phosphorus in copper alloys
4) Metal oxides which readily react chemically with sand
5) Metals requiring high pouring temperature

1) Oxidized metal
2) The excessive use of any fluxing-type material such as
3) limestone, soda ash, and fluorspar
4) Melting too hot.
X. Pouring Practice
1) Excessively high pouring temperature
2) Excessive pouring height
3) Poor skimming practice
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any factor involving free moisture in the mold cavity
2) Shaking out too cold or too late-particularly in high density molding
3) Sand coated with low fusion materials
4) Sand or binder reacting chemically with metal oxides
5) Insufficient venting in high density molding
67
Misruns and Cold Shuts - Chapter 15
Laps or cold shuts caused by pourer missing pouring cup for a matter of seconds.
Description
A misrun casting is one which lacks completeness due to failure of the metal to fill the mold cavity. There may
be a smooth rounded-edge hole through the casting wall. One or more extremities may be only partially filled
out.
A cold shut casting is one in which a definite discontinuity exists due to imperfect fusion where two streams of
metal have converged. This defect may have the appearance of a crack or seam with smooth, rounded
edges.
Both defects may be related to insufficient fluidity of the metal or excessive gas pressure in the mold. It is
well to check the chapter on Gas Defects before assuming that cold metal is the only cause.
Causes
1) Non-uniform casting sections resulting in interrupted metal flow
2) Metal sections too thin for area involved
3) Isolated thin sections

1) Worn patterns or core boxes causing thin metal sections
2) Patterns not made according to blueprint
68
Typical misrun; one tooth completely missing.
3) Pattern equipment not properly reinforced

4) Misalignment of pattern or core equipment

1) Cope or drag shift causing too thin metal sections
2) Worn flask pins or bushings
3) Patterns not properly mounted
4) Failure to tilt molds causing interrupted metal flow
5) Flask insufficiently barred allowing cope to sag
6) Distorted or dirty jackets causing a crush
7) Weak or improperly reinforced flasks
8) Distorted bands
9) Cope flask too shallow

1) Improper sizing of gates, runner and sprue-ingates too small or too few
2) Gates not properly located
3) Improper distribution or balance of gates
4) Too low head pressure
69
V. Molding Sand
1) Excess moisture
2) Sand too high in volatile matter
3) Sand too weak allowing mold distortion
4) Permeability too low
5) Too rapid heat transfer of molding material
Typical cold shut on impeller casting, the defective vein is broken

away from the casting to demonstrate the cold shut section.
70
Cold shut caused by small ingates.
VI. Core Practice

1) Excess organic core binders
2) Under cured or green cores
3) Insufficient permeability
4) Insufficient vents
5) Cores not properly sized or fitted allowing decreased metal sections
6) Excess wash, mudding compound or paste. Metal sections may be reduced and/or excess gas
formed
7) Raised or sagged cores
8) Core shift causing too thin metal sections
9) Cores warped or distorted-thermoplastic binders
10) Reinforcing rods too close to core surface chilling effect
11) Cores with too rapid heat transfer characteristics-chilling the metal
71
1) Excessive ramming causing low mold permeability
2) Soft ramming permitting mold distortion or sagging
3) Mold insufficiently reinforced
4) Improperly bedded or clamped bottom boards
5) Excessive sticking or patching
6) Molds for thin flat castings set level instead of tilting
7) Too few or too small chaplets allowing core to raise
8) Core prints too tight
9) Excessive wash
10) Misalignment of sprue

1) Gray, malleable or nodular irons with low
Cold metal poured during first part of heat caused poor definition of both the edges and cored holes.
72
Same casting as in previous example after correction.
Misrun caused by cold metal.
1) Carbon equivalent or excess carbide stabilizers

2) Low phosphorus in gray iron or brasses
3) Steel-composition changes affect fluidity
4) Inadequate fluidity in brass or bronze alloys
5) Low silicon or iron in aluminum alloys
6) Improper degassing of aluminum alloys
7) Magnesium-improper metal composition
73
1) Wrong composition due to careless weighing or charging
2) Cold melting
3) Oxidized or gassy metal
4) Over reduced metal-hydrogen reduces fluidity in all metals especially aluminum
5) Excessive ladle additions
6) Damp ladle additions
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring temperature too low
3) Reducing the rate of pour too soon
4) Boiling metal from wet spout, wet lining, etc.
5) Cold ladles
6) Thin castings poured on the level
7) Low head pressure
8) Slag, dross or ladle refractory which plugs the gate
9) Poured short
10) Pouring too slow
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Chills and chaplets too large for metal section
2) Reduced metal section from any cause, e.g. excessive mold weights, careless weight shifting, etc.
3) Condensation from warm sand on cold cores, chills, inserts, or chaplets
Misrun caused by gates so small they froze before casting filled.
74
Off Dimension Related To Cores - Chapter 16
Result of failure to clean core assembly prior to setting the mold (boss was intended to be solid).
Description
An off dimension defect is an incorrect dimension occurring as a result of the wrong core being used, correct
cores improperly set, cores omitted, cores incorrectly assembled, or thermal instability of cores.
Causes
None

1) Unidentified locators or prints
2) Improper or broken telltales
3) Improperly marked core boxes and patterns
4) Faulty core box construction, causing distortion
5) Core prints too large or too small
6) Chaplet location not marked
7) Chaplet size not marked
75
Improper marking of pattern caused molder to leave out required cores.
core left out of casting because print was not identified.
76
Excessive metal pressure caused core to warp during pouring.
The large core print permitted metal flow around entire core.

1) Core setting jig or fixture worn or inaccurate

None
V. Molding Sand
None
VI. Core Practice
1) A wrong core Used
2) Cores improperly set
3) Sagged or distorted cores
4) Too much or lack of paste
5) Wash coating too thick or too thin
6) Improper rodding
7) Conversion of oil sand core to self cure core resulting in lack of compensation for stability
8) Under cured cores
9) Improper grain distribution
10) Too rapid heat transfer of cores

1) Setting defective cores
2) Improper filing or rubbing of cores
77
1) Mottled structure in nodular iron will distort and grow when heat treated

None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot
2) Pouring too hard
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Carelessness in core making and core assembly
78
Open Grain Structure - Chapter 17
Open grain caused by too high a carbon equivalent.
Description
Open grain structure is a condition wherein a casting, when machined or fractured is too coarse grained. It
may be throughout the casting or it may be localized.
The most important areas of control are design, gating, composition and melting. This is primarily a
metallurgical -type defect. It is often difficult to differentiate between open grain, porosity and micro
shrinkage.
Causes
1) Slow cooling in heavy sections
2) Lack of cores in heavy sections that are later drilled out
3) Sections promoting heat retention
4) Lack of liaison between designer, patternmaker, foundry and machine shop

1) Improper cored heavy sections (See 1)

1) Lack of rigidity in flasks
79
Open grain iron.

1) Gating which does not permit directional solidification
2) Ingate and riser locations creating hot spots in localized areas
3) Oversized gates and risers
4) Insufficient number of ingates
V. Molding Sand
1) High deformation in sand, permitting mold wall movement
2) Improper selection of molding additives
3) Molding materials that retard heat transfer
VI. Core Practice

1) Underbaked oil sand cores and/or oil bonded air set cores
2) Exothermic materials or insulating materials

1) Lack of chills or chill promoting materials

1) Improper analysis for section size
2) Gray iron and malleable-carbon equivalent or phosphorus too high
3) Insufficient carbide stabilizers
4) Excessive use of graphitizers
5) Aluminum alloys-impurities such as iron or lack of grain refiners
6) Magnesium alloys-incorrect composition
7) Brass and bronze-incorrect composition

1) Cupola melted gray iron
a. Improper balance of air and coke creating an excessive carbon pickup
80
b. High coke bed
c. Slow tapping out or excessive shutdowns
d. Careless charging or weighing of materials
2) Brass and bronze

a. Contamination from dirty crucibles
b. Careless segregation of return scrap
c. Unknown origin of ingots and return scrap
Open grain gray iron caused by high percentage of phosphorus.
d. Allowing turnings and chips to become

mixed
3) Aluminum
a. Overheated
b. Reducing atmosphere
c. Carelessness in charge makeup or contamination
d. Omitting grain refiners
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Improper heat treatment
2) Improper machining
81
Poured Short - Chapter 18
Typical example of casting poured short.
Description
A casting which lacks completeness due to the mold
not being filled.
Causes
1) Insufficient metal
2) Back pressure
a. Low permeability
b. Lack of vents
c. Excessive amount of core or mold gas
Typical example of casting poured short.
82
Ramoffs or Ramaways - Chapter 19
Hub section of a casting showing typical ramoff
Description
A ramoff or ramaway is an incorrect casting dimension resulting from the sand moving away from the pattern
during molding.
Causes
1) A curved or rounded vertical surface
2) Extended vertical sections
3) Sharp edges
4) Lack of proper fillets or radii
1) Loose pieces not properly secured to pattern
2) Patterns not equipped with ramoff strips
3) Patterns too close together
4) Patterns too close to edge of flask
5) Patterns and plates too smooth
1) Loose squeeze head on machine
2) Loose pattern plate on a jolt machine
83
Result of peening in only one direction, causing the round boss to become elliptical.
3) Inadequate support under the pattern

4) Incorrect design or placement of squeeze blocks
6) Molding machine worn or out of level

1) A gate or riser too close to the pattern
V. Molding Sand
1) Sand characteristics that contribute to nonuniform ramming will aggravate any of the design or
mechanical conditions
a. Excess moisture
b. Improper mulling
c. Excess cereal
d. Low green compressive strength, for the application
VI. Core Practice

1) Ramming or peening in the wrong direction
2) Improper tucking around loose pieces and bosses
3) Lack of proper venting of core boxes (in blown cores)
4) Improper spacing or location of blow tubes
5) Core sand mixture not applicable to the job

1) Ramming or peening in the wrong direction
2) Improper tucking around loose pieces and bosses
3) Whipping of a pattern due to worn machine
4) Preramming of sand while filling flask
5) Filling flask too full before peening
6) Not leveling sand in flask before ramming or jolting

None

None
X. Pouring Practice
None
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Rollover machines worn or out of adjustment
2) Pattern draw equipment worn or out of adjustment
3) Improper flow or direction of sand into flask
84
Rough Surface - Chapter 20
Typical rough surface caused in this case by an uncoated open core.
DESCRIPTION
A casting that lacks the required degree of smoothness for a specific application.
Causes
1) Design is a contributing factor only when sharp corners, deep pockets and the like are involved
1) Inaccessible areas
2) Fillets too small
3) Rough pattern surface
Excessive moisture in molding sand created a low moldability and an open mold surface.
A washed and an unwashed section of a mold.

85
4) Weak patterns
5) Materials and coatings which induce sticking of sand
6) Non-uniform heating in shell or hot box

1) Flask bars too close preventing proper ramming
2) Too small a flask
IV. GATING AND RISERING

1) Hot spots created by the gating
2) High metal velocity at ingates
3) Excessive head pressure
V. Molding Sand
1) Moisture too high
2) Moisture too low
3) Permeability too high-coarse sand
4) Improper mulling
5) Foreign material
6) Low fusion point materials
7) Low carbonaceous materials
8) High carbonaceous materials
9) Poor flowability
10) Insufficient hot compressive strength
11) Carbonaceous materials too coarse
12) Excessive use of release agents
13) Insufficient new sand additions
VI. Core Practice

1) Dirty core boxes
2) Soft rammed cores
3) Improper application of core wash
4) Over or undercured cores
5) Rough handling
6) Permeability too high-coarse sand
7) Hot strength too low
8) Improper mixing
9) Poorly cleaned and finished cores
10) Wrong release agent

I) Soft ramming
2) Dirty patterns
3) Improperly riddled or screened sand
4) Improper application of mold coatings
5) Poorly finished molds
6) Excessive use of parting compounds

1) Composition requiring high pouring temperature
86
Poor choice of molding sand caused excessive permeability in this casting.
A sand high in limestone created this rough effect (pocket) in the areas of maximum temperature.
2) Composition that reacts to mold surface

1) Poor slag practice
X. Pouring Practice
1) Too high pouring temperature
2) Improperly skimmed ladles
3) Ladle too high
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Improper cleaning
2) Cleaning abrasive too coarse
87
Runouts and Bleeders - Chapter 21
Typical incomplete casting caused by runout.
Description
Runouts and bleeders are defects which result in an incomplete casting. Runouts occur during pouring and
usually the mold cavity has not been completely filled. Bleeders occur after pouring has stopped and the
mold cavity has been filled.
Causes
None

1) A pattern mounted on too small a board or plate
2) Worn bearing surfaces
3) Dirty bearing surfaces on plate or flask
4) Mismatched patterns
5) A thin pattern plate

1) A flask too small
2) A warped or twisted flask
3) Dirty flask joint
4) Faulty pins and bushings
88
5) Worn hinges and locks on snap flasks
6) Warped and twisted bands
A weak core permitted metal to run into core cavity (it was impossible to remove core section).
Shell cores improperly sealed permitted metal to run into core cavity.
A poorly bedded bottom board permitted this casting to bleed during pouring.
7) With a cope and drag arrangement the pattern plate may be mounted higher than the flask landing
strip
8) Weak, burned or uneven bottom boards
9) Improperly fitting jackets
10) Insufficient or improperly placed weights
11) Bumping molds on a conveyor
12) Insufficient drag depth
89
1) Sprue, runner or riser too close to the flask
2) Patterns too close to the flask
3) Excess head pressure
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Sand too low in green deformation
3) Excessive expansion and contraction in shell molds
4) Late gas explosion in mold
Shifting the jackets before solidification while the mold was on a moving
conveyor caused this bleeding. Note that the mold had been full.
The result of a runout.

VI. Core Practice
1) Core prints too large
2) Vents too close to surface or not properly sealed
90
Runout condition caused by breakthrough of thin spot in shell core.
3) Weak cores
4) Shell cores with thin spots
5) Shell cores not sealed at prints
6) Thermal cracking of shell cores
7) Excessive peel back (shell cores)
8) Too rapid heating or cooling

1) Soft ramming
2) Insufficient or improperly weighted molds
3) Uneven clamping
4) Improperly bedded bottom boards
5) Non-uniform hardness or lumpy bedding sand
6) Careless closing of molds
7) Venting too close to the mold cavity or not sealed
Runouts that emptied a great part of the mold cavity
91
Runouts that emptied a great part of the mold cavity
8) Lack of proper cope seal in large molds

9) Under or over baked dry sand molds
10) Too rapid Heating of skin dried molds
11) insufficient reinforcing or support of dry sand molds

1) High fluidity
2) Wide solidification range

None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Failure to use jackets, weights or clamps
2) Pouring too hard or high
3) Pouring too hot
4) Bumping molds during pouring
5) Removing weights, clamps or jackets too soon
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shaking out too hot
2) Knocking off gates and risers too soon
92
Scars, Seams and Plates - Chapter 22
Plate caused by wet sand and overly hard ramming. Molten metal forced out by gas
pressure later flowed over already solidified metal.
Description
Scar: A minor or shallow shiny mark on a casting surface where the casting does not conform to
the pattern.
Seam: A visual indented line on the casting surface.
Plate: A layer of metal partially separated from the main body of the casting section.
These defects usually occur on flat surfaces.
Causes
1) Abrupt change in casting section, resulting in interrupted metal flow
Typical plate defect

93
Plates caused by gas defect
2) Sharp corners resulting in interrupted metal flow

1) Worn patterns or core boxes causing thin metal sections
2) Incorrect pattern dimensions resulting in casting sections too thin for the fluidity of the metal
3) Patterns improperly reinforced causing excessively thin sections
Cross section of plate defect caused by wet sand and hard ramming.

1) Cope and drag shift causing thin metal sections
2) Pattern not properly mounted
3) Lack of tilting arrangement for thin flat sections
4) Flask insufficiently barred allowing cope to sag

1) Gates which create turbulent flow
2) Gates which create interrupted flow
3) Gates which foster slow pouring
5) Widely separated or too few gates
V. Molding Sand
1) Low permeability
2) Excessive free water
3) Too high in gas forming material
4) Differences in strength or permeability of facing and backup sand
5) High expanding sand
6) Low hot deformation
94
VI. Core Practice
1) Low permeability from excessive fines and poor grain distribution
2) Cores too high in gas forming material
3) Insufficient or plugged vents
4) Undercured cores
5) Off size or distorted
6) Rubbed core surface
7) Broken or thin wash coating

1) Combination of hot and cold materials
2) Non-uniform ramming
3) Insufficient venting
5) Thin metal section
6) Excessive sticking and patching
7) Turbulent flow of metal
8) Insufficient number or too small chaplets
9) Gas pockets in thin sections

1) Low fluidity
2) Too low carbon equivalent
3) Excessive carbide stabilizers

1) Cold melting
2) Gassy metal
3) Improper flux treatment
4) Incorrect composition
X. Pouring Practice
2) Lack of synchronization in pouring multiple down sprues
3) Pouring too high
4) Reducing rate of pouring too soon
5) Thin flat sections poured level instead of tilted
6) Excessive mold weights
7) Rough handling
8) Bad jackets
9) Rough handling of molds
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Rusty, dirty, oxidized or damp chills, chaplets or nails
2) Excessive coating on chills
95
Shifts - Chapter 23
Typical mold shift caused by mismatched cope and drag.
Description
A shift is a mismatch of the casting at the parting line. They may occur in cores or core assembly.
Causes
1) Inadequate provision for core print or core support

1) Pattern not properly aligned in the cope and drag
2) Misaligned locators on non-shift devices
3) Loose or worn dowel pins in loose patterns
4) Patterns not properly secured to plates
5) Lack of locators
6) Inadequate or improper core prints

1) Worn, bent or missing pins and bushings
2) Tight, worn, bent or broken bands and jackets
3) Weak or warped flasks
4) Faulty or worn machines
5) Worn setting, assembling, rubbing or checking jigs
6) Inadequate space between patterns or patterns and flask
96
Shift due to poor alignment of cope and drag patterns.
Two castings showing result of inadequate core prints,

producing a vertical shift (good casting on right).
How worn pins and bushings permit a mismatch in one or more directions.
97
Left, casting with defect as result of incorrect assembly of cores.
Right: After correction.

None
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
Shifts as result of cope motion while the molder

was carrying mold to pouring floor.
VI. Core Practice

1) Improperly aligned cores in assembly
2) Excessive core paste
3) Core paste not dry
4) Excessive rubbing of core
5) Distorted core

1) Excessive rapping of loose patterns
2) Use of dowel pin holes for rapping holes
3) Improper placement or unsecured chaplets
4) Incorrect chaplet: Too long, too short, not heavy enough to support load
5) Core set wrong
6) Reversing cope or drag
98
Examples of cope and drag shifts due to improper handling of mold jackets.
7) Improper or careless clamping

8) Improper or careless placement of mold weights
9) Rough or improper handling
a. Molder carrying mold against his body

b. Bumping on a pallet line
c.. Bumping in automatic handling
d. Rough roller conveyor
e. Tilting or upending molds

None

None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Improper handling of weight and jackets
2) Bumping molds with pouring ladle
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Excessive vibration
99
Shot Metal or Cold Shots - Chapter 24
Cold shot inside surface of centrifugally-cast iron pipe.

This particular defect was cured by ladle additions of silicon.
Description
Shot metal or cold shots are small globules of metal imbedded in, but not entirely fused with the casting. A
cold shot shows as an approximately round shot, while a cold shut is a form of misrun and appears as a crack
or seam.
Causes
None
1) Excessive clearance on prints requiring excessive amount of sealing compound
2) Inadequate venting at parting line
3) Any gating which results in turbulence
1) Bars and flask too close to mold surface
2) Sprues and risers too close to bars or flask walls
1) Gating which causes turbulence or interrupted flow
2) Multiple gating which results in most of the metal entering into one or two of the ingates
3) Pop or pencil gates which are too small.
100
Cold shot iron from interrupted pouring.
V. Molding Sand
1) High moisture or excessive gas which results in a severe blowing action causing metal to spatter
2) Foreign material such as clay balls, etc., which produces excessive gas in a localized area
VI. Core Practice

1) Undercured core or excessive gas from core, core wash, or core paste
2) Exposed wires, arbors, and supports which are wet, dirty, oily, or rusty

1) Poorly dried molds or core coatings
2) Plugged vents
3) Excessive sticking of mold

1) Certain metals which are more prone to rapid oxidation and thus, prevents the shot from redissolving
(Example: low carbon steel or aluminum)
2) Off analysis metal which results in an excessive rate of solidification
3) Phosphorus too high (centrifugal casting)

1) Oxidized metal
X. Pouring Practice
1) Careless skimming, spilling or splashing metal in a sprue or riser
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign material which causes metal to splatter
2) Condensation in the mold
101
Shrinkage Cavities and Depressions - Chapter 25
Typical shrinkage defect in a thick section that could not be

adequately fed (below, design of this casting).
Description
A shrinkage cavity is a jagged hole or spongy area lined with fern-like structure called dendrites. A
shrinkage depression on the surface of the casting is a recession from the true plane
of the mold surface.
There is apt to be confusion determining between a shrink and a blow. If a doubt exists, refer to the chapter
on Gas Defects. Many of the cures for both are the same, but in some cases the cure is just the opposite.
It is characteristic of a shrink to appear in heavier sections, at abrupt changes of section thickness or at hot
spots. These same locations are also prone to producing gas defects and hot tears.
Causes
1) Abrupt change in section size
2) Isolated heavy sections which cannot be fed
3) Inadequate or too large fillets
4) Insufficient area for feeding or chilling isolated sections

1) Worn patterns and/or core boxes
2) Incorrect pattern dimensions resulting in thin or heavy sections
3) Poor pattern construction-improperly reinforced for high pressure molding
102
2) Flask too small
3) Improperly fitted jackets
4) Too many patterns in flask

1) Gates and risers not promoting progressive solidification
2) Insufficient number and/or improperly attached gates and risers
3) Risers too small
4) Improper ratio of riser neck to casting size
5) Large ingates
V. Molding Sand
1) Any condition that permits excessive moldwall movement
2) Soft ramming
3) Low green compressive strength
4) High green deformation
5) High hot deformation
6) Wet sand
VI. Core Practice

1) Core movement-oversize prints
2) Insufficient chaplets
3) Weak cores
4) Soft or insufficient prints
5) Lack of fillets

1) Any molding practice that will permit moldwall movement under pressure-refer to molding sand
2) Omission of exothermic or insulating materials if required
3) Lack of chills
Insufficient cope height prevented adequate riser height to f

sections involved. Sectioning through both the risers and
the casting demonstrates need for additional feed metal height.
103
Feeding four of these castings from one small riser was not enough to prevent shrink in riser neck.
Gate area being equal to casting section created a shrink in the gate itself.

1) Chemical composition unsuited for section involved
2) Low carbon
3) Aluminum
a. Insufficient grain refiners
b. Low silicon
c. Insufficient gas content
4) Ductile iron
a. Too high or too low carbon
b. Too high or too low carbon equivalent

1) Careless charging or weighing
2) Wrong composition
3) High temperature metal
104
Soft ram mold permitting mold-wall movement created
a feeding problem in the heavier section.
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot and/or too cold
2) Failure to touch up risers with hot metal
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Cracked molds
2) Runouts
3) Run-in (shellcores)
4) Improperly clamped molds
105
Stickers - Chapter 26
Typical lump on casting surface caused by sand sticking to pattern during molding.
Description
A sticker is excess metal on the surface of the casting caused by a portion of the mold
face remaining on the pattern.
Causes

1) Poorly polished or improperly coated
2) Worn or rough
3) Fillets and depressions filled with wax
4) Insufficient draft or back draft
5) A pattern undercut or loose at parting line
6) Failure to vent critical pockets

1) A flask lacking rigidity
2) Insufficient flask height
3) Placing too many patterns for the flask size
4) A worn or misaligned pattern draw device
5) Overjolting, out-of-level or worn molding machine
6) Excessive or insufficient vibration
7) An incorrectly adjusted automatic parting spray
106
Excessive moisture used in an attempt to compensate for hot sand caused general sticking
of sand grains to pattern surface.

1) Improperly placed gates, runners and risers causing pockets
V. Molding Sand
1) Hot sand
2) Inadequate sand properties
a. Low green tensile strength
b. Low green shear strength
c. Low permeability
d. Poorly mixed sand
e. Wet sand
VI. Core Practice

1) An oversized ramup core
2) Rough, dirty, or lack of draft in core box
3) Reaction between the binder and parting
4) Excessive moisture in sand

1) Rough Handling of the mold
2) Excessive liquid parting
3) Excessive or insufficient vibrating or rapping of the pattern
4) Too great a temperature difference between the pattern and sand
5) Leaving the pattern in mold too long
6) Ramming directly on the pattern with a slinger
7) Insufficient mold reinforcement
8) Gaggers, nails, soldiers, bars too close to the mold cavity
9) Careless or improper drawing of the pattern

None
None
X. Pouring Practice
None
XI. Miscellaneous
107
1) Foreign material
Swells, Strains, Sags and Core Fins - Chapter 27
A typical swell
Description
A swell is an enlarged metal section related to moldwall movement. A strain is a swell with a fin on it. A sag
is an increase or decrease in a metal section due to sagging of the cope or core. A core fin is a depression in
the casting caused by a fin on the core which was not removed before the core was set.
Causes
1) Design requiring long or thin cores and not permitting the use of a support
2) Any design which contributes to soft ramming
3) Large flat surfaces
4) Large castings which require a high metal pressure

1) Inaccurate parting lines
2) Inaccurate core prints
3) Inaccurate dimensions (kiss-throughs)
4) Warped core boxes
5) Worn pattern equipment
6) Flask landings lower than the parting line.
7) Warped, strained, or off-dimension matchplates
108
A strain: a swell with fins.
8) Inadequately reinforced pattern

9) Excessive number of multiple patterns
10) Inadequate relief vents

1) Warped, burned, broken, or weak bottom boards
2) A carved or worn strike-off
3) Weights that are too light
4) Worn or warped flasks
5) Poorly fitting jackets
6) Dirty jackets
A sag in the core created a thin section with a corresponding thick section.
109
A typical defect resulting from fin which should have been removed from the core before setting.
Insufficient clearance between bars caused the molder to soft ram this section.
Weak core distorted during pouring.
110
A poorly cleaned bottom board strained the mold and caused this distortion.

1) Lack of pop-offs or relief vents
2) Inadequate bearing surface
V. Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Any condition that permits excessive moldwall movement
VI. Core Practice

1) Core too small for print
2) Insufficiently reinforced cores
3) Setting the wrong core
4) Weak cores (improperly blown, rammed, or wrong mix)
5) Cracked, broken or warped cores (twisted drier)
6) Excessive hot deformation
7) A thin section on shell core
Soft ram on the mold was aggravated by a hard pour, causing this swell at the parting line.

1) A soft ram, not tucked or properly peened
111
2) Excessive shaving of the joint
3) Poorly reinforced molds
4) Uneven clamping of molds
5) Ramoff or ramaway
6) Uneven bedding of the bottom board

1) The high density metals have a greater tendency to produce mold-wall movement
2) Pouring temperature
3) Expansion and contraction (ductile iron)

1) Inoculation of graphitic metals increases mold-wall movement
X. Pouring Practice
1) Ladle too high
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Dirty pallets
2) Excessive spinning speeds in sand molds
112
Veins and Fins - Chapter 28
A casting exhibiting severe veining. This defect is also referred to as finning.
Description
Veining appears on the casting as irregular fin or fins of metal protruding from the surface of the casting. Two
conditions must exist. The core or mold surface develops a crack either from expansion-contraction forces or
mechanical handling and the metal must be fluid enough to enter the crack.
NOTE: (T) Signifies thermal cracking
(M) Signifies mechanical cracking
Causes
1) Sharp corners that develop hot spots. (T)
2) Thin cores surrounded by heavy metal sections. (T)
3) Massive sections-refer to Chapter 30-swells, strains. (M)
4) Pin or thin cores placed horizontally instead of vertically when possible. (T)

1) Sharp corners that develop hot spots. (T)
2) Thin cores surrounded by heavy metal sections. (T-M)
113
Test bar, poured after soft ramming.
3) Uneven metal sections causing uneven heat distribution in shell or hot box equipment. (T)
4) Inadequate support from core dryers causing cracked cores. (M)
5) Warped core dryers. (M)
6) Dryers not properly relieved. (M)

1) Rough mechanical handling of uncured cores. (M)
2) Misaligned shell or hot box equipment cracking cores. (M)
3) Flasks not rigid enough for molding process involved. (M)
4) Loose bars
5) Rough conveying of cores or molds. (M)

1) Gate causing metal to impinge on core causing hot spot in critical area. (T)
2) Riser too close to core print (hot spot) . (T)
3) Insufficient number of gates causing local hot spots. (T)
V. Molding Sand
1) Excessive organic material in sand (seacoal, etc.). (T)
2) Excess moisture in sand for skin or oven dried molds. (T)
3) Improper mulling. (T-M)
114
VI. Core Practice
1) Weak cores (green or cured). (M)
2) Cores too dense. (T)
3) Excess binders. (T)
4) Too rapid heating and cooling in core oven. (T)
5) Improperly reinforced cores-rods, wires, or bars. (M)
6) Inadequate dryer support-warped dryers. (M)
7) Baking temperature too high. (T)
8) Over-cured cores. (T)
9) Brittle cores. (T-M)
10) Improper portion of hexametliylene tetramine in phenol-formaldehyde shell cores for humidity
conditions prevailing. (T)
11) Cores stored under conditions of high humidity. (T)
12) Poor sand mixing. (T-M)
13) Inadequate hot plasticity of cores. (T)

1) Excessive sticking of mold surface (T)
2) Inadequately reinforced or supported molds (M)
3) Non-uniform torching of skin dried molds (T)
4) Uneven clamping of molds (M)
5) Excessive mold wash (T)
6) See “Flask Equipment and Rigging” for additional factors which control the molding aspect of these
defects.

1) Metals with a tendency toward veining such as high leaded bronzes, high carbon-silicon-
phosphorus gray irons (T-M)

None
X. Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot for metal composition involved (T)
2) Pouring too hard causing metal to forcibly impinge against a core (ladle too high) (T)
XI. Miscellaneous
1) In centrifugal casting, any condition that causes a lack of adherence of the sand to metal mold
A gray iron casting exhibiting severe veining due to high

percentage of fines in molding sand mixture.
115
Warped Castings - Chapter 29
Faulty design increases the tendency of this casting to warp.
Description
Warpage is deformation that occurs during or after solidification, mostly in gray or white cast iron (nonductile) .
The problems are the same as those described in Chapter 11. Hot Tears, namely differential stresses setup
during cooling. The difference between the defects (aside from appearance) is either in the degree of stress
or difference in tearing tendency of various metals. For example, a stress situation which would hot tear a
steel or malleable casting might warp a gray iron or ductile casting.
Causes
1) Large flat uninterrupted sections
2) Lack of ribs

1) Large flat sections can be broken up with wavy or roughened sections provided this does not
interfere with the use (including appearance) of the casting.
2) Pattern not faked to compensate for warping
3) Incorrect number of tie bars
116
Typical warp in a malleable casting.

1) Bars too close to pattern
2) Bars too close to risers and downsprues
4) Flask too small
5) Weak flasks
6) Weak squeeze board

1) Gating system which prevents desired contraction
2) Too small gate area
3) Improper location of ingates
V. Molding Sand
1) Too low green strength
2) Too low flowability or moldability
3) Hot strength too low or too high
VI. Core Practice

1) Poor collapsibility of cores
2) Too high hot strength
3) Over-reinforced (rods and arbors)
4) Rods too close to casting surface
117
VIl. Molding Practice
1) Improper relationship of mold hardness between cope and drag. Soft cope allowing
upward movement of the contracting metal or vice versa
a. Warpage can be alleviated or reduced by ramming the part of the mold harder in the direction
of the warpage. The mold can also be rammed by hand or pneumatically after pouring.
Uneven cooling after malleablizing treatment caused this warpage.

1) High combined carbon
2) Excessive use of carbide stabilizers
3) Chills etc., which promote the stabilization of combined carbon.
1) Careless charging
2) Metal too cold
3) Any metal practice which stabilizes carbides or changes metal composition
X. Pouring Practice
1) Too hot or too cold for casting design
XI. Miscellaneous
1) Shake out too hot
2) Failure to provide proper support during heat treat
3) Peening action during cleaning
4) Machining: If it creates a partial stress relief
5) Large castings not properly supported during shipment
118
119

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Appendix Title Page

Copyright 1972, 1984, 1997

George W. Anselman, Victor Rowell, Vice-Chairman

Albert M. Prewitt, Edwin H. Phelps

Joseph Cunningham LeRoy E. Taylor

Richard A. Green Charles W. Ward

James C. Lee AFS Staff

This software version was prepared by:

1) Identify the defect

VII. Molding Practice

IX. Melting Practice

Careless finning caused this casting to break in the gate area.

Tight banding of pallets broke this casting.

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VI. Core Practice

VII. Molding Practice

A lump of sand on bottom caused this pushup.

Crush on camshaft gear blank; finished casting on left.

VIII. Metal Composition

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

Cut caused by low strength sand.

Typical surface imperfections (Inclusions).

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

4) Gating which promotes high velocity metal flow

VI. Core Practice

Result of broken core.

VII. Molding Practice

Broken edge of mold caused by low strength sand, which

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

Intermittent pouring trapped slag in the metal

View of an inclusion caused by a rag left in mold.

Core wires in casting cavities.

Poorly skimmed ladle permitted slag to enter the mold cavity.

Typical result of the drop of one part of a green sand pocket.

I. Casting and Pattern Design

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

IV. Gating and Risering

VIII. Metal Composition

Inadequate green compressive strength in molding sand.

Low green sheer strength of molding sand permitted

3) Vibration caused by heavy jolt machines or other equipment

Weight carelessly dropped on mold.

Typical scab on cope surface caused by excessive slicking

II. Pattern Equipment

III. Flask Equipment and Rigging

Typical scab on cope surface caused by excessive slicking

IV. Gating and Risering

VI. Core Practice

Excessive pouring temperature caused erosion scab on the cope surface.

VII. Molding Practice

5) Moldwash, not properly dried

VIII. Metal Composition

IX. Melting Practice

Typical expansion defect on cope surface.

II. Pattern Equipment