CONCEPTS FOR SOLID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION

I. SOLID MECHANICS

Solid mechanics is one of the important branches of physical science concerned with
the deformation and motion of continuous solid media under applied external loadings such as
forces, displacements, and accelerations that result in inertial force in the bodies, thermal
changes, chemical interactions, electromagnetic forces, and so on. In the context of continuum
solid mechanics, the basic theory is generally built based on two foundations: (1) the basic laws
of motion describing the equilibrium of a continuum body under external loadings and induced
interior forces. They are valid for all continuum bodies; (2) a constitutive theory describing the
mechanical behavior of materials used for the construction of a continuum body.

Solid mechanics is the study of the deformation and motion of solid materials under the
action of forces. It is one of the fundamental applied engineering sciences, in the sense that it
is used to describe, explain and predict many of the physical phenomena around us.

II. EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEM

The basic idea: Two force systems are equivalent if they result in the same resultant force and
the same resultant moment.

Moving a force along its line of action: Moving a force along its line of action results in a
new force system which is equivalent to the original force system.

Moving a force off its line of action: If a force is moved off its line of action, a couple must
be added to the force system so that the new system generates the same moment as the old
system.

The resultant of a force and couple system: For any point O, every force and couple system
can be made equivalent to a single force passing through O and a single couple. The single
force passing through O is equal to the resultant force of the original system, and the couple
is equal to the resultant moment of the original system around point O.
When can one reduce a force and couple system to a single force?: For a force and couple
system if the resultant force and the resultant couple are perpendicular, then one can find an
equivalent system with a single force and no couple. To obtain this system, move the resultant
force a distance d along the line perpendicular to the plane of the resultant force and resultant
couple until the resultant force creates a moment equivalent to the resultant couple.

Note: All 2-D force systems can be reduced to a single force. To find the line of action of the
force, the moment of the original system must be forced to be the same as the system with the
single force.
 III. FREE BODY DIAGRAM
Objectives:
a. Introduce free body diagram
b. Give examples of the use and importance of free body diagram

FREE BODY DIAGRAM

- combination of all external forces, moments and reactions

F F

N
Fr

How to draw a free body diagram

 First create a mental picture of the body for which you want to write momentum balance equation.
 Draw rough sketch of your system showing it to be isolated from its environment.
 Place a dot in the center of the object and at this point all the forces are assumed to be acting upon.
 For every force acting on that body , draw a vector which shows size and direction of the force. Each
vector should start at the dot as show in the figure given above.
 Label each vector based on the type of force and remember not to include numbers and calculations.

There are some common forces acting on an object that you should always keep in mind and they are:

a) Fg=mg, which is the force due to gravity

b) Fa , which is the force applied on the body
c) Fr , which is the force due to friction
d) T is the force of tension
e) N is the normal force
f) Fnet is the net force in the system

IV. EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION

When the force and the couple are both equal to zero, the external forces form a system
equivalent to zero, and the rigid body is said to be in equilibrium.
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body, therefore, can be
obtained by setting R and equal to zero.

(eq.1)
Resolving each force and each moment into its rectangular components, we can express the
necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body with the following six
scalar equations:
 (eq.2)
(eq.3)

The equations obtained can be used to determine unknown forces applied to the rigid body or
unknown reactions exerted on it by its supports. We note that (eq. 2) express the fact that the
components of the external forces in the x, y, and z directions are balanced; second three
equations express the fact that the moments of the external forces about the x, y, and z axes are
balanced. Therefore, for a rigid body in equilibrium, the system of the external forces will
impart no translational or rotational motion to the body considered.
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body in Two Dimensions
The conditions stated before for the equilibrium of a rigid body become considerably simpler
for the case of a two-dimensional structure. Choosing the x and y axes to be in the plane of the
structure, we have

(eq.4)
for each of the forces applied to the structure. Thus, the six equations of equilibrium derived in
Sec. 4.1 reduce to

(eq.5)
and to three trivial identities, 0 = 0. Since must be satisfied regardless of the choice
of the origin O, we can write the equations of equilibrium for a two-dimensional structure in
the more general form

where A is any point in the plane of the structure. The three equations obtained can be solved
for no more than three unknowns.

An additional equation could be obtained by expressing that the sum of the moments of the
external forces about a point other than A is zero. We could write, for instance, oMB 5 0. Such
a statement, however, does not contain any new information, since it has already been
established that the system of the forces shown in Fig. 4.2b is equivalent to zero. The additional
equation is not independent and cannot be used to determine a fourth unknown. It will be useful,
however, for checking the solution obtained from the original three equations of equilibrium.
While the three equations of equilibrium cannot be augmented by additional equations, any of
them can be replaced by another equation. Therefore, an alternative system of equations of
equilibrium is

where the second point about which the moments are summed (in this case, point B) cannot lie
on the line parallel to the y axis that passes through point A. These equations are sufficient
conditions for the equilibrium of the truss. The first two equations indicate that the external
forces must reduce to a single vertical force at A. Since the third equation requires that the
moment of this force be zero about a point B which is not on its line of action, the force must
be zero, and the rigid body is in equilibrium.

A third possible set of equations of equilibrium is

where the points A, B, and C do not lie in a straight line. The first equation requires that the
external forces reduce to a single force at A; the second equation requires that this force pass
through B; and the third equation requires that it pass through C. Since the points A, B, C do
not lie in a straight line, the force must be zero, and the rigid body is in equilibrium.

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions

We saw in before that six scalar equations are required to express the conditions for the
equilibrium of a rigid body in the general three-dimensional case:

These equations can be solved for no more than six unknowns, which generally will represent
reactions at supports or connections. In most problems the scalar equations will be more
conveniently obtained if we first express in vector form the conditions for the equilibrium of
the rigid body considered. We write

and express the forces F and position vectors r in terms of scalar components and unit
vectors. Next, we compute all vector products, either by direct calculation or by means of
determinants.
We observe that as many as three unknown reaction components may be eliminated from
these computations through a judicious choice of the point O. By equating to zero the
coefficients of the unit vectors in each of the two relations, we obtain the desired scalar
equations.

V. ANALYSIS OF DETERMINATE TRUSSES AND FRAMES

An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer forces
and to safely withstand the loads applied to it. Two types of engineering structures:
(1) Trusses
(2) Frames

Truss
 A truss is one of the major types of engineering structures which provides a practical
and economical solution for many engineering constructions, especially in the design
of bridges and buildings that demand large spans.
 It is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points
The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the
members to a common plate called gusset.

Types of Trusses
1. Simple truss – indicates a single triangular truss. These trusses are most often used as
the roof trusses.
2. Planar truss – as the name implies it is a two dimensional truss. If all the members and
the nodes are in a planar surface, then this truss is a planar truss.
3. Space frame truss – contrast to planar truss, the members and the nodes are located in
the three dimensional space. Electrical and telecom towers are the one of the simplest
example that we are seeing in the day to day life.

Techniques for Truss Analysis

 Method of joints
- In the joints method, a virtual cut is made around a joint and the cut portion is
isolated as a Free Body Diagram (FBD). Using the equilibrium equations of ∑ Fx
= 0 and ∑ Fy = 0, the unknown member forces can be solved. It is assumed that
all members are joined together in the form of an ideal pin, and that all forces are
in tension (+ve reactions).

Here are some simple guidelines for this method:

1. Firstly draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD),
2. Solve the reactions of the given structure,
3. Select a joint with a minimum number of unknown (not more than 2) and
analyze it with ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0,
4. Proceed to the rest of the joints and again concentrating on joints that have
very minimal of unknowns,
5. Check member forces at unused joints with ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0,
6. Tabulate the member forces whether it is in tension (+ve) or compression (-ve)
reaction.

 Method of sections
- The section method is an effective method when the forces in all members of a truss
are to be determined. If only a few member forces of a truss are needed, the quickest
way to find these forces is by the method of sections. In this method, an imaginary
 cutting line called a section is drawn through a stable and determinate truss. Thus,
a section subdivides the truss into two separate parts. Since the entire truss is in
equilibrium, any part of it must also be in equilibrium. Either of the two parts of the
truss can be considered and the three equations of equilibrium ∑ Fx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0,
and ∑ M = 0 can be applied to solve for member forces.

Few simple guidelines:

1. Pass a section through a maximum of 3 members of the truss, 1 of which is the
desired member where it is dividing the truss into 2 completely separate parts,
2. At 1 part of the truss, take moments about the point (at a joint) where the 2
members intersect and solve for the member force, using ∑ M = 0,
3. Solve the other 2 unknowns by using the equilibrium equation for forces, using
∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0.
Note: The 3 forces cannot be concurrent, or else it cannot be solved.
Frames

 Frame structures are more complex than beams because they do not necessarily all lie
along a straight line as beams do. There can be both vertical members and members
that are inclined on an angle.

Method for Analyzing Determinate Frames

- Analyzing determinate frames is very similar to analyzing determinate beams,
except that you need to split up the frame into separate members (which are each
individually analyzed as beams). There is also the added complexity of inclined
members and the inclusion of axial forces in the analysis, which we previously
neglected when we were analyzing beams.

The general steps for analyzing a determinate frame are:

1. Use equilibrium to find all reaction forces.
2. Split the frame into separate members.
3. Find all of the forces at the ends of each member using equilibrium on a free body
diagram of the member alone.
4. Resolve all of the loads on the member into the local member axis directions (i.e.
perpendicular to and parallel to the member).
5. Now the axial moment, shear force and bending moment diagrams may be found by
solving each member as if it was a beam (see Section 4.3).
6. (Optional) Use the results from each member to draw overall axial force, shear force
and bending moment diagrams for the entire structure.
VI. FRICTION
What is Friction?

‘Friction‘ is a force that resists motion of sliding or rolling of one object moving relative to another. It is
a result of the electromagnetic attraction between the charged particles of two touching surfaces. We find
and use it everywhere and every day whenever objects come into contact with each other. Although it
always acts in the always acts in the direction opposite to the way an object wants to slide.
For example, we use car brakes if we want to stop or slow down because of the friction created
between the brakes and wheels that slow/stop the car down.

Factors Affecting Friction

The force of friction may alter depending on the following factors that affect it:

 When two smooth surfaces are in contact, then the degree of friction between them is small
because the interlocking between smooth surfaces is less.
 When two rough surfaces in contact, then the degree of friction between them is large because the
interlocking of between rough surfaces is too much.
 It also depends on the weight of the object or on the amount of force applied on the surface by the
object.

Types of Friction:

1) Rolling Friction

‘Rolling friction’ is the force that resists motion when an object rolls on a surface. Technically it’s not
friction; its ‘rolling resistance’ since when a body rolls perfectly upon a surface, on paper, there is no
sliding friction between that object and surface. But due to elastic properties in real life, both the bodies
and the surface experience deformations due to contact between the bodies. Since the surface of contact
is very small in real life hence the net normal force is also small and it is not enough like the static friction
to prevent a body from sliding and keep it stationary and static friction increases with the increase in the
external force; therefore rolling friction is usually less than the static.

2) Sliding Friction

‘Sliding friction’ is the frictional force between two surfaces that are rubbing against each other. It’s a
very easy and common concept. It’s hard to find a perfectly smooth surface in the real life, therefore when
an object slides on any surface, it undergoes a backward force because of the relative motion between the
two adjacent surfaces. It always acts against the motion. For a static situation, the applied force that tries
to slide the object is always equal to the force of friction acting on the object. There comes a certain
moment that the object starts moving in the direction of the external force. This happens when we
gradually increase the applied force. The force of friction that acts against the motion remains constant.

3) Fluid Friction

When fluid layers are moving relative to each other, a type of friction occurs which is known as ‘fluid
friction’. The internal resistance to the flow of fluids is termed ‘viscosity’; in simple terms, the viscosity
is nothing but ‘thickness’ of a fluid.

Effects of Friction

 It produces heat, that helps in heating parts of any object or to warm ourselves.
 It also causes loss in power.
 It produces noise during any kind of operation.
 It’s because of friction that we’re able to walk, run, play, etc
VII. SIMPLE RELATIVE MOTION OF PARTICLES

The velocity of a particle depends on who is doing the measuring; as we see later on it is
perfectly valid to consider “moving” observers who carry their own clocks and coordinate systems
with them, i.e. they make measurements according to their own reference frame; that is to say, a
set of Cartesian coordinates which may be in motion with respect to another set of coordinates.
Here we will assume that the axes in the different system remain parallel to one another; that is,
one system can move (translate) but not rotate with respect to another one.

Suppose observers in frames A and B measure the position of a point P. Then then if we have the
definitions:

with v’s and a’s standing for the appropriate time derivatives, then we have the relations:

For the purposes of doing physics, it is important to consider reference frames which move
at constant velocity with respect to one another; for these cases, vBA = 0 and then we find that
point P has the same acceleration in these reference frames:

Newton’s Laws apply to such a set of inertial reference frames. Observers in each of these
frames agree on the value of a particle’s acceleration.

Though the above rules for translation between reference frames seem very reasonable, it was the
great achievement of Einstein with his theory of Special Relativity to understand the more subtle
ways that we must relate measured quantities between reference frames. The trouble comes about
because time (t) is not the same absolute quantity among the different frames.

Among other places, Eq. 3.24 is used in problems where an object like a plane or boat has
a known velocity in the frame of (with respect to) a medium like air or water which itself is moving
with respect to the stationary ground; we can then find the velocity of the plane or boat with respect
to the ground from the vector sum in Eq. 3.24.
VIII. FORCE AS FUNCTION POSITION

Force is equal to an object’s inertial mass times the time rate of change of the time rate of
change of position where k is the spring force constant, x is the position as a function of time and
x” is the second derivative of the position.

IX. TIME AND SPEED

Time
is what a clock reads. In classical, non-relativistic physics it is a scalar quantity and, like length,
mass, and charge, is usually described as a fundamental quantity.
Speed
In everyday usage, the terms speed and velocity are interchangeable. In physics, however, there is
a clear distinction between these two quantities. Consider a marathon runner who runs a distance
d of more than 40 km and yet ends up at her starting point. Her total displacement is zero, so her
average velocity is zero! Nonetheless, we need to be able to quantify how fast she was running. A
slightly different ratio accomplishes that for us. The average speed vavg of a particle, a scalar
quantity, is defined as the total distance traveled divided by the total time
Interval required to travel that distance:

The SI unit of average speed is the same as the unit of average velocity: meters per second. Unlike
average velocity, however, average speed has no direction and is always expressed as a positive
number.

X. LAWS OF MOTIONS

Isaac Newton’s (1642–1727) laws of motion were just one part of the monumental work that
has made him legendary. The development of Newton’s laws marks the transition from the
Renaissance into the modern era. This transition was characterized by a revolutionary change in
the way people thought about the physical universe. For many centuries natural philosophers had
debated the nature of the universe based largely on certain rules of logic with great weight given
to the thoughts of earlier classical philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BC). Among the many
great thinkers who contributed to this change were Newton and Galileo. Galileo was instrumental
in establishing observation as the absolute determinant of truth, rather than “logical” argument.
Galileo’s use of the telescope was his most notable achievement in demonstrating the importance
of observation. He discovered moons orbiting Jupiter and made other observations that were
inconsistent with certain ancient ideas and religious dogma. For this reason, and because of the
manner in which he dealt with those in authority, Galileo was tried by the Inquisition and punished.
He spent the final years of his life under a form of house arrest. Because others before Galileo had
also made discoveries by observing the nature of the universe, and because repeated observations
verified those of Galileo, his work could not be suppressed or denied. After his death, his work
was verified by others, and his ideas were eventually accepted by the church and scientific
communities. Galileo also contributed to the formation of what is now called Newton’s first law
of motion. Newton made use of the work of his predecessors, which enabled him to develop laws
of motion, discover the law of gravity, invent calculus, and make great contributions to the theories
of light and color. It is amazing that many of these developments were made with Newton working
alone, without the benefit of the usual interactions that take place among scientists today. It was
not until the advent of modern physics early in the 20th century that it was discovered that
Newton’s laws of motion produce a good approximation to motion only when the objects are
moving at speeds much, much less than the speed of light and when those objects are larger than
the size of most molecules (about 10−9 m in diameter). These constraints define the realm of
classical mechanics, as discussed in Introduction to the Nature of Science and Physics. At the
beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein (1879–1955) developed the theory of relativity and,
along with many other scientists, developed quantum theory. This theory does not have the
constraints present in classical physics. All of the situations we consider in this chapter, and all
those preceding the introduction of relativity in Special Relativity, are in the realm of classical
physics.
First Law of Motion
A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity
unless acted on by a net external force.12Newton’s first law of motion states that there must be a
cause (which is a net external force) for there to be any change in velocity (either a change in
magnitude or direction) The property of a body to remain at rest or to remain in motion with
constant velocity is called inertia. Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia.12The inertia
of an object is measured by its mass12.
Second Law of Motion
Newton’s second law of motion is closely related to Newton’s first law of motion. It
mathematically states the cause and effect relationship between force and changes in motion.
Newton’s second law of motion is more quantitative and is used extensively to calculate what
happens in situations involving a force.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body experiences a force that
is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it exerts.This law represents a
certain symmetry in nature: Forces always occur in pairs, and one body cannot exert a force on
another without experiencing a force itself. We sometimes refer to this law loosely as “action-
reaction,” where the force exerted is the action and the force experienced as a consequence is the
reaction. Newton’s third law has practical uses in analyzing the origin of forces and understanding
which forces are external to a system.

XI. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy, as we have noted, is conserved, making it one of the most important physical quantities in
nature. The law of conservation of energy can be stated as follows:

Total energy is constant in any process. It may change in form or be transferred from one system
to another, but the total remains the same.

We have explored some forms of energy and some ways it can be transferred from one system to
another. This exploration led to the definition of two major types of energy—mechanical
energy KE + PE and energy transferred via work done by nonconservative forces (Wnc). But
energy takes many other forms, manifesting itself in many different ways, and we need to be able
to deal with all of these before we can write an equation for the above general statement of the
conservation of energy.

Other Forms of Energy than Mechanical Energy

At this point, we deal with all other forms of energy by lumping them into a single group
called other energy (OE). Then we can state the conservation of energy in equation form as

All types of energy and work can be included in this very general statement of conservation of
energy. Kinetic energy is (KE), work done by a conservative force is represented by (PE), work
done by nonconservative forces is Wnc, and all other energies are included as (OE) . This equation
applies to all previous examples; in those situations (OE) was constant, and so it subtracted out and
was not directly considered.

When does (OE) play a role? One example occurs when a person eats. Food is oxidized with the
release of carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Some of this chemical energy is converted to kinetic
energy when the person moves, to potential energy when the person changes altitude, and to
thermal energy (another form of (OE)).
Some of the Many Forms of Energy

Electrical energy is a common form that is converted to many other forms and does work in a
wide range of practical situations. Fuels, such as gasoline and food, carry chemical energy that
can be transferred to a system through oxidation. Chemical fuel can also produce electrical energy,
such as in batteries. Batteries can in turn produce light, which is a very pure form of energy. Most
energy sources on Earth are in fact stored energy from the energy we receive from the Sun. We
sometimes refer to this as radiant energy, or electromagnetic radiation, which includes visible
light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation. Nuclear energy comes from processes that convert
measurable amounts of mass into energy. Nuclear energy is transformed into the energy of
sunlight, into electrical energy in power plants, and into the energy of the heat transfer and blast
in weapons. Atoms and molecules inside all objects are in random motion. This internal
mechanical energy from the random motions is called thermal energy, because it is related to the
temperature of the object. These and all other forms of energy can be converted into one another
and can do work.

Problem-Solving Strategies for Energy

Step 1. Determine the system of interest and identify what information is given and what quantity
is to be calculated. A sketch will help.
Step 2. Examine all the forces involved and determine whether you know or are given the potential
energy from the work done by the forces. Then use step 3 or step 4.
Step 3. If you know the potential energies for the forces that enter into the problem, then forces
are all conservative, and you can apply conservation of mechanical energy simply in terms of
potential and kinetic energy. The equation expressing conservation of energy is
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf
Step 4. If you know the potential energy for only some of the forces, possibly because some of
them are nonconservative and do not have a potential energy, or if there are other energies that are
not easily treated in terms of force and work, then the conservation of energy law in its most
general form must be used.
KEi + PEi + Wnc + OEi = KEf + PEf + OEf
In most problems, one or more of the terms is zero, simplifying its solution. Do not calculate Wc,
the work done by conservative forces; it is already incorporated in the PE terms.
Step 5. You have already identified the types of work and energy involved (in step 2). Before
solving for the unknown, eliminate terms wherever possible to simplify the algebra. For example,
choose h=0 at either the initial or final point, so that PEg is zero there. Then solve for the unknown
in the customary manner.
Step 6. Once you have solved a problem, reexamine the forms of work and energy to see if you
have set up the conservation of energy equation correctly. For example, work done against friction
should be negative, potential energy at the bottom of a hill should be less than that at the top, and
so on. Also check to see that the numerical value obtained is reasonable. For example, the final
speed of a skateboarder who coasts down a 3-m-high ramp could reasonably be 20 km/h, but not
80 km/h.

XII. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Momentum is directly proportional to the object’s mass and also its velocity. Thus the greater
an object’s mass or the greater its velocity, the greater its momentum. Momentum p is a vector
having the same direction as the velocity v . The SI unit formomentum is kg · m/s . The importance
of momentum, unlike the importance of energy, was recognized early in the development of
classical physics. Momentum was deemed so important that it was called the “quantity of motion.”
Newton actually stated his second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net external force
equals the change in momentum of a system divided by the time over which it changes. Using
symbols, this law is

where Fnet is the net external force, Δp is the change in momentum, and Δt is the change in time.
Force and momentum are intimately related. Force acting over time can change momentum,
and Newton’s second law of motion, can be stated in its most broadly applicable form in terms of
momentum. Momentum continues to be a key concept in the study of atomic and subatomic
particles in quantum mechanics.Conservation of momentum is quite useful in describing
collisions. Momentum is crucial to our understanding of atomic and subatomic particles because
much of what we know about these particles comes from collision experiments.

An elastic collision is one that conserves internal kinetic energy.

An inelastic collision is one in which the internal kinetic energy changes (it is not conserved).
Two objects that have equal masses head toward one another at equal speeds and then stick
together. Their total internal kinetic energy is initially

The two objects come to rest after sticking together, conserving momentum. But the internal
kinetic energy is zero after the collision. A collision in which the objects stick together is
sometimes called a perfectly inelastic collision because it reduces internal kinetic energy more
than does any other type of inelastic collision. In fact, such a collision reduces internal kinetic
energy to the minimum it can have while still conserving momentum.