Signals and Systems

Solomon W.Tsadik
School of BME
Jimma institute of Technology
Unit-1: Introduction to Signals & Systems

 Signal, and System?

 Classifications of signals
 Basic signals
 Basic operations on Signals
 Signal?

 A detectable physical quantity…by which messages or

information can be transmitted( Merriam-Webster)
 Is a single-valued representation of information as a
function of an independent variable.
Examples:
 Speech signals transmit language via acoustic waves (a)
 Temperature, pressure
 Electrophysiology signals transmit information about
process inside the body. E.g. Electrocardiography (ECG)(b)
 Signal?

(a) Frequency Spectrum the word “signals” spoken by an adult male voice
 Signal?

(b) Normal ECG signal

Figure 1.1 Examples of signals produced physical process

 Signal?

 Mathematically, signals are modeled as functions of one

or more independent variables.

Independent variables could be; time, frequency, or

spatial coordinates.

Each pixels is represented by a triplet of numbers {R,G,B} that encode

the color. Thus the signal is represented by , where and are
the independent variables that specify pixel location and is a color
vector
 Systems

 Manipulates/process the information carried by signals

Signal processing involves the theory and application of
 Filtering, coding , transmitting, estimating, detecting,
analyzing, recognizing, synthesizing, recording, and
reproducing signals by digital or analog devices or techniques
 Where signals includes audio, video, speech, image,
communication, geophysical, sonar, radar, medical, musical,
and other signals
( IEEE Signal processing Society Constitutional Amendment, 1994)
Systems

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)
 Systems

(f)
(e)

(g) (h)
Fig 1.1 Examples of signals and systems. ( a) An Electrical circuit; (c) an audio recording
system; (e) a digital camera; and (g) a digital thermometer. Plot (b), (d), (f) and (h) are output
signals generated respectively by the systems shown in (a), (c), (e) and (g)
 Signal processing

 Initially analog signals and systems implemented using

resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transistors(Analog
Computer).

 Since the 1940s increasingly digital signals and systems

implemented using computers and computer code( C/C++,
Python, Matlab,…)
• Advantages of digital include stability and programmability
• As computers have shrunk, DSP has become ubiquitous
Digital Signal Processing Applications
 Computerized Tomography
• Uses x-rays to produce image slices

• Better soft-tissue contrast and no

superimposed images.

• X-ray detectors send the information

to the computer for processing.

• Sources of error: Electronic

malfunction, cooling systems,
computer related failures.

• Linear Attenuation Coefficient (μ).

 Computerized Tomography
• CT number represent the linear
attenuation coefficient of tissue in
each volume element (Voxel),
relative to of water.
• CT value are relatively stable for a
single organ.
• CT images typically posses 12 bits
of gray scale, for a total of 4,096
shades of gray.
• X-ray detectors send the information
to the computer for processing; e.g.
Back-projection Algorithm.
 Computerized Tomography
• Back-projection Algorithm.

5 8 13

3 2 5

8 10
 Computerized Tomography
Reconstruction
At 2nd Projection: At 3rd Projection:
At 00 projection:
8 10
13 13 20 21 28 31
5 5 8 12 16 22

At 4th Projection:

Divide by the # of
33 42 Subtract 1st 15 24 remaining projection 5 8
projection sum
27 24 13+5 9 6 3 2
 1.2 Classification of Signals

A signal is classified into several categories depending upon

the criteria used for its classification.
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
 Analog and digital signals
 Periodic and aperiodic( non periodic) signals
 Energy and power signals
 Deterministic and random signals
 Even and odd signals
 1.2.1 Continuous-time & Discrete time
signals
Continuous-time signal

 Takes a value at every instant of time t,

Discrete-time signal

 Is defined only at a particular instants of time,

 1.2.2 Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signal
 A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a
continuous range, i.e., an analog signal amplitude can take
on an infinite numbers of values

Figure 1.3 (a) analog, continuous time

 1.2.2 Analog and Digital Signals

A Digital signal
 Is signal whose amplitude can take on only a finite numbers
of values.

Figure 1.3 (b) digital, continuous time

 1.2.2 Analog and Digital Signals

Remarks:
 The terms continuous time and discrete time qualify the
nature of a signal along the time axis
 The term analog & digital, on the other hand qualify the
nature of the signal amplitude

Figure 1.3 (c) analog, discrete time Figure 1.3 (d) digital, discrete time
 1.2.3 Periodic and aperiodic signals

A periodic Continuous-time signal satisfies

(1.1)
where is an integer
is the period of the signal
E.g., sinusoid signal
 1.2.3 Periodic and aperiodic signals

A Discrete-time signal
 Is defined only at a particular instants of time, is
periodic with period if it satisfies
(1.2)

Figure 1.2 A discrete-time periodic signal with fundamental period

 1.2.4 Energy and Power Signals

Continuous-time signal
 The normalized energy of ( assuming is real) is

(1.3)

If is complex valued, then (1.3) is generalized

(1.4)

 The normalized power for complex value is

(1.5)
 1.2.4 Energy and Power Signals

Discrete-time signal
 The normalized energy of is given by
(1.6)
While the normalized power is

(1.7)

Note:
 A signal or is an energy signal if and only if
and consequently
 A signal or is a power signal if and only if and
consequently
 1.2.4 Energy and Power Signals

Example 1.1
Determine whether the following signals are energy signals,
power signals, or neither
 1.2.5 Even and Odd signals
 A signal is even if
(1.8)
 A signal is odd if
(1.9)
Remarks:
Any signal can be represented as the sum of
even( and odd signal ( ) as

Proof:
Replacing with in eqn.(1) & using eqns.(1.8) & (1.9) we get
 1.2.5 Even and Odd signals

Remarks:

Adding and and diving by 2,

subtracting from and diving by 2,

Thus

(1.10) +
 1.2.5 Even and Odd signals

Example 1.2
Determine the even and odd components of

shown below
 1.3 Basic continuous-time signals
 Unit step function

(1.11)

 Unit impulse function ( Delta function)

(1.12)
 1.3 Basic continuous-time signals

 The unit impulse may be visualized as a very short duration

pulse of unit area, which is expressed mathematically as

 Consider the functions show below

Figure 1.3 Functions that approach the unit step and unit impulse as
 1.3 Basic continuous-time signals

• Zero width
Area = 1
• Infinite height
• Area = 1

as , i.e.,

To illustrate how the impulse function affects other function, let

us evaluate the integral

Sampling
 1.3 Basic continuous-time signals
 Unit Ramp function
(1.13)

Example 1.3
Express the pulse signal below
in terms of the unit step. Calculate
its derivative and sketch it.
 1.3 Basic continuous-time signals
 Exponential signal
(1.14)

 Sinusoidal* signal
(1.15)
 1.4 Basic Operations on Signals
 Time reversal signal

Example 1.4

Solution:
 1.4 Basic operations on signals
 Time scaling
• involves the compress or expansion of a signal in time.

• the scaled will be compressed if

• will be expanded if
 1.4 Basic operations on signals
 Time Shifting
constant

• If , then the signal is delayed and the signal

is shifted to the right relative to

Figure 1.4 Time shifted signals

 1.4 Basic operations on signals

 For any signal , the transformation on the

independent variable can be performed as follows:

Note: The previous three transformations deal with the

independent variable,

 Amplitude transformations
Given a signal , amplitude transformation take the general
form
and - constants
 1.4 Basic operations on signals

Example 1.5 A continuous-time signal is shown below. Sketch

each of the following signals
(a) (b)
(c)
Solution:
(a) (b)
Delayed by 3
Advanced by 2
compressed by x2
Expanded by x2
Unit-2: Linear Time-Invariant Systems

 Classifications of systems
• Causal and non causal systems
• Linear and nonlinear systems
• Time-varying & Time-invariant systems
• Systems with and without memory
 Response of LTI continuous time system in time
domain-Convolution integral
 Discrete-time LTI systems and convolution sum
 Properties of LTI systems
 Stability of LTI systems
 2.1 Classifications of systems
 Causal and non-causal systems
• A causal ( or non-anticipatory ) system is one whose output
at the present time depend only on the present and past
values of the input

Every physical system is causal

 2.1 Classifications of systems

 Linear and nonlinear systems

Linear system  Homogeneity(Scaling)
+
Additive property
(superposition)

System
System
System
System
System
Figure 2.1(b) Scaling property
Figure 2.1(a) Additive property
 2.1 Classifications of systems

Example 2.1 Check whether or not the systems listed below

are linear or non-linear
(a) (b)

 Time varying & Time-invariant systems

• Conceptually , a system is time invariant if the behavior and
characteristics of the system are fixed over time.
• A time varying system is one whose parameters vary with
time
Time-invariant
system
System
 2.1 Classifications of systems
 Systems with and without memory
• When the output of a system depends on the past and/or
future input, the system is said to have a memory.
E.g.,
Example 2.2 Show that the system represented by the ODE

is linear.
 2.2 Response of LTI continuous time
systems in time domain
Recall delta function

(2.1)

 Any signal can be represented in terms of scaled & shifted

impulses, i.e.,

(2.2) Shifted integral

2.2 Response of LTI continuous time
systems in time domain
𝑥(𝑡)

−∆ 0 ∆ 2∆ k∆ 𝑡

≈ 𝑥(−2∆) Figure 2.13 Staircase approximation to

𝑥(−2∆)𝛿∆ (𝑡 + 2∆)∆ a continuous-time signal

−2∆ −∆ 𝑡

≈ 𝑥(−∆)
𝑥(−∆)𝛿∆ (𝑡 + ∆)∆

𝑡
−∆ 0
≈ 𝑥(0) 𝑥(0)𝛿∆ (𝑡)∆

0 ∆ 𝑡
 2.2 Response of LTI CT Systems in
time domain
 For Continuous time LTI system
h
LTI Sys.
h
LTI Sys.

LTI Sys.

Convolution
(2.3)
integral
 2.2 Response of LTI CT Systems in
time domain
Example 2.3 For an LTI continuous time system with the unit
impulse response determine the response
for the input

Solution:
Note both and are causal.

(
 2.2 Response of LTI CT Systems in
time domain
Remarks The convolution integral ( Eqn. 1.18) can be
evaluated in three different ways:
1. Analytical method, which involves performing the integration
by hand when and are specified analytically.
2. Graphical method, which is appropriate when and
are provided in graphical form
3. Numerical method, where we approximate and by
numerical sequence and obtain by discrete convolution
using a digital computer.
 2.2 Response of LTI CT Systems in
time domain
Example 2.4 Let be the input to an LTI system with unit
impulse response , where
, and
Example 2.5 Consider the convolution of the following two
signals:

Example 2.6 Obtain the convolution of the two signals shown

below.
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Any discrete-time signal can be represented in terms of
scaled & shifted impulses.
(2.4)
Where

To understand eqn.(2.4) , consider the signal depicted

below
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum

Figure 2.2 Decomposition of a discrete time signal into weighted sum of

shifted impulses
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
 The response of a LTI system to will be the
superposition of the scaled response of the system to each
of these shifted impulses.
 For LTI discrete-time system
Discrete ]
LTI Sys.

Discrete h ]
LTI Sys.
And from superposition property of LTI
Discrete
LTI Sys.
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Thus, response of discrete LTI system for an arbitrary input
signal is given by
(2.5)
Implication of eqn.(2.5)
 If we know the response of a LTI system to the set of shifted
impulses, we can find the response to an arbitrary input.
i.e., a LTI system is completely characterized by its response
to a unit impulse.
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Example 2.7 consider an LTI system with impulse response
and input , as shown in the figure below. Find

Answer:

for and
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Alternative method of discrete-time convolution
Let for all
for all
- Sample value is the first non-zero value of
- Sample value is the first non-zero value of
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
To compute the convolution, use the following array:
...Values of

…values of

…
. …
…
.
.
.
…
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Exercise: Re-do example 2.7 using the short-cut method.
Solution:
index of the 1st non-zero value of
index of the 1st non-zero value of
Next , write the array

+ 0.5

2
0.5 2.5 2.5 2
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Useful relationship for computing convolution sum:
2.6) (a) ,

, for any complex

number
( Finite Sum Formula )
(b) ,

( Infinite Sum Formula )

(c) ,

(d) ;
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Proof:
(a) For :
For

b) For :
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Proof(cont’d):
c) Differentiating both sides of the result of (b) w.r.t , gives

Example 2.8 Consider an input and a unit impulse

response given by
. Find
 2.3 Discrete-time LTI Systems and
convolution sum
Example 2.9 Consider the two sequences

and

Example 2.10 Consider an LTI system with input and with

unit impulse response specified as follows:
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Commutative property
DT:

CT:
Distributive property
DT:
CT:

y
+ y

Figure 2.3 System interconnection

 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Causality for LTI system
 A causal (or non anticipatory) system is one whose output
at present time depend only on the present and past
values of the input
 must not depend on for . From Eqn.(2.5), we
see that for this to be true, all of the coefficients that
multiply values of for must be zero.
The impulse response of a causal discrete-time LTI system
satisfy the condition
Let
(2.7) for
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Causality for LTI system(cont’d)
Note:
 Every physical system is causal
 Causality is a necessary condition for a system to be
realized in the real world we live in.
 However, causality is not often an essential constraint in
application in which the independent variable is not time,
such as IMAGE PROCESSING.
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Stability for LTI Systems
A system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded
output(Eqns.(2.8) & (2.9))

(2.8) for all , then

(2.9)

Since the magnitude of the sum of a set of numbers is no larger

than the sum of the magnitudes of the numbers, it follows

(2.10)
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Stability for LTI Systems
From eqn.(2.8), for all values of and .

(2.11) for all n

From eqn.(2.11), we can conclude that if the impulse response

is absolutely summable, that is, if

(2.12)

then is bounded in magnitude, and hence the system is

stable.
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Stability for LTI Systems
Similarly, in continuous-time LTI system if for all t,
then

Therefore, the system is stable if the impulse response is

absolutely integrable, i.e., if

(2.13)
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Exercise:
Determine whether each system is causal and/or stable. Justify
your answers
(a)
 2.4 Properties of LTI Systems
Exercise: