Commercial CO2 Refrigeration Systems

Guide for Subcritical and Transcritical CO2 Applications

2
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction 4
Chapter 2. CO2 Basics and Considerations as a Refrigerant 5
Section 1. Criteria for Refrigerant Selection............................................................................................................ 5
Section 2. Properties of R744................................................................................................................................ 6
Section 3. An Introduction to Transcritical Operation............................................................................................ 8
Section 4. Behaviour in the Reference Cycle........................................................................................................... 9
Section 5. R744 Hazards....................................................................................................................................... 10
Section 6. Comparison of R744 with other Refrigerants......................................................................................... 12
Section 7. Advantages and Disadvantages of R744 as a Refrigerant....................................................................... 13
Chapter 3. Introduction to R744 Systems 14
Section 1. Introduction to Retail Transcritical Systems........................................................................................... 14
Section 2. Introduction to Retail Cascade Systems................................................................................................. 17
Section 3. Secondary Systems............................................................................................................................... 18
Section 4. Selecting the Best System – Booster vs Cascade vs Secondary.............................................................. 19
Chapter 4. R744 System Design 22
Section 1. Transcritical Booster Systems................................................................................................................ 22
Section 2. Cascade Systems................................................................................................................................... 24
Section 3. Secondary Systems................................................................................................................................ 26
Section 4. Design for Pressure............................................................................................................................... 27
Section 5. Design for Ease of Service...................................................................................................................... 28
Section 6. Fixed Leak Detection............................................................................................................................ 28
Section 7. Cooling Capacity.................................................................................................................................. 28
Section 8. Capacity Modulation............................................................................................................................ 29
Section 9. Pipe Work and Jointing......................................................................................................................... 29
Section 10. Lubricants and Oil Return................................................................................................................... 31
Section 11. Materials............................................................................................................................................ 31
Section 12. Potential for Heat Reclaim................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 5. R744 Systems - Installation, Commissioning and Service 32
Section 1. Good Installation Practice..................................................................................................................... 32
Section 2. Charging R744..................................................................................................................................... 34
Section 3. System Checks..................................................................................................................................... 35
Section 4. Service ................................................................................................................................................ 35
Section 5. Putting the System Temporarily Out of Service..................................................................................... 38
Section 6. Maintenance........................................................................................................................................ 38
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................... 39
Glossary 40
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................................... 42
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................ 43
List of References .................................................................................................................................................. 43

3
1 Introduction
Currently it is not an easy matter for decision makers
in commercial refrigeration to make a definite choice
of refrigerants and system type. For the last decade,
many refrigerant options and system architectures have
appeared both on paper and in practice. The sector has
been in the environmental spotlight in recent years,
especially as leakage studies have revealed the true effects
of HFC emissions in centralised systems. Considerable
reductions in emissions are certainly possible, but they do
require changes.
Emerson Climate Technologies conducted a study on this
topic, comparing various options. The conclusion was clear,
there is no best option for key criteria, environment, cost
and power consumption. A tool, Finding the Right Balance,
is available on the Emerson website to enable customers to
make tailored comparisons. Different options are likely to
develop in the next decade depending on regional trends,
legislation, genuine green initiatives and green image
enhancement.
R744 (CO2) is a leading option for environmental reasons,
and it can be a winner for power consumption as
developments of component technology and application
methods continue to reveal potential performance gains.
Good experience has been gained with different system
configurations over many years, particularly in central
and northern Europe. The confidence resulting from this
Figure 1. Copeland™ Stream compressor for R744
4
experience ensures that CO2 will be a long-term option in
the foreseeable future.
CO2 is termed a “Natural Refrigerant” because it exists in
the natural environment. Release into the atmosphere from
refrigeration systems has a negligible effect compared
to other CO2 sources that are driving the global warming
debate. As a refrigerant, it is a manufactured product
that conforms to strict purity specifications. Its physical
properties require special handling. The system pressures
are much higher than in conventional systems, and all
the components are designed accordingly. Today there
is no difficulty in sourcing all the necessary equipment.
High investment costs were characteristic of early CO2
projects, but these costs are now on a downward trend.
The refrigerant itself is a fraction of the cost of some of the
specialty HFCs.
This handbook reviews the main CO2 properties, explores
the advantages of CO2 as a refrigerant, and provides an
understanding of system types and their design. This
is followed by a study of optimisation, operation and
maintenance topics. This information will be useful to
engineers responsible for designing and maintaining
commercial refrigeration systems who are now
encountering CO2 systems, perhaps for the first time.
Figure 2. Copeland™ Scroll ZO compressor for R744
2 CO2 Basics and Considerations as a Refrigerant

This chapter introduces carbon dioxide as a
refrigerant, describes its properties and compares it to
other refrigerants, both traditional and new. It outlines the
hazards of CO2 and explains why CO2 refrigeration systems
differ from conventional systems.
Section 1. Criteria for Refrigerant Selection
Various criteria should be considered when selecting
properties, safety, environmental impact, ease of use, and
availability of components and expertise.
The following table lists the criteria that are important
when selecting a refrigerant and shows how well R744
meets these criteria. More detail is provided later in this
chapter.
R744 meets the demand for a natural refrigerant with a low
global warming impact, but presents challenges in both its
application and handling.

Table 1. How R744 meets different conditions and criteria

Criteria How well does R744 meet the criteria?

Cooling capacity
Significantly higher volumetric capacity than conventional refrigerants

Efficiency Efficiency depends on system type and ambient temperature

Operating and standstill pressures significantly higher than for all

Operating conditions
other common retail refrigeration refrigerants

Environmental properties Global Warming Potential (GWP) = 1, significantly lower than for
commonly used HFCs

Availability of refrigerant Varies globally but generally available

Many components are different to those used on HFC retail systems,

Availability of system components
but these are now generally available

Varies globally but generally low; engineers must have a good

Availability of competent engineers and technicians understanding of basic refrigeration and good refrigeration practice
and will require further training for R744

Refrigerant cost lower than for HFCs, but system costs are generally
Cost
higher

Low toxicity and nonflammable: high-pressures and associated

Safety
hazards present additional challenges

High-pressure and low critical point drive the need for more complex
Ease of use
systems

Availability of appropriate standards Safety Standards EN378 & ISO 51491 include R744

Composition Single molecule, no temperature glide in subcritical operations

Suitability as a retrofit refrigerant Not suitable due to higher pressures

1
EN378 Refrigerating systems and heat pumps – Safety and environmental requirements
ISO 5149 mechanical refrigerating systems used for cooling and heating - Safety requirements.

5
Section 2. Properties of R744

Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring substance – the
atmosphere is comprised of approximately 0.04% CO2
(370 ppm). It is produced during respiration by most living
organisms and is absorbed by plants. It is also produced
during many industrial processes, in particular when fossil
fuels such as coal, gas or oil are burned to generate power
or drive vehicles.
The triple point of carbon dioxide is high and the critical
point is low compared to other refrigerants. The chart in
figure 3 shows the triple point and the critical point on a
phase diagram.
The triple point occurs at 4.2 bar g and -57°C, below this
point there is no liquid phase. At atmospheric pressure
(0 bar g), solid R744 sublimes directly to a gas. Solid
R744 will have a surface temperature of -78°C. If R744 is
at a pressure higher than the triple point and it reduces
to a pressure below the triple point (for example to
atmospheric pressure), it will deposit directly to solid.
This can occur when charging an evacuated refrigeration
system with liquid R744 for example. Solid R744 is also
known as dry ice.
The critical point occurs at 31°C, which is below typical
system condensing temperatures for part or all of the
year, depending on the climate. Above the critical point
the refrigerant is a transcritical fluid. There is no phase
change when heat is removed from a transcritical fluid
while it is above the critical pressure and temperature.
In a refrigeration system transcritical R744 will not
condense until the pressure has dropped below the
ciritical pressure. No other commonly used refrigerant has
such a low critical temperature so they always condense
as heat is removed on the high side of the system.
The critical point is the condition at which the liquid
and gas densities are the same. Above this point distinct
liquid and gas phases do not exist.
The triple point is the condition at which solid, liquid and
gas co-exist. The glossary has a full explanation of the
terms used in this section.
The boundaries of the transcritical fluid region are:
• The critical temperature (31°C) to the sub-cooled
liquid region
• The critical pressure (72.8 bar g) to the superheated
gas region
Table 2 on page 7 compares the basic properties of R744 with
different refrigerants which are commonly used in the retail
sector.

10 000
solid

1 000 transcritical
liquid fluid
p [bar abs]

100
critical point
(31OC / 72.8 bar g)

10
gas
triple point
(-57OC / 4.2 bar g)

1
-70 -40 -10 20 50 80 110
T [OC]

Figure 3. R744 / CO2 phase diagram

6
The pressure enthalpy chart in figure 4 shows the critical point and the extent of the transcritical fluid region.

Figure 4. Pressure enthalpy chart for R744

Table 2. Basic properties of R744 compared with other refrigerants

HFC HFC HFC HFC HCFC HFO

Refrigerant
R744 R404A R134a R407A R407F R22 R1234yf

-41°C -43°C -41°C -30°C

Temperature at -78.5°C -46°C -26°C
(Mid point (Mid point Saturation Saturation
atmospheric pressure (Temp. of (Saturation (Saturation
saturation saturation (temp.) (temp.)
(see information above) the dry ice) temp.) temp.)
temp.) temp.)

Critical temperature 31°C 72°C 101°C 82°C 83°C 96°C 95°C

Critical pressure 73.8 bar g 35.7 bar g 41.7 bar g 45.2 bar g 47.5 bar g 49.8 bar g 33.8 bar g

Triple-point pressure 5.2 bar 0.03 bar 0.005 bar 0.013 bar TBC < 0.005 bar tbc

Pressure at a saturated 9.1 bar g

57.2 bar g 10.9 bar g 5.7 bar g 10.2 bar g 10.6 bar g 5.9 bar g
temperature of 20°C

Global warming 4
11 39221 1430 1 1990 2 1824 3 1700
potential

1
The GWP values are from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 4th assessment report: Climate Change 2007
2
GWP for R407A from EN378
3
GWP for R407F from supplier’s data

7
 A significant challenge with the application of CO2 as a
80 refrigerant is the higher operating pressures compared
70
to other commercial refrigerants. The chart in figure 5
compares the pressure of R744 with R404A and R134a.
60
The saturation curve for R744 does not extend beyond
Pressure, bar g

50
31°C because this is the critical point - above this condition
40 there is no distinction between liquid and gas. Operation
above this pressure is current practice in transcritical
30 systems.
20
Section 3. An Introduction to Transcritical
10 Operation

0 Many R744 systems operate above the critical point some

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 or all of the time. This is not a problem, the system just
Saturation temperature, °C
works differently.
R404A pressure
R744 pressure • R744 systems work subcritical when the condensing
R134a pressure temperature is below 31°C
Denotes the critical point of R744 • R744 systems work transcritical when the “gas cooler
exit
temperature” is above 31°C and the evaporating
Figure 5. Pressure-temperature relationship comparison

160
5 03 35 4 45 0.005 0.006
02 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.001

12

0.0
0.0 14

2
6
0. 15

140 0.0
1
00
1.4 001

0.007
00
00
0.00

0.
0.
1.3 0.

120 0.008
2.1
1.8

1.9
1.2

2
1.1

2.2
1.7
1.5
0.9

Super Critical Period

1.6

100 Transcritical 31OC 0.009

3
0.01
-2.00

-1.70

-1.60

2.
90

-.90
-1.80

-1.50
kl/kg ˚C

0
-2.20
-2.10

-1.90

-1.0
0.012
-1.4

80
0

0
-1.3

-1.1

-.8
0

70
-1.2

0.0145
100 60 0.01 6
0.01
-2.30

Subcritical 4

-.7
2.
0.018
50 Critical point 0.02
Entopy =

40
0.025
Pressure in bar
Pressure, Bar

0.03
30
0.035
5
2.

25
0.04
0.045
20
0.05
18
16 0.06
6
2.

14 0.07
12 0.08
0.09
10 0.1
9
7

10 8
2.

0.12
7 0.14
0.15
6
20
10

90
30

80

220
110
40

140
150
160
20
50

60
50

230
120

170
180

210
10
0

130
40

190
70

200
100
30

5
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Enthalpy in kJ/kg
40
20
-40 ˚C
-20

Triple Point (5.18 bar, -56.558OC)

0

Isothermal in ◦C Transcritical Process

Isochoric in m 3/kg Subcritical Process
Isentropic in kJ/kgK

Figure 6. R744 pressure enthalpy chart showing subcritical and transcritical systems

8
 temperature is below 31°C
HFC systems work always subcritical because the
condensing temperature never exceeds the critical
temperature (e.g., 101°C in the case of R134a).
The pressure enthalpy chart in figure 6 shows an example
of a simple R744 system operating subcritically at a low
ambient temperature and transcritically at a higher ambient
temperature. The chart shows that the cooling capacity at
the evaporator is significantly less for transcritical operation.
A capacity drop also occurs with HFC systems when the
ambient temperature increases, but the change is not as
great as it is with R744 when the change is from sub- to
transcritical.
It is important that appropriate control of the high side (gas
cooler) pressure is used to optimise the cooling capacity
and efficiency when transcritical. For example, increasing
the high side pressure will increase the cooling capacity.
This is covered in more detail in chapter 4.
Section 4. Behaviour in the Reference Cycle
Simple comparisons between R744 and other refrigerants
can be misleading because the low critical temperature of
R744 either leads to differences in system design, such as
the use of cascade systems, or to transcritical operation.
So like-for-like comparisons are not easy to make. The
table below provides a simple theoretical comparison
between R744 and common HFC refrigerants and shows
the performance of ideal cycles.

Table 3. Theoretical comparison between R744 and common HFC refrigerants.

Pressure Vol.
Psuc Tsuc Pdis Tdis_sat Tdis ΔH ΔW COP cooling
ratio cap
[bar abs] [°C] [bar abs] [°C] [°C] [kJ/kg] [kJ/kg] [-] [-] [kJ/m3]

Overview refrigerant data related to 4 different system cases

1 R744 MT 30.47 -5 97.00 +38* 103.39 135.56 68.53 1.98 3.2 10624
R744 LT 14.30 -30 30.47 -5 37.30 255.03 44.04 5.79 2.1 9089
2 R134a MT 2.17 -8 10.16 +40 60.67 141.63 43.98 3.22 4.7 1496
R744 LT 14.30 -30 30.47 -5 37.30 255.03 44.04 5.79 2.1 9089
3 R134a MT 2.17 -8 10.16 +40 60.67 141.63 43.98 3.22 4.7 1496
R404A LT 1.81 -33 5.57 -3 16.74 157.28 30.99 5.08 3.1 1428
4 R134a MT 2.17 -8 10.16 +40 60.67 141.63 43.98 3.22 4.7 1496
R404A LT 1.81 -33 18.30 +40 68.77 89.29 64.57 1.38 10.1 811

The four systems are:

Legend for above table
Case: 1 2 3 4
Psuc = 1 Suction pressure
R744 Hybrid HFC HFC / HFC
Booster R744/ Cascade R404A/ Tsuc = 1 Suction temperature, saturated
R134a R404A/ R134a Pdis = Discharge pressure
R134a Tdis_sat = Discharge temperature, saturated
MT to -5 °C -8°C -8 °C -8 °C Tdis = Calculated real discharge temperature
tc +38°C* +40°C +40°C +40°C ΔH = Enthalpie-difference through evaporator
ΔW = Enthalpie-difference through compressor
LT to -30 °C -30°C -33 °C -33 °C
COP = Coefficient of performance
tc -5 °C -5°C -3 °C +40 °C
Pressure ratio = Compression ratio
Superheat = 6K in all examples Vol. cooling cap = Volumetric Cooling Capacity as ratio
Subcooling = 0K in all examples
*gas cooler outlet temp of evaporator enthalpy difference to the
specific volume of suction gas

Compressor isentropic efficiency:

For R744 >> 0.75 Assumptions:
For R404A >> 0.65 • No suction or discharge line pressure losses
For R134a >> 0.6 • R744 transcritical: optimum discharge pressure 97 bar

9
 The table highlights the following key points: • Practical limit of R744, 0.1 kg/m3 (56.000 ppm);
• Practical limit of R404A, 0.48 kg/m3 (120.000 ppm)
• R744 compares reasonably well with the HFCs
when subcritical and at low condensing temperatures
Note – The practical limit is defined in EN378 but may vary
(e.g., the LT comparison). But at higher condensing
in regional regulations.
temperatures (MT example) and when transcritical
(HT example), it does not compare well. The table below summarises the effect of CO2 at various
concentrations in air.
• The high suction pressure and high gas density of Table 4. Effects of CO2 at various concentrations in air
R744 results in very good evaporator performance.
In like-for-like systems the evaporator temperature ppm of CO2 EFFECTS
of an R744 system would, in reality, be higher than 370 Concentration in atmosphere
for HFC systems. 5.000 Long-term exposure limit (8 hours)
15.000 Short-term exposure limit (10 min)
• The index of compression is very high for R744, so 30.000 Can be “tasted”
the discharge temperature is higher than for the
30.000 Discomfort, breathing difficulties, headache,
HFCs. This can improve heat reclaim potential
dizziness, etc.
in retail systems, although the requirement for heat
in the summer when the system is transcritical 100.000 Loss of consciousness, death
is limited. 300.000 Quick death

• The density of R744 results in very high volumetric
capacity. This reduces the required compressor
displacement (but not the motor size, which would
be similar to that required for HFC refrigerants).
• The required suction pipe cross section area is
in proportion to the volumetric capacity. For R744
the diameter of the suction line is approximately
half that required for R404A.
• The compression ratio for R744 is less than for the HFCs.
This can result in higher isentropic efficiency.
If a leak of R744 could result in a concentration exceeding
the practical limit in an enclosed occupied space such
as a cold room, precautions must be taken to prevent
asphyxiation. These include the use of permanent leak
detection which activates an alarm in the event of a leak.
High-pressures
System components, pipe work, tools and equipment must
be rated for these pressures. It should be noted that the
standstill pressure on some systems (e.g., cascade systems)
is higher than the maximum rated pressure PS (hence the
pressure-relief valve setting). The pressure-relief valve will
discharge in the event of a fault such as a power failure.

Section 5. R744 Hazards

R744 is not flammable, but its high-pressures, toxicity at Table 5. R744 standstill and typical system operating
high concentration and potential for dry ice formation pressures
must be taken into account when applying and handling. Standstill at 10°C ambient 44 bar g
This section explains some of the hazards and provides Standstill at 30°C ambient 71.1 bar g
very general guidance on reducing them. More detailed
Low temperature evaporator (frozen food) 10 - 15 bar g
information relating to the design of systems to minimise
the hazards is provided later in this document. High temperature evaporator (chilled food) 25 - 30 bar g
Cascade condenser 30 - 35 bar g
Asphyxiation Cascade high-pressure cut out (high side) 36 bar g

R744 is odourless, heavier than air and is an asphyxiant. Cascade pressure-relief-valve (high side) 40 bar g
The practical limit1 of R744 is lower than HFCs because of Transcritical high side 90 bar g
its potential for high toxicity (HFCs are non toxic): Transcritical high-pressure cut out (high side) 108 to 126 bar g
Transcritical pressure-relief valve (high side) 120 to 140 bar g

1
EN378 Refrigerating systems and heat pumps – Safety and environmental requirements
ISO 5149 mechanical refrigerating systems used for cooling and heating - Safety requirements.

10
To ensure the pressure does not rise to the relief pressure
in the event of such a fault, these systems can be fitted
with a small auxiliary cooling system. This typically runs
on an auxiliary (uninterruptable) power supply and will
switch on when the pressure rises above a set point (this
is lower than maximum allowable suction pressure PS, but
higher than the normal operating pressure). The auxiliary
cooling system is sized to remove sufficient heat to keep
the standstill pressure below safe low side limit when there
is no load on the system (apart from heat absorbed from
the ambient).
Care must be taken when charging R744 systems. The
maximum operating pressure of some systems (such as
cascade systems and parts of transcritical systems) is
normally below the R744 cylinder pressure. These systems
must be charged slowly and carefully to prevent pressure-
relief valves discharging. Further information is given in
Chapter 5.
Trapped Liquid
The coefficient of expansion for R744 is significantly higher
than for other refrigerants. The practical impact of this on
liquid R744 trapped between closed valves is shown in the
graph in figure 7:
1000
1 become gas as it absorbs heat (e.g., from ambient). If the
100
Pressure, bar g
2 a significant pressure increase.
10
1
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Temperature (°C)
t_liq = -30ºC
t_liq = -10ºC
t_liq = +10ºC
Figure 7. Relationship between temperature and pressure of trapped
liquid R744. Source: Danish Technological Institute
The example shows the effect of a 20K temperature rise
on liquid that is trapped at an initial temperature of -10°C.
The pressure will increase from 44 bar g to approximately
240 bar g. This condition could potentially occur in a liquid
line of a cascade system, and similar situations can arise in
other parts of the system and in other R744 systems. As a
rule of thumb, trapped R744 liquid will increase in pressure
by 10 bar for every 1K temperature increase.
The pressure of trapped liquid refrigerant always increases,
but the pressure increase of R744 is much greater than for
other refrigerants. This is exacerbated by the potential to
trap R744 at low temperatures (LT) and hence for the liquid
temperature to rise more than for other refrigerants.
Systems should be fitted with pressure-relief protection
wherever liquid could be trapped, either during operation
or service. Methods of providing this protection are
covered in the section on design of R744 systems.
Dry Ice
Dry ice (solid R744) is formed when R744 pressure and
temperature is reduced to below the triple point (4.2 bar
g, -56°C). This will not occur within a properly working
refrigeration system, but can occur when:
• A pressure-relief valve discharges if it is venting
vapor R744
• Venting R744 during service (component change or
replacement, for example)
• Charging a system which is below 4.2 bar g (e.g., an
evacuated system)
Dry ice does not expand when it is formed, but dry ice will
dry ice is trapped within the system, it will absorb heat
from the surroundings and turn into gas. This will result in
Dry ice can block vent lines, so care must be taken to ensure
that this cannot occur:
30 40 50 60
• Appropriate pressure-relief valves should be used –
see the section on system design for more
information about these and how safety valves
should be applied;
• When R744 is vented from a system during service
it should be vented as a liquid, and the pressure
in the system monitored. R744 should always be
vented outside a building.
Freeze Burns
Contact with solid or liquid R744 will cause freeze burns
and should be avoided. Suitable gloves and goggles should
always be worn when working with R744.
11
 Section 6. Comparison of R744 With
Other Refrigerants

The table below shows a simple comparison of R744 with

other types of refrigerant, including those that are currently
commonly used and those that are currently evaluated
for future use. It uses a simple “traffic light” system and
employs the common HFCs, such as R404A and R134a as
a baseline.

This provides a very simple introduction to the options –

the situation varies globally, especially in the availability of
refrigerants, components and expertise.

For retail applications a well designed and installed R407A/F

system generally has better efficiency than R744 systems.
However, the overall environmental performance of R744
systems is better, primarily due to the low GWP in the
event of leakage. More detailed information is provided in
the Emerson Climate Technologies document “Refrigerant
Choices for Commercial Refrigeration8”.

Table 6. Comparison of R744 with other refrigerants

R744 HFOs HCs R717

Capacity

Efficiency

Pressure

Environmental impact

Flammability

Toxicity

Availability of refrigerant

Availability of components

Availability of expertise

Cost of refrigerant

Cost of system

Refrigerant is similar to HFCs;

Aspect of the refrigerant is worse than HFCs;
Aspect of the refrigerant is better than HFCs.
HFO: Hydro Fluoro Olefin, e.g., R1234yf
HC: Hydro Carbon, e.g., R290
R717: Ammonia

8
Reference: Refrigerant Choices for Commercial Refrigeration (TGE124-0910/E) available on www.emersonclimate.eu

12
Section 7. Advantages and Disadvantages of R744 as a
Refrigerant

R744 has the following advantages and disadvantages as a they have a significant impact on the safety and reliability
refrigerant. The list of disadvantages appears less than the of R744 systems. More information on the impact of the
advantages, but these issues should not be overlooked as differences is highlighted below.

Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of R744 as a refrigerant

Advantages Disadvantages

High refrigeration capacity due to high volumetric cooling High operating and standstill pressures are more hazardous and
capacity (e.g., it is approximately up to 5 times that of R404A). increase the leak potential. Specially designed components are
This has a positive impact on compressor displacement and the required.
sizing of heat exchangers and pipe work.
Special compressors are required because of the higher
Lower pressure drops in pipe work and heat exchangers. refrigeration capacity (different motor / displacement
For example, the impact of long suction and liquid lines is less. combination).

High heat transfer in evaporators and condensers due to the high-
pressure and density. This will either allow lower temperature
differences between the refrigerant and the air; therefore
improving efficiency, or allow the use of smaller evaporators and
condensers. Tubing wall thickness may need to be increased to
handle the higher pressures, so careful design is required to take
advantage of the R744 properties.
R744 systems are more complex – either cascade or transcritical.
This leads to higher costs in components and installation.
Pipe working on-site potentially includes steel or stainless steel,
the need for specially licensed welders, and different jointing
techniques due to higher pressure and different materials.

The pressure drop across an expansion valve is greater than with The greater complexity also increases the probability of poor
other refrigerants, so the minimum setting for head pressure
performance and reliability, particularly if commissioning is not
control can be lower. This improves efficiency.
done well.
Lower compression ratios leading to higher compressor
isentropic efficiency. For transcritical systems two stage compression is required
for frozen food applications because of the high discharge
Non-corrosive with most materials. There are very few differences temperature of R744.
to the materials used in HFC systems.
R744 transcritical systems are not suitable for high
Good miscibility with compressor lubricants for oil return.
ambient areas (e.g., Southeast Asia) where the system will
Polyolester type lubricants can continue to be used as with HFCs.
always run above the critical point because of the inefficiency of
Low toxicity and nonflammable. transcritical operation.

Negligible GWP so that, in the event of a leak, the direct impact R744 is not controlled by any regulation such as the European
on climate change is very low. Fluorinated Gas Regulation, so its use is not as carefully monitored
as HFCs and leak detection is not as rigorous. However, the high-
Inexpensive to produce and widely available, although the purity
of the R744 should be 99.99% for use in a refrigeration system with pressures make the system leak prone, and performance will
hermetic and semi-hermetic compressors, i.e., refrigerant grade. suffer if the leak rate is high.

High discharge temperatures due to the high index of Very sensitive to water contamination and can form
compression. This provides good potential for heat reclaim. unusual compounds when there is a leak in a cascade heat
Note – the discharge temperature is excessively high in exchanger.
transcritical systems with a large difference between evaporating
and heat rejection temperatures.

Stable molecule leading to a low potential for decomposition

within the refrigeration system.

There is no impending legislation phasing down or phasing out

R744 so it can be viewed as a long-term refrigerant.

13
3 Introduction to R744 Systems

Introduction to R744 Systems
This chapter covers general aspects of R744 systems.
More detail about transcritical and cascade systems and
components is given in chapter 4.
The properties of R744 effect how the refrigerant is applied
(see chapter 2 for more information):
•
The high density of R744 compared to HFCs
results in the requirement for less compressor
displacement, typically 1/5th of that needed for
R404A. However the motor size would be similar
since the work done is approximately the same.
Smaller pipe diameters are also a result of the
higher density, especially on the suction side of
the system.
• The higher pressures of R744 result in the need for
all components to have a higher maximum pressure
rating.
• The high discharge temperatures of R744 (because
of the high index of compression) result in the need
for two-stage compression for LT systems that reject
heat to ambient air.
the low-stage. The R744 in the low-stage is always
subcritical, but in the high-stage will be transcritical at
high ambient conditions.
> Secondary systems: The R744 is used as a
secondary fluid and is pumped through the
heat exchangers (cooling load). The CO2 is not
completely evaporated, the gas is condensated by
a chiller.
The next three sections introduce transcritical, cascade
and secondary systems and explain how each system
works. The advantages and disadvantages of each are
summarised and compared after these two sections.
There is more detail about the individual components and
their selection in chapter 4.
Section 1. Introduction to Retail
Transcritical Systems
The diagram in figure 8 is a simple, single stage transcritical
system. The refrigerant discharged from the compressor
flows into the gas cooler where heat is removed and the
refrigerant temperature becomes cooler. The refrigerant
is above the critical point, so it does not condense in this
part of the system.The refrigerant then passes through

• The low critical temperature of R744 results in

differences in system design and control. In the retail
sector this results in R744 being used mainly in the
following types of system:

> Transcritical systems: Systems are called

transcritical when heat rejection takes place
above the critical point of the refrigerant (for CO2
ambient temperatures from 20°C to 25°C). (See
figure 8)
TCE
> Booster systems: Systems with two tempera-
ture levels (e.g., -35°C and -20°C evaporating
temperature) and with low-stage and medium
stage compressors (see figure 11).
> Cascade systems: R744 is the low-stage
refrigerant in a cascade system in which the R744
is always subcritical. The heat rejected by the
condensing R744 is absorbed by the evaporating
high-stage refrigerant. The high-stage system is
usually a conventional system using HFC or HC, in
which case this is termed hybrid cascade. In some
systems R744 is used in the high-stage as well as

Figure 8. Simple transcritical system for medium temperature

14
the expansion device. The refrigerant condenses when
its pressure drops below the critical point. Vapor then
forms as the pressure reduces further to the evaporating
pressure. The saturated refrigerant then flows into the
evaporator where it evaporates and superheats as usual.
The superheated gas is drawn back into the compressor.
In this simple system:
• The temperature of the refrigerant at the exit of the
gas cooler depends on the size of the gas cooler
In a transcritical system the R744 discharges from the
compressor as a transcritical fluid because its pressure and
temperature are above the critical point. In a subcritical
system the refrigerant would de-superheat and then
condense, rejecting heat at a constant temperature as it
condenses. In a transcritical system the refrigerant does
not condense – it rejects heat as a transcritical fluid and its
temperature reduces during this process. (Even with a wide
temperature-glide HFC such as R407A, the temperature
change through the condenser is small compared to that
of a gas cooler in a transcritical system.)

• The pressure of the refrigerant in the gas cooler
depends on the quantity of refrigerant in the
system and the ambient temperature
The disadvantage of this type of system is that its
capacity and efficiency vary significantly with ambient
(air in) temperature and with the quantity of refrigerant in
the system. The simple transcritical system is shown on a
pressure enthalpy chart in figure 9.
Three example systems are shown on the pressure enthalpy
chart. They each have identical evaporating conditions.
In each example above, the R744 exits the gas cooler at a
temperature of 40°C. This exit temperature is a function of
the size of the gas cooler and the ambient temperature, in
the same way as condensing temperature is a function of
the size of the condenser and the ambient temperature.
The cooling capacity of each system above varies
significantly. For pressures below approximately 300 bar_g
the cooling capacity reduces as the pressure reduces. This
is the opposite of what happens in a subcritical system
where cooling capacity is greater at lower discharge
pressures.

160 5
5 03 035 04
0.00
45 0.00 0.006
6

02 0.0
18
014

.0 5

0.0 0.0
2
01
0.001

01

00

140 40◦ C 0.0

00

0.007
0.
0.0
0.0

0.
0

1.5

120
1.6

0.008

2.1

2.2
1.8

1.9
1.4
1.1

1.2
1
0.9

1.3

1.7

0.009
100

3
0.01

2.
90
80 0.012
70
0.014
0.015
60 0.016
4
2.
0.018
50
0.02

40
0.025
Pressure in bar

0.03
30
-10°C 0.035
5

25
2.

0.04
0.045
20
0.05
18
16
6

0.06
2.

14 0.07
12 0.08
0.09
10
0.1
9
7
2.

8 0.12
7
0.14
40◦ C 0.15
6
20
10

90
30

80

220
110
40
20

140
150
160
50

50
60

230
120

170
180

210
10
0

130
40

190
70

200
100
30

5
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Enthalpy in kJ/kg

Isothermal in °C
Isochoric in m3/kg
Isentropic in kJ/kgK

Figure 9. Pressure enthalpy chart showing transcritical operation

15
The compressor power input of each system also varies –
the lower the pressure the lower the power input. This is
the same as for a subcritical system.
The pressure enthalpy chart shows that the variation in
power input is not proportional to the variation in cooling
capacity. For example, increasing the head pressure from
condition 1 to condition 2 provides a significant increase
in cooling capacity with a very low increase in compressor
power input. Increasing the pressure from condition 2 to
condition 3 gives an increase in cooling capacity that is less
than the increase in compressor power input.
The coefficient of performance (COP) varies widely. Unlike
subcritical systems the maximum COP does not occur
when the condensing pressure is at a minimum. The
optimum COP depends on the evaporating conditions and
gas cooler exit temperature, but is typically at a pressure
between 90 and 100 bar g. In general the pressure for
optimum capacity is greater than that for optimum COP.
In a retail transcritical system the gas cooler pressure
is controlled to provide either optimum capacity or
optimum efficiency while maintaining the pressure below
the maximum allowed at all times. The simple diagram in
figure 10 shows how this pressure is controlled in a typical
retail system with single stage compression.
Figure 10. Simple pressure control
16
The two additional valves in this simple system control the
gas cooler and intermediate pressures:
• The gas cooler pressure valve 1 (also called the high-
pressure regulating valve) controls the pressure in
the gas cooler. It is a pressure-reducing valve which
is controlled from the R744 pressure in the gas
cooler and its exit temperature.
• The receiver pressure valve 2 (also called the
medium pressure regulating valve or the flash gas
valve) controls the pressure of the refrigerant in the
receiver and associated liquid distribution pipe work.
It is controlled from the pressure in the receiver.
Note that this receiver is also called a flash tank.
The gas cooler pressure is usually selected for
optimum COP as described above, unless greater
capacity is required, in which case a higher pressure
would be selected to provide this while required.
Subcritical Operation
The ambient temperature profile will determine the
proportion of time a system runs in transcritical mode.
For many regions a proportion of the operation will be
subcritical, typically when the ambient temperature is
below 20°C to 25°C. In this case the gas cooler pressure
valve usually controls the refrigerant in the condenser such
that it exits the condenser with a specified degree of sub
cooling.
Retail Booster Systems
Two-stage compression is used for transcritical low
temperature applications because the discharge
temperature of R744 is high and will potentially result in
lubricant break down. The diagram in figure 11 shows
a simple two stage booster or externally compounded
system.
The refrigerant from the low temperature loads is drawn
into the low-stage compressors. The discharge from
these compressors goes into the suction of the high-stage
compressors.
The refrigerant from the medium temperature (MT) loads
is drawn into the suction of the high-stage compressors.
The refrigerant from the receiver pressure regulating
valve is also drawn into the suction of the high-stage
compressors. The flash gas from the receiver pressure
regulating valve, and the suction gas from the medium
temperature loads provide some interstage cooling. This
Figure 11. Simple booster system without oil management Figure 12. Simple cascade system

is usually enough to maintain the discharge temperature
of the highstage compressors below the level at which the
lubricant will deteriorate. Additional interstage cooling
can also be provided if required.
Section 2. Introduction to Retail Cascade Systems
The cascade system comprises:
• The low-stage, which provides the cooling for the
load. It uses R744 and is always subcritical
In this case the high-stage provides cooling for the
medium temperature load as well as removing the heat
from the condensing R744 in the low-stage at the cascade
heat exchanger. The high-stage refrigerant is usually an
HFC or HC, in which case the cascade is a hybrid system.
In some systems R744 is used in the high-stage. It will be
transcritical at ambient temperatures above 20°C to 25°C
– see section 1 for more information about this.

• The high-stage, which absorbs the heat from the

condensing R744 at the cascade heat exchanger

Within the cascade heat exchanger the evaporating

high-stage refrigerant absorbs the heat rejected by the
condensing R744. The R744 condensing temperature
is maintained below the critical point. The high-stage is
usually a simple, close coupled system. It is controlled by
the pressure in the low-stage receiver.

17
 Section 3. Secondary Systems

The diagram in figure 13 shows a simple secondary

system. The high-stage system cools the liquid R744 in the
secondary circuit. The R744 is pumped around the load.
It is volatile, so unlike a conventional secondary fluid such
as glycol it does not remain as a liquid, instead it partially
evaporates. It therefore has a significantly greater cooling
capacity than other secondary fluids. This reduces the pump
power required and the temperature difference needed at
the heat exchanger.
The R744 would typically be cooled to -3°C for the MT load,
and to -25°C for the LT load.

The high-stage system is a simple chiller type system,

typically running on an HFC or HC refrigerant.

Figure 13. Simple pump system secondary

18
Section 4. Selecting the Best System – Booster Versus Cascade Versus Secondary

Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of cascade and transcritical retail systems

System Advantages Disadvantages

• One refrigerant • LT applications require two-stage compression

Transcritical • One system, lowest system costs • System faults in coupled systems affect MT and LT
Booster • Better efficiency than HFC • High operation pressures
systems in mild climates • Lower efficiency as HFC systems in warm climates

• Two simple systems • Two refrigerants although R744 can

• LT with low R744, the MT with a
low GWP HFC refrigerant
Cascade • Standard HFC components for medium
and low temperature cycles
• Better efficiency in warm climates
be used in the high stage
• Temperature difference in the cascade
heat exchanger reduce the efficiency
slightly for the LT cycle
• System faults in coupled systems affect MT and LT

• Using R744 as a secondary fluid using the

latent heat, very low pump power required
• Simple chiller system for the high -stage
• Additional heat exchange and temperature difference
with readily available components
slightly reduce the efficiency
(separate chiller for LT and MT)
• R744 pumps required
Secondary • System works at constant pressure
• Pumps in this size are not readily available and are
without any pressure pulsation
unfamiliar to many refrigeration engineers
• Option to combine LT and MT, pump
circulation system for the MT using R744
combined with a LT booster system
• Chiller could use low GWP HFCs or HCs

The information in figures 14 and 15 are examples of • Case 1 is a hybrid cascade system using scroll compres-
comparisons between typical retail cascade, transcritical sors and with R744 as the low-stage and R404A as the
booster and secondary systems of the same cooling high-stage refrigerant
capacity8. In both examples the MT cooling load is 75 kW
and the LT load is 18 kW: • Case 2 is a secondary system using scroll and semi-
hermetic reciprocating compressors and with R404A
• Base case is a transcritical booster system which as the primary refrigerant
uses semi-hermetic reciprocating compressors
The factors costs and leak rates used for both examples are
shown in the table in figure 16.

8
Emerson Climate Technologies Calculator using default conditions

19
 Lifetime CO2 Emissions, Metric Tons (TEWI) MT Power LT Power MT Leak LT Leak

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 700 1,400 2,100 2,800 3,500 4,200

Annual Power Cost, MT Power LT Power

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 30,000 60,000 90,000 120,000 150,000 180,000

Investment Cost, Compressors Components Installation Condenser Refrigerant

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

Figure 14. Comparison of system types, northern Europe

Lifetime CO2 Emissions, Metric Tons (TEWI) MT Power LT Power MT Leak LT Leak

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 700 1,400 2,100 2,800 3,500 4,200

Annual Power Cost, MT Power LT Power

MT Power

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 30,000 60,000 90,000 120,000 150,000 180,000

Investment Cost, Compressors Components Installation Condenser Refrigerant

Base Case
Case #1
Case #2
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000

Figure 15. Comparison of system types, southern Europe

20
 Global Variables

Emission Factor
Emission Factor kgCO2/kWh 0.4

Electricity Cost
Electricity Cost /kWh 0.15

Leakage Rate, % Charge pa

Cascade LT & MT 15

Secondary LT 15

Secondary MT 2

Figure 16. Variables used in comparison calculations

The energy consumption is lower for both the cascade
and the secondary systems, especially in southern
Europe where the ambient temperature is higher than for
northern Europe. Berg /2009/ reported the results of a
study to compare HFC and CO2 systems in Norway. Here
the investment cost was 20% higher, but all CO2 systems
showed better performance than the HFC stystems.
Because of the impact of leakage of the HFC high-stage
in both cases, the overall impact on climate change is
lower for the transcritical booster system. If a hydrocarbon
refrigerant was used in the cascade and secondary high-
stage instead of an HFC, the overall environmental impact
of these systems would be less than for the transcritical
system.
In conclusion, transcritical operation is generally less efficient
than subcritical operation, so the selection of the system
type used is usually driven by the ambient temperature
profile:
• Transcritical systems are normally used in areas
where the ambient temperature is generally low (i.e.,
predominantly below 20°C to 25°C), such as northern
Europe and Canada.
• Cascade and secondary systems (subcritical R744)
are usually used in high ambient areas such as
southern Europe, the U.S. and much of central and
South America, southeast Asia, Africa and Australia.
The use of transcritical systems in high ambients
generally results in low efficiency, hence cascade or
secondary systems are preferred in these areas.

21
4 R744 Systems Design

Introduction Intermediate Pressure

This chapter includes more detailed information about
the design of R744 cascade, transcritical booster and
secondary systems. For detailed application information
about Emerson R744 components refer to the Emerson
document “System Product Offering”.
Section 1. Transcritical Booster Systems
The main components of the transcritical booster system
are listed in table 9 and are shown in the diagram in figure
18. The reference column in table 9 shows the reference to
the component in figure 18.
The intermediate pressure is selected based on the
following (conflicting) requirements:
• The requirement for as low a pressure as feasible on
the shop floor
• The requirement for the PS of the pipe work to
be above the pressure equivalent to maximum
ambient if the plant is at standstill (see section 4 for
more information on standstill-pressure)
The pressure enthalpy chart in figure 17 show both
intermediate pressures in systems with the same
evaporating and gas cooler conditions.

160
5 03 5 4 45 0.005 0.006
02 0.00
3 0.00 0.00
12

0.0
0.0 14
0.001

1.5 0 8
02
0. 15

140 0.0
6

0.007
1.4 001

.0
00
00
0.00

0.
1.3 0.

120 0.008

2.1
1.8

1.9
1.2

2
1.1

2.2
1.7
0.9

1.6

0.009
100

3
0.01

2.
90
80 0.012
70
0.0145
60 0.01 6
0.01

4
2.
0.018
50
0.02

40
0.025
Pressure in bar

0.03
30
0.035
5
2.

25
0.04
0.045
20
0.05
18
16 0.06
6
2.

14 0.07
12 0.08
0.09
10 0.1
9
7
2.

8 0.12
7 0.14
0.15
6
20
10

30

90
80

220
110

140
40

150
160
20
50

50
60

230
120

170
180

210
10
0

130
40

190
70

200
100
30

5
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Enthalpy in kJ/kg

Isothermal in C
°

Intermediate pressure at 35 bar g

Isochoric in m /kg
3
Evaporating pressure at 25.5 bar g
Isentropic in kJ/kgK Evaporating pressure at 11 bar g

Figure 17. Pressure enthalpy chart showing two interstage conditions

22
Table 9. Reference table to what is shown in figure 18:
Component Type Ref

Low-stage compressor Compressors that are rated for R744 are used 1

Compressors specifically designed for transcritical R744 must be used. These are usually
High-stage compressor 2
semi-hermetic reciprocating compressors

Oil separator and oil The oil separator and reservoir work on the same principles as a conventional oil management
3
return system system (e.g., coalescent type oil separation), designed for the higher operating pressures

Gas cooler / condenser Typically air-cooled, multi-fan, finned-tube type 4

A pressure-modulating valve is used, controlled from the pressure and exit temperature
Gas cooler regulating valve 5
of the gas cooler

Liquid receiver (flash tank) Standard design rated for the higher pressure 6

A pressure modulating valve is used, controlled from the pressure in the liquid receiver
Receiver pressure regulating valve 7
(flash tank)

Electronic expansion valves are used. R410-rated valves can be used for systems with
Expansion device 8
lower interstage pressure

Evaporator Typically smaller diameter pipe and fewer passes are used, rated for the higher pressure 9

• Pressure-relief valve: High-lift types are used to prevent blockage with dry ice, with a
discharge pressure rated for R744
Others • Filter drier: Molecular sieve type suitable for the pressures, R410A-rated filter drier
can be used for systems with lower intermediate pressure
• Switches: High-pressure and low-pressure cut-outs rated for the pressure are used

Table 10. Advantages & disadvantages of two typical

intermediate pressures

Interme-
diate Advantages Disadvantages
pressure

• High potential for flash

• Lower hazard in
gas at the expansion
the event of a leak
valves due to low
• Lower potential
35 bar g liquid temperature
for leakage
(i.e., sub-cooling does
(1°C sat • Lower cost of
not occur naturally
temp.) components
in the liquid line)
and pipe work
• Standstill pressure
• Components and
is above PS so PRVs
pipe work are more
will discharge in the
readily available
event of a fault
• Standstill
pressure is below
PS for most • Higher potential
ambients/ store for leakage
60 bar g temperatures. • Greater potential
(23°C sat • Low potential for hazard in the
temp.) flash gas formation event of a leak
because the liquid • Higher cost of pipe
temperature work and components
should be above
store temperture
Figure 18. Typical retail transcritical booster system

23
There is little difference in efficiency of the two intermediate
conditions because the increased enthalpy difference with
the lower intermediate pressure is offset by the greater
amount of flash gas produced by the increased pressure
drop across the gas cooler regulating valve.
The main components of the low-stage of a cascade system
are listed in the table 11 and are shown in the diagram
in figure 19. The reference column in the table shows the
reference to the component in figure 19.

Pipe Work Temperature

It is important to consider that with the low intermediate

pressure the liquid line is below ambient temperature
so there is no natural liquid subcooling. Unless there
is a mechanical subcooler, the refrigerant entering the
expansion valve is not subcooled, but will potentially
contain flash gas. To account for this the electronic
expansion valve is oversized, often by as much as 30%.

If the liquid line is below ambient temperature for most of

the time it should be insulated to reduce non-useful heat
gain and to prevent condensation in humid climates.

Start up and Operation

The high-stage compressor(s) must be installed and

running before the low-stage compressors can be started.

Section 2. Cascade Systems

The R744 in the low-stage of a cascade system is designed

to be subcritical during operation. Figure 19. Typical retail cascade system

Table 11, Reference table to what is shown in figure 19

Component Type Ref

Low-stage compressor Compressors that are suitable for R744 are used for low temperature 1

Compressors that are suitable for HFC/HC/Ammonia are used for medium
High-stage compressor 2
temperature

Oil separator and oil return system Components rated for R410A pressures can be used* 3

Cascade heat exchanger Typically a plate heat exchanger or shell and tube rated for R410A * 4

Liquid receiver Receiver rated for R410A pressures can be used * 5

Electronic Expansion Valves (EEV) are normally

Expansion device, typically EEV 6
used, rated for R410A pressures*

Evaporator Evaporators rated for R410A pressures can be used 7

Gas Cooler Typically air-cooled, multi-fan, finned- tube type 8

• De-superheater: Typically a plate heat exchanger

• Pressure-relief valve: Valves rated for R410A relief pressures can be used*
• Filter drier: Filter drier rated for R410A pressures can be used*
Others Molecular sieve types are usually used
• Switches: High-pressure and low-pressure cut-outs rated for R410A
pressures can be used*

*If the high side PS is above 40 bar g, R410A components are not suitable, so R744 rated components are used.

24
Pipe Work Temperature
Most of the R744 pipe work is below -5°C and is therefore
insulated to minimise heat gain into the refrigerant. Only
the discharge line between the compressor and the cascade
heat exchanger is not insulated. All the components with
the exception of the R744 compressors are also insulated to
reduce heat gain into the refrigerant.
The R744 liquid temperature is usually below the
temperature of the surrounding ambient, so it does not
subcool as it flows along the liquid line. Unless there is
a mechanical sub-cooler, the refrigerant entering the
expansion device at the LT load will be saturated, reducing
the cooling capacity of the evaporator. The expansion
device is sized to take account of the lack of subcooling –
typically it will be 30% greater capacity than standard.
The Cascade Heat Exchanger
The cascade heat exchanger (R744 condenser) is typically
either a plate or a shell- and tube-type heat exchanger. The
greater its capacity the lower the temperature difference
between the condensing R744 and the evaporating high-
stage refrigerant. This will result in better efficiency of the
total system.
The cascade condenser must be located above the liquid
receiver to ensure the liquid R744 flows into the receiver
and does not back up in the condenser.
The R744 discharge temperature is usually high, leading to
a wide temperature difference between the superheated
R744 entering the cascade heat exchanger and the high-
stage refrigerant leaving it. The high Delta T can cause
thermal stress and unstable operation especially in plate
heat exchangers. It is beneficial to reduce the discharge
line temperature of the R744 entering the cascade heat
exchanger.
This can be achieved by using a de-superheater between
the discharge of the R744 compressor(s) and the cascade
heat exchanger. The heat reclaimed can be used, for
example, for heating water. This has the added advantage
of reducing the amount of heat that must be rejected at the
cascade heat exchanger.
Selection of Low-Stage Maximum Pressure (PS)
The standstill pressure of the low-stage of the cascade is
usually higher than the operating pressures of both the
low- and high-pressure sides of this part of the system. For
example, the high side operating pressure is typically in the
range 25 to 34 bar g. In an ambient temperature of 20°C,
and if the high-stage system is not operating, the R744
stand-still pressure will rise to 56 bar g. This will not occur
immediately because the insulation on the pipe work and
components reduces the heat gain from ambient. If PS
for the R744 system is selected to be below the potential
maximum standstill pressure, the pressure-relief valves
(PRVs) will discharge R744 if the high-stage is not operating,
unless the system is designed to avoid this.
PRV discharge should be avoided where possible to reduce
the associated hazard and service costs and to avoid
consequential loss. It will also avoid deterioration of the
PRV which can lead to leakage from the valve if it does not
reseat correctly after discharge. The spring can also weaken
resulting in a lower relief pressure.
For cascade systems, PS (and hence the pressure-relief
valve setting) is typically 45 bar g. If the high-stage system
fails or in the event of a power failure, pressure-relief valve
discharge can be avoided by:
• The use of a small auxiliary condensing unit,
connected to an uninterruptable power supply, that
removes heat from the R744 liquid receiver. Such a
system will remove the heat gain from ambient into
the R744 and will therefore be sufficient if the high-
stage is inoperable due to power failure (in which
case there will be no main heat load on the system
from the evaporators). The auxiliary condensing
unit will not be sufficient to maintain the low-
stage system below PS if there is a load from the
evaporators.
• The use of a separate pressure-relief system. This is
typically a solenoid valve or ball valve that opens and
relieves R744 to atmosphere at a pressure below
PS but above the maximum condensing pressure.
This can be achieved by the use of a transducer or
high-pressure switch that opens a solenoid valve
or motorised ball valve to discharge R744. The
pressure does not reach PS and hence the pressure-
relief valve(s) do not discharge. This does not
prevent the discharge of R744, but it does reduce
the probability of the pressure-relief valves venting
with the associated high loss of refrigerant and
potential requirement to replace the relief valves.
The transducer and motorised ball valve can be run
from an uninterruptable power supply so they still
function in the event of a main power cut.
If PS for the low-stage system is selected to be above the
maximum standstill pressure, there is no need to take
the measures described above. The disadvantage of this
option is that all the components in the low-stage system
must be suitable for the selected PS. See section 4 for more
information on standstill pressure.
25
Start-up and Operating Sequence

The start up and operating sequence of a cascade system

is critical. The high-stage system must be available to run
before starting up or operating the low-stage system. If
this is not the case the low-stage system will cut out on
the high-pressure protection, and ultimately the pressure-
relief valves will discharge.

The High-Stage System

The high-stage system is usually a simple, close-coupled

system with a low refrigerant charge. It has a wide range
of refrigerant options and is often suitable for natural
refrigerants such as Hydrocarbons or R717. The high-stage
can also be R744, in which case it will be transcritical for
part of the year, depending on the ambient temperature.

The high-stage system compressors are typically controlled

by the pressure in the low-stage receiver (i.e., the R744
condensing temperature).

When the load reduces, the R744 receiver pressure also

reduces, so the high-stage compressor capacity reduces. If
the load on the R744 system increases, the receiver pressure
will increase causing the high-stage compressor capacity
to increase (i.e., high-stage compressors will switch on or
speed up).
Figure 20. Combined pump circulation system for MT with LT booster
system
Section 3. Secondary Systems
The R744 is volatile, so some of the liquid flashes into gas
The main components in a typical retail secondary loop as it absorbs heat in the cabinet.
system are shown in the table below. The ‘Ref’ column in
the table shows the reference to the components in figure The R744 vapor returning to the vessel from the load is then
20. taken from the top of the vessel into the heat exchanger
and is re-condensed.
Table 12. Reference table to what is shown in figure 20

Component Type Ref

Liquid pump Typically liquid-cooled centrifugal pumps are used 1

Heat exchanger Standard heat exchangers are used, typically plate heat exchangers 2

Receiver A standard liquid receiver is usually used 3

Evaporator Standard HFC evaporators are used 4

The high-stage system is usually a conventional chiller, operating

High-stage system with 5
compressor with HFC or HC

Compressor LT booster compressor 6

Other Pressure-relief valve: Standard HFC evaporators are used

26
Liquid Pump
The liquid pump is usually a centrifugal type. It is important
that pure liquid refrigerant enters the pump to avoid
cavitation - flash gas in the liquid will reduce the reliability
and performance of the pump. For this reason the receiver
must be above the pump. Additionally, the receiver outlet
is designed to avoid the formation of flash gas, for example
by the incorporation of a vortex breaker (typically a baffle in
the receiver outlet). This will stop vortices forming that can
entrain vapor in liquid, causing cavitation at the pump.
Pipe Work Temperature
The R744 liquid will be below ambient so the liquid pipe
work must be insulated.
Section 4. Design for Pressure
The operating and standstill pressure of the R744 systems
described above are higher than for other retail refrigeration
systems, although many cascade and secondary systems
have similar operating pressures to the R410A systems used
in the air conditioning sector. The higher pressures affect
the design and specification of all system components and
pipe work.
The table below shows pressures on the high side of the
system for a “standard” system and a “high PS” system. High
PS systems are specified to avoid the relief valve venting
on standstill, when the pressure will exceed the standard
pressure-relief-valve rating at ambient temperatures above
6°C (the saturation temperature equivalent to 40 bar g, see
section 2 of chapter 3 for more information).
Components that are readily available for R410A systems
can generally be used for subcritical systems with a PS of
45 bar g on the high side. Components that are subject to a
higher PS are specifically designed for R744. More detailed
information is given in the next chapter and in the Emerson
document “System Product Offering”.
The standstill pressure is the internal pressure of the
system when it is not operating. The equalized pressure
depends on:
• Ambient temperature when below the critical point
(for example in an ambient of 20°C the standstill
pressure will be approximately 56 bar g)
• System volume and refrigerant charge when above
the critical point. In this case the standstill pressure
depends on the ratio refrigerant charge / system
volume and is typically 120 bar g

Table 13. Typical R744 pressures in retail systems

Typical operating PS HP cut-out setting

pressure
Transcritical booster systems
Low side, LT 13 bar g 30 bar g 27 bar g
Low side, MT / 25 bar g 45 bar g 40 bar g
interstage pressure

Intermediate 35 bar g 45 bar g 40 bar g

60 bar g 70 bar g 63 bar g

High side 90 bar g when transcritical 120 bar g 108 bar g

Cascade systems
Low side, standard PS 13 bar g (LT evaporator) 30 bar g 27 bar g
Low side, high PS 13 bar g (LT evaporator) 70 bar g 63 bar g
High side, standard PS 27 bar g 45 bar g 40 bar g
High side, high PS 27 bar g 70 bar g 63 bar g
Secondary systems
LT 16 bar g 30 bar g
MT 30 bar g 45 bar g

27
For many R744 systems the standstill pressure is greater
than the maximum operating pressures. When this is the
case systems are either:
• Designed with PS based on the maximum operating
pressure, in which case the pressure-relief valves
will vent when on standstill unless there is some
means of reducing the pressure or
• Designed with PS based on the maximum standstill
pressure
All components and assemblies must be rated for the PS of
that part of the system.
Pressure-relief valves must discharge to a safe place, ideally
outside a building to an unoccupied area.
When evaporators are defrosted the evaporator must be
open to the suction of the system and the pack, it must not
be isolated.
Section 5. Design for Ease of Service
Systems should be designed with sufficient isolation valves
to ensure access can be safely made to components and
parts of the system that will require service, including:
• Liquid and suction filters, where a bypass should
be fitted so the system can remain in service during
replacement
• Oil separators
• Pressure-relief valves
If liquid can be trapped between valves, these sections of
the system should include high-pressure protection. This
can be achieved either by fitting a pressure-relief valve in
that section of the system, or by installing a branch non-
return valve and piping it to a section of the system which
is protected by a PRV.
Gauges should be provided on the system to give an
indication of each of the system pressures (see glossary for
an explanation of these pressures):
• Low side: medium- and low temperature
• Intermediate on transcritical systems
• Interstage on booster systems
• High side
These are especially important on R744 systems:
• To reduce the need for technicians to access the
system to fit gauges (specialist R744 gauges should
be used where necessary)
28
• To avoid the risk associated with technicians fitting
gauges that are not rated for the R744 pressure
• They give an indication of actual system pressure if
vent lines block with dry ice
To make charging easier and safer it is advisable to install
a permanent charging point in an area that is easily
accessible. This avoids the need to move heavy R744
cylinders to the plant area.
If R744 cylinders are stored on site, they should be located
in a gas cage, upright and secure, ideally outside a building.
Section 6. Fixed Leak Detection
Fixed leak detection should be used if a leak of R744
can result in a dangerous concentration in the air. For
example, EN378 requires leak detection to be fitted if the
concentration can exceed the practical limit of 0.1 kg/m3.
Typically an infrared sensor system is used, with sensors
located wherever a leak can accumulate, for example in
plant rooms and cold rooms. Typical alarm levels are:
• 5.000 ppm for an initial alarm
• 15.000 ppm for a main alarm
Section 7. Cooling Capacity
The higher gas density of R744 results in a high volumetric
refrigeration effect compared to all other common
refrigerants. This has an effect on compressor displacement
and the sizing of pipe work, evaporators and condensers.
The chart in figure 21 compares the cooling capacity of
R744 with R134a and R404A for compressors with similar
displacements (i.e., similar volume flow rates) in single stage
systems:
• -10/ 30: -10°C evaporating temperature, 6K suction
superheat, 30°C condensing temperature; no liquid
subcooling
• -10/ 40: -10°C evaporating temperature, 6K suction
superheat, 40°C condensing temperature for R134a
and R404A, 40°C gas cooler outlet temperature
and 90 bar g gas cooler pressure for R744; no liquid
subcooling
The compressor power consumption for a given capacity
is similar to that for HFCs, so the compressor motor/
displacement combination is different for R744.
 20
15
Cooling Capacity [kW]
10
0 Liquid line
R134a R404A R744
Capacity, kW, at -10/30
Capacity, kW, at -10/40
Figure 21, Comparison of HFC and R744 capacities in typical systems
Section 8. Capacity Modulation
An R744 retail system will typically use fewer compressors
than an HFC system of the same cooling capacity. This
is because the higher capacity of R744 reduces the total
compressor displacement required. Heat exchangers are
often smaller, leading to more rapid changes in operating
conditions when the load changes. Both these factors
increase the need for effective capacity control to meet a
varying load.
Section 9. Pipe Work and Jointing
The refrigerant properties which reduce the required
compressor displacement also allow smaller diameter
pipe work to be used. This is especially true in the
suction line carrying superheated gas. The effect on
liquid line size is lower because the liquid volume
flow is similar to HFCs. The chart in figure 22
shows one example of the difference in pipe sizing.
The heat transfer coefficient of boiling R744 is greater than
for HFC refrigerants. This will improve the performance of
evaporators and condensers, which will allow either:
R404A R744
Suction line 28 mm 12 mm
diameter
diameter
8mm 6mm
Figure 22, Comparison of pipe sizes for typical systems
• The same sized evaporators and condensers to be
used compared to HFCs, with greater heat transfer
capability and hence lower TDs. This will improve
energy efficiency
• Smaller evaporators and condensers to be used
(e.g., smaller diameter pipe and fewer passes). This
will reduce the component cost and space required
The pressure drop in R744 pipe work and components is
generally lower than with HFCs (especially in suction lines),
and the system performance is less sensitive to pressure
drop. The system designer can therefore allow for a greater
pressure drop. In general refrigerant velocities are similar
to those for HFC refrigerants.
The general rules of good pipe design should also be
followed with R744 systems. Pipe thickness will usually be
greater because of the higher pressures, and in some cases
steel will be used in place of copper. As explained above,
smaller diameter pipe is used in some parts of the system.
This will inherently withstand higher pressures than
larger diameter pipe of the same wall thickness. Table 14
shows the maximum pressure of a range of copper tube,
calculated using EN14276-2:2007 and EN13480-3:2002.
29
Table 14. Maximum pressure of a range of copper tube, calculated using EN14276-2:2007 and EN13480-3:2002

Standard Wire 22 20 18 16 14 12 10
Gauge
Thickness, mm 0.711 0.914 1.219 1.626 2.032 2.642 3.251
OD, in Maximum pressure in bar (relative)
1
/4 131 174
3
/8 129 179
1
/2 81 111 153
5
/8 59 87 119 162
3
/4 49 71 98 124 166
7
/8 41 56 82 105 140
1 /81 43 58 80 106 133
1 /83 47 60 85 107
1 /85 50 71 89

The most reliable method of jointing copper tube is
brazing. The greater thickness reduces the opportunity to
swage the pipe and therefore increases the use of fittings.
In addition, the heat required for a brazed joint is greater to
get the required degree of penetration.
Copper tube is available specifically for use on R744 systems
with a PS of 120 bar g (known by the trade name K65 tube).
The material comprises copper with 2.4% ferrous plus very
small amounts of zinc and phosphorous. It cannot be bent
or swaged, so is joined using proprietary brazed fittings.
Steel pipe will withstand a greater pressure than copper
tube, as shown in table 15 for Grade 40 steel.

Table 15. Steel pipe withstands a greater pressure than copper tube
¼” ⅜” ½” ¾” 1” 1 ¼” 1 ½” 2” 2 ½” 3”
444 357 342 277 259 213 191 161 177 153

Piping should be adequately supported and clamped.

Pipe supports should be closer than for other refrigerants
due to the higher density of R744 and therefore weight of Table 16b, Steel pipe sizes and their maximum spacing of
supports
refrigerant in pipes. The following tables provide guidance
on this. Steel pipe sizes Maximum spacing
nominal bore of supports
Table 16a, Copper pipe sizes and their maximum spacing
of supports (mm) (in) (m) (ft)
Maximum spacing 15 -25 1/2 - 1 1 3.5
Copper pipe sizes O.D.
of supports 32 - 50 1 1/4 - 2 3 10
(mm) (in) (m) (ft) 65 - 80 2 1/3 - 3 3.5 12
10 - 19 3/8 - 3/4 1 3.3 100 - 175 4-7 4 14
22 - 54 7/8 - 2 1/8 2 6.6 200 - 350 8 - 14 6 20
67 - 80 2 5/8 - 3 1/8 3 9.9 400 -450 16 - 18 7.5 25
Source: UK Institute of Refrigeration Safety Code of Practice for Refrigerating Systems Utilising

30
Section 10. Lubricants and Oil Return selected as R744 penetrates the material more than other
refrigerants would. When seals made of these materials
Polyolester (POE) lubricants have good miscibility with are depressurised, the absorbed R744 rapidly evaporates
R744 and are predominantly used as compressor lubricants causing explosive decompression and damage to the seal.
in retail R744 systems. Because of the high solubility, Some seal materials swell and soften with R744.
higher viscosity lubricants are used when compared to
those used with HFCs. This reduces the effect of oil dilution Steel pipe work is often used in R744 systems because
by refrigerant and therefore maintains the lubricant of the high-pressures, especially in discharge lines and
properties. headers. Steel can become brittle at low temperatures.
POE oils are very hygroscopic (i.e., they readily absorb In the event of a leak the temperature can reduce to near
moisture), so care must be taken to ensure moisture does -78°C, so low temperature steel must be used.
not enter the system:

• The lubricant must not be exposed to air, and oil Section 12. Potential for Heat Reclaim
containers must be sealed except when the oil is
being dispensed The discharge temperature of an R744 system is higher
• Components such as the compressor must also than for HFC systems running at similar evaporating and
be sealed, except when work is actually being ambient temperatures. This provides more potential for
performed the reclaim of heat at a useful temperature.
• The evacuation process must be effective
Additionally, when the refrigerant is transcritical its temp-
• Replacement drier cores must be fitted whenever
erature in the gas cooler reduces throughout the heat
the system is open and exposed to air
exchange process – all heat rejection occurs at a changing
R744 liquid is heavier than oil, as is the case with HFC temperature. This is an advantage over a subcritical
refrigerants. Effective oil separation and return to the condenser where the refrigerant temperature reduces
compressor is necessary on retail systems. Typically this is only as it de-superheats, and this is for a small part of the
best achieved by the use of coalescent-type oil separators process. It then remains at a constant temperature (the
and, for multiple compressors, a conventional oil-return condensing temperature) as it condenses. The majority of
system. the heat rejection occurs at constant temperature.

The charts in figure 23 illustrate this point and compare

an R134a system to an R744 transcritical system. It can be
Section 11. Materials
seen that the final media temperature can be significantly
R744 is compatible with most material used in retail higher for the R744 system.
refrigeration systems. Elastomers must be carefully

R134a R744

100 160
Percentage of covered distance inside

Percentage of covered distance inside

90 140
heat exchanger (1005=outket HX)

heat exchanger (1005=outket HX)

80
120
70
100
60

50 80

40 60
30
40
20
20
10

0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature °C Temperature °C

Refrigerant Temperature
Media (e.g. water) temperature

Figure 23. Heat Reclaim comparison of R134a system to R744 transcritical system

31
5 R744 Systems: Installation, Commissioning and Services
Introduction
This chapter covers some of the key points when systems
are commissioned and operating, and important service
and maintenance issues. This chapter is not a complete
guide to commissioning and service.
Technicians installing, commissioning, servicing and main-
taining R744 systems must be trained in the safe handling
of this refrigerant before working on these systems. Key
points about the hazards of R744 must be taken into
account when working on these systems:
• System and cylinder pressures are high, e.g.,
approximately 50 bar g at 15°C
• R744 is an asphyxiant (the practical limit in EN378
is 0.1 kg/m3)
• There is a high risk of freeze burns from liquid or
solid R744
• There is a high risk of excessive pressure with
trapped liquid or gas; 1°C increase in temperature
produces 10 bar increase in pressure
• There is a risk of solid R744 formation when venting
liquid or charging liquid into an evacuated system
• R744 (refrigerant-grade CO2) must be used to
ensure low levels of moisture
• Appropriate personal protective equipment,
including gloves and goggles, must be worn
• R744 cylinders are heavy, so care is needed. They
must be secured when handling. Unsecured they
can move when opened
• The correct cylinder adaptors must be used –
connections must not be bodged
• R744 rated equipment for charging and venting
must be used. Standard gauge manifold hoses
must not be used
Table 17. Pipe diameters for copper and steel pipes
Copper pipe OD Maximum support
mm / inches spacing m
10 – 19 / 3 8 to 3 4 1 15 – 25 / ½ - 1
22 – 54 / 78 to 2 18 2 32 – 50 / 1 ¼ - 2
67 – 80 / 2 58 to 3 18 3 65 – 80 / 2 ½ - 3
32
• The correct case and plant isolation procedures
must be followed to avoid trapping liquid in service
lines, pipe work or components
• Systems must not be brazed or welded with R744
still in the system / part of system
Section 1. Good Installation Practice
Sufficient time should be provided so that systems can be
fully pressure tested for strength and leak tightness prior to
being put into service. This avoids future issues associated
with reliability.
Pipe Work
Pipe work should be routed in accordance with good
refrigeration practice, to minimise pressure drop and allow
oil return to the compressor. It is important that pipe work
is correctly supported and fixed as outlined in chapter 3.
A pipe which is not correctly fixed will whip at high speed
if the pipe or joint ruptures, potentially causing injury or
fatality.
Vent lines from pressure-relief valves should discharge
refrigerant to a safe place. This is typically to an unoccupied
area outside a building or plant enclosure, to where the
refrigerant will disperse without risk of asphyxiation. The
PRV vent lines should be of sufficient diameter to prevent
R744 solidifying and blocking the vent line itself.
The most reliable method of jointing pipe work is to braze
or weld. It is advised for all joints that welders and brazers
are approved to a nationally recognised standard. Special
attention should be made to the hazard category of the joint
and the required levels of competency and certification to
carry out the brazing or welding. Mechanical joints should
be avoided where possible. If they are used the fittings
must be rated for the pressure and the jointing procedure
specified by the manufacturer must be followed.
Steel pipe nominal bore Maximum support
mm / inches spacing m
1
3
3.5
100 - 175 / 4- 7 4
Pressure Testing Evacuation

The completed installation should be pressure tested for
strength and leak tightness in accordance with the relevant
standard. This is typically:
• Strength test at 1.1 x PS for most of the pipe work
(i.e., joints which are hazard category 1 or lower11)
• Strength test at 1.43 x PS for the high side of
transcritical systems where the hazard category
is 2 or higher. Alternatively 1.1 x PS can be used,
in which case 10% of the joints must be non-
destructively tested
Systems must be thoroughly evacuated to remove non-
condensable gases and moisture – both will have an
adverse impact on R744 systems.
Non-condensable gases such as air and nitrogen tend to
accumulate in the condenser or gas cooler, where they
cause an increase in pressure. This leads to a reduction in
capacity, efficiency and reliability of the system. The effect
of non-condensable gases in an R744 system is greater
compared to HFC systems, especially transcritical systems.

• Leak tightness test at 1.0 x PS. High moisture content will result in system failures, for
example, water and carbon dioxide produce carbonic acid.
The relevant standard (such as EN378-2:2008) must be Table 18. Maximum solubility of moisture in R744
referred to for specific pressure testing requirements.
Components and assemblies such as compressors and R744 state Temperature Maximum ppm
packs do not usually need to be pressure tested onsite as moisture
they have already been tested by the manufacturer.
-40°C 130
Liquid
Pressure-relief-valves should be isolated during pressure -10 C
°
405
testing. Good practice should be followed when pressure -40 C
°
7
Vapor
testing: -10 C
°
33

• Equipment, including the nitrogen regulator, should

be rated for the pressure, an example is shown in
figure 24

• The area must be evacuated of anyone not directly

involved in the pressure testing

• Oxygen free nitrogen should be charged slowly

into the system and an initial check carried out at
approximately 5 bar g

• The strength test pressure should be held for a

minimum of 15 minutes

• The nitrogen used for leak testing should be vented

to a well-ventilated area, ideally outside

• The pressure should be reduced to the tightness test

pressure and each joint checked with leak detection Figure 24. Example of regulator suitable for pressure testing transcritical
spray, or the pressure held and monitored over at R744 systems
least 24 hours

As defined in EN378-2. annex B

11

33
If the moisture content is above the maximum ppm as
shown in table 18, there will be free moisture that can
freeze. This is most likely in the superheated vapor between
the exit of the evaporator and compressor suction,
especially with LT evaporators. If moisture is allowed to
accumulate in a static part of the system it can freeze and
expand, causing pipe failure.
Great care should be taken during any service procedures
to minimise the ingress of air and moisture to avoid the
problems highlighted above.
Section 2. Charging R744
R744 is available in cylinders with either a liquid take-off-
or a gas take-off-valve and is also available in bulk. The
cylinders are heavier than other refrigerant cylinders, so
care is needed when handling them – for example, they
should be moved on a trolley. They are generally less stable
than other refrigerant cylinders because of their diameter
to height ratio, so they should be secured when in use and
when they are stored or transported.
The equipment used to connect the cylinder to the system
must be rated for the pressure. For example, EN378
specifies that equipment must be rated for at least 90 bar
g. Typically hydraulic hose or braided steel hose is used –
an example is shown in figure 25.
Figure 25. Example of R744 charging equipment
34
The connection to the cylinder must be the correct fitting
for the cylinder valve – a standard adaptor for an HFC
cylinder must not be used.
All charging lines should be evacuated or purged prior to
charging to reduce the ingress of air and moisture into the
system.
To prevent dry ice formation, the evacuated system should
be charged with R744 vapor to a pressure above the triple
point (4.2 bar g). The whole system must be above the
triple point – this is likely to be the case if all the gauges
show a pressure of 10 bar g. When this is achieved the
system can then be charged with liquid.
Care must be taken when charging R744 systems to ensure
pressure-relief valves do not discharge. The R744 cylinder
pressure will be greater than some or all of the PRV relief
pressures, especially those on the low-stage of cascade
systems and the low and intermediate sides of transcritical
booster systems. To avoid PRV discharge the refrigerant
should be charged slowly to allow system pressure to
equalise, especially during initial bulk charging (“bomb”
charging) of the system.
Charging the Low-Stage of Cascade Systems
Before the low-stage of a cascade system is charged, the
high-stage must be available to run. So the high-stage
must be charged and commissioned before the low-stage
is charged.
Charging a Transcritical Booster System
It is unlikely that all of the refrigerant will be able to
be charged without running the system. The system
should not be topped up by charging into the suction.
Systems with an intermediate pressure that is higher
than the cylinder pressure should be pumped down or
the intermediate pressure reduced to enable refrigerant
to be charged. Alternatively, the cylinder pressure can be
increased by heating the cylinder with a thermostatically
controlled heater.
The high-stage compressors must be available to operate
before the low-stage compressors can be started.
Section 3. System Checks
Before the system is operated for the first time, the
following should be checked:
All Systems: This includes the effect on the system of closing valves
and the potential for trapping liquid R744 between closed
• Visual inspection valves.
• Documentation for the system and its marking,
especially with regard to pressure equipment
• Installation of the safety devices Leak Detection
• Control tests to ensure all controls function correctly,
including high, low and oil-pressure cut-outs, R744 systems can have a high leak potential because of the
interlocks, transducers and control devices. This higher pressures and smaller molecule size. Retail R744
should include any manual back up system central plant systems have a high number of joints which
• Set pressure of all safety devices and other pressure further increases leak potential. Leakage is hazardous
cut-outs and increases the energy consumption of the system. So
• Set pressure of the gas cooler pressure regulating although R744 has a very low global warming potential,
valve leak detection is critical.
• Compressor and oil reservoir oil levels Leaks can be detected using the following methods:
• Cores are fitted in the filter driers
• The pressure test records • Visual inspection – many leaks result in oil stains on
• All valves are open / closed as required to operate and around the system
the system • Leak detection spray, although this is difficult on
insulated joints and sections of the installation
During initial operation the following should also be below 0°C
checked: • Hand held electronic leak detector suitable for
R744, typically using infrared technology, an
• Phase rotation of scroll compressors
example is shown in figure 26
• Fan rotation; check before starting • Ultrasonic leak detector
compressors – turn fans on manually
• Refrigerant level
• Oil level in compressors and oil reservoir
• Expansion valve superheat
• Pressure and temperature of the cascade heat
exchanger
• Regulating valve in both subcritical and transcritical
mode
• Operating pressure of the receiver pressure
regulating valve
• Operation of any auxiliary cooling unit
Figure 26. Example of an electronic leak detector suitable for R744

Section 4. Service
Leak detection should be methodical and the whole
General system checked. Leaks should be repaired as soon as
possible after detection. To maintain energy efficiency
Work should be carried out in a well-ventilated area. it is recommended that retail R744 systems are checked
If there is no operational permanent leak detection, for leaks following, at a minimum, the same regimen as
the technician should use a personal R744 detector to specified in the European Fluorinated Gas Regulation12 for
ensure the area is safe to work in. Appropriate personal HFC refrigerants , as shown in table 19:
protective equipment, including gloves, safety glasses
and ear protectors should be used. Tools and equipment Table 19. F-gas regulation leak check
such as hoses should be rated for the pressure of the Charge size, kg CO2 Frequency of leak
system, R744 cylinder and nitrogen cylinder where used. detection
Care should be taken when accessing the system – the Up to 30 1 / year
technician should be familiar with the system and should 30 to 300 2 / year
understand how sections of the system are safely isolated.
More than 300 4 / year

12
Regulation 842/2006 on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases

35
Disposal of R744
R744 is usually vented from systems rather than being
recovered. It is important it is safely vented to a well-
ventilated area, ideally to outside a building. It is an
asphyxiant with low toxicity.
Dry ice can form in the vent line or in the system as the
pressure drops through the triple-point pressure (4.2 bar
g) to atmospheric pressure. This can give a false indication
that the system is devoid of refrigerant – if dry ice forms
the refrigerant pressure will drop to 0 bar g. When the dry
ice sublimes the pressure will increase, for example to 56
bar g if the temperature is 20°C.
If R744 is recovered, the recovery machine, cylinder and
any associated equipment must be rated for the maximum
pressure. This would be 70 bar g in an ambient of 30°C for
example, but could be significantly higher if the ambient
is greater. Most recovery machines and cylinders are not
rated for the required pressure.
Isolation of Components for Service
When isolating components for service care must be
taken to ensure R744 liquid is not trapped between
closed valves in an unprotected part of the system.
Control valves should not be used as isolation valves.
Welding or brazing should not be carried out on the
Schrader-valve
Shut-off valve
Shut-off valve, secured against
unauthorized use
Figure 27. Isolation of components for service
36
system until the R744 has been removed. Care should
be taken when removing flanges to ensure all the R744
has been removed and the pressure is as low as possible:
• All bolts should be slackened
• The flange should be loosened with at least two bolts
still in place
There are various methods of removing the R744:
• It can be vented as described above
• It can be transferred to another part of the system
• It can be evaporated as described below
The procedure below is an example for isolating the
evaporator in a cabinet and is from The British Refrigeration
Association’s Code of Practice for Isolation of a Display
Cabinet Evaporator from a Carbon Dioxide (R744) System.
The example in figure 27 shows a typical arrangement of
isolation valves.
1. Mount a gauge to the access port on the ball valve
(B)
2. Isolate the inlet ball valve (A) while the control
valve (C) is open. Ensure the control valve is
open using a permanent magnet
3. Allow the coil to pump out for 15 minutes
4. Isolate the evaporator coil outlet ball valve (B)
5. Immediately proceed to vent refrigerant from the
access port A while the pressure is being observed
on the gauge
Schrader-valve
BB
 6. Monitor the pressure in the coil at the coil outlet
through service valve B. This is essential to be sure
the refrigerant has been fully removed and that the
service valve ahead of the liquid control valve C hasn’t
become blocked with solid carbon dioxide (R744)
Note: With reference to the above step 3. an estimated
time of fifteen minutes would be enough time to ensure
a reasonably frost free coil with the fan running. When all
frosting on the coil has stopped, the liquid has evaporated.
Isolation of Filter dryer for service
The procedure below is an example for isolating the filter
drier in the liquid line of a cascade system. The example
in figure 27 shows a typical arrangement of isolation and
bypass valves.
Explanation of the below circuit:
1. Valve 1 is closed
2. After approximately 15 minutes valve 2 is
closed and valve 3 opened
3. A suitable gauge manifold set is fitted to the
drier core housing
4. The remaining R744 is carefully vented via the
gauge manifold
Shut-off valve,
secured against
unauthorized use
2 Filter drier
Figure 28. Isolation of filter dryer for service
It is probable that dry ice will have formed in the drier
housing as it is usually not possible to remove all the liquid
from the housing, as shown in the example in figure 29. It
will deposit to solid when the pressure is reduced during
venting. It will have a surface temperature of approximately
-78°C so it should be carefully handled. Because of the low
temperature, moisture will condense on the inside of the
housing (see figure 30) – it is essential this is removed to
avoid the moisture related problems outlined earlier.
Before putting the drier back into service it should be
evacuated. Gas should be charged into the drier housing to
above the triple-point pressure before opening it up to the
liquid line to avoid dry ice formation. The gas can be taken
from an R744 gas off-take cylinder or from the suction of
the system.
Charging Compressor Oil
If oil needs to be added into the system it must be the
correct type – oils of a different make or viscosity should
not be mixed. Copeland R744 compressors use lubricant
RL68HB.
Care should be taken when oil is added to avoid moisture
and air ingress to the system. The oil should be pumped
and not poured into the system. Oil should not be charged
into a system if the container has been opened previously.
Pressure-relief valve
3 with burst disc
Check valve
Angle shut-off valve,
secured against
unauthorized use
1
Schrader-valve
37
Figure 29. Example of dry ice formation in a drier
Section 5. Taking the System Temporarily Out of Service
If a system is to be switched off, it is possible that the
standstill pressure will be above the discharge pressure
of some or all of the pressure-relief valves. If there is an
auxiliary cooling system it is possible that this can be used
to keep the pressure below the PRV discharge pressures
for short periods of time if there is no load on the system.
Otherwise the refrigerant should either be:
• Vented from the system, or
• Pumped down into the high side of the system of
the receiver if large enough and if the pressure
will not cause the high side PRVs to discharge. For
transcritical systems, as well as the receiver-outlet
valve or liquid-line solenoid valve, the receiver
pressure-regulating valve should be closed to
achieve a pump down.
38
Figure 30. Example of moisture on the flange of a drier
Section 6. Maintenance
R744 systems should be maintained in accordance with
good refrigeration practice. This would include:
• A general check of the system condition
• Check oil level
• Check refrigerant level
• Inspect and test safety cut-outs, transducers and sensors
• Change oil filters and filter driers as required
• Carry out an acid test on a sample of oil
• Check R744 detectors and alarms
• Check control valve operation in line with
manufacturers, guidance
• Check plant room ventilation
Conclusion
High pressure CO2 systems were already developed
end of the 19th century and used in many refrigeration
applications. In the last 15 years this technology was
identified as an environmental friendly solution in
commercial refrigeration based on the low Global
Warming Potential (GWP) of CO2 and resulting in lower
Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI) compared with
HFC Refrigerants. The applications are mainly cold stores
and supermarket retail systems.
Different system concepts for cold and warm climates
like indirect secondary systems, cascade or booster
systems were developed. Especially in cold climates the
CO2 systems can show better energy efficiency compared
with HFC systems, because the temperature profile allow
the subcritical operation with very high coefficient of
performance. In warm climates cascade systems using CO2
in the low temperature stage and a low GWP refrigerant
for the medium temperature could be a high efficient
solution. Furthermore, CO2 is ideal for heat recovery and
combine heating and cooling at the same time which
results in a significant reduction of the CO2 emissions of
the building. Tools like the “Right Balance Calculator”
can help to identify the best solution for the environment
impact (TEWI), investment and energy cost.
CO2 provides is a viable option to deal with today´s and
future environmental challenges.
Temperatures of both load and ambient may be
unchanged, but the physical properties of CO2 cause it to
behave in a different way under the conditions needed to
deal with the medium and low temperature refrigeration
requirements. In particular, the pressure, and phase change
behaviour are very different to fluids previously chosen for
vapor compression systems. These properties can offer
significant advantages over traditional technologies, but
in order to take advantage of this it is necessary to come to
terms with those properties.
There is a real advantage in developing a CO2 competent
team giving a competitive edge, driving up industry
standards, and leading to more end user respect. This
can only benefit the industry as a whole, and Emerson is
dedicated to supporting clients working to achieve these
objectives.
39
Glossary

The table below provides definitions of terms relating to CO2. Other refrigeration terms are defined in EN378. various other
publications and text books.

Booster A two-stage system where the low-stage compressor(s) discharge into the suction of the high-stage
compressor(s).

Cascade A two-stage system where the heat rejected by the low-stage system is absorbed by the evaporating
refrigerant in the high-stage system.
The evaporator of the high-stage system and the condenser of the low-stage system in a cascade.
Cascade heat The evaporating high-stage refrigerant absorbs the heat rejected by the condensing low-stage
exchanger refrigerant.

Cascade low-stage The part of the cascade system that provides the cooling. In retail systems this will run often on R744.
The pressure will usually be higher than the high-stage (see below).

Cascade high- The part of the cascade system that absorbs the heat from the condensing low-stage refrigerant and
stage rejects it, usually to ambient air.

Critical point Condition above which distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist.

Deposition Process of gas transforming to solid.

Dry ice Solid form of carbon dioxide.

Gas State when temperature is above the critical temperature but pressure is below critical pressure.

Gas cooler The valve that regulates the pressure in the gas cooler and associated pipe work. It is controlled
pressure- from the pressure and temperature at the outlet of the gas cooler. It is also called the high-pressure
regulating valve regulating valve.

The section of a booster system between the discharge of the low-stage compressor(s) and the
Interstage suction of the high-stage compressor(s).
The section of a transcritical system between the outlet of the gas cooler pressure-regulating valve
Intermediate and the inlet of the receiver pressure-regulating valves and the inlet of the expansion
devices.

PS The maximum allowable pressure.

Receiver pressure The valve that regulates the pressure in the liquid receiver and associated pipe work. It is also called
regulating valve the medium pressure regulating valve or the flash-gas bypass valve.

Subcritical system A system that operates below the critical point.

Sublimation Transition from solid to gas without passing through the liquid phase.

Transcritical fluid State when both the temperature and the pressure are above the critical point. The substance is not
a gas, vapor or liquid.

Transcritical A system which operates above the critical point. Many transcritical systems are subcritical for a
system proportion of the year.

Triple point Condition at which solid, liquid and gas coexist.

Vapor State where temperature and pressure are below critical conditions.

Volatile A volatile substance is one that evaporates readily at normal temperatures.

40
The table below provides information about the symbols that are shown in the circuits in chapters 3 and 4.

Compressor Liquid Receiver (flash tank)

Piston Compressor Liquid Receiver

Gas Cooler/ Condenser Cascade Heat Exchanger/

Heat Recovery Heat Exchanger

Evaporator Liquid Pump

TCE
ExpansionTCE
Device
Oil Separator and Oil Return
System
PC PC PC Regulating
PC
Gas Cooler Valve

41
List of Figures

Figure 1, Copeland™ Stream compressor for R744 4

Figure 2, Copeland™ Scroll ZO compressor for R744 4
Figure 3, R744 / CO2 phase diagram 6
Figure 4. Pressure enthalpy chart for R744 7
Figure 5. Pressure temperature relationship comparison 8
Figure 6. R744 pressure enthalpy chart showing subcritical and transcritical systems 8
Figure 7. Relationship between temperature and pressure of trapped liquid R744. Source: Danish
Technological Institute 11
Figure 8. Simple transcritical system for medium temperature 14
Figure 9. Pressure enthalpy chart showing transcritical operation 15
Figure 10. Simple pressure control 16
Figure 11. Simple booster system without oil management 17
Figure 12. Simple cascade system 17
Figure 13, Retail cascade system 18
Figure 14. Simple pump system secondary 19
Figure 15. Comparison of system types, southern Europe 20
Figure 16. Variables used in comparison calculations 21
Figure 17. Pressure enthalpy chart showing two interstage conditions 22
Figure 18. Typical retail transcritical booster system 23
Figure 19. Typical retail cascade system 24
Figure 20. Combined pump circulation system for MT with LT booster system 26
Figure 21. Comparison of HFC and R744 capacities in typical systems 29
Figure 22, Comparison of pipe sizes for typical systems 29
Figure 23. Heat Reclaim comparison of R134a system to R744 transcritical system 31
Figure 24. Example of regulator suitable for pressure testing transcritical R744 systems 33
Figure 25. Example of R744 charging equipment 34
Figure 26. Example of an electronic leak detector suitable for R744 35
Figure 27. Isolation of components for service 36
Figure 28. Isolation of filter dryer for service 37
Figure 29. Example of dry ice formation in a drier 38
Figure 30. Example of moisture on the flange of a drier 38

42
List of Tables

Table 1, How R744 meets different conditions and criterias 5

Table 2. Basic properties of R744 compared with other refrigerants 7
Table 3. Theoretical comparison between R744 and common HFC refrigerants with the performance
of ideal cycles 9
Table 4. Effects of CO2 at various concentrations in air 10
Table 5. R744 standstill and typical system operating pressures 10
Table 6. Comparison of R744 with other refrigerants 12
Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of R744 as a refrigerant 13
Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of cascade and transcritical retail systems 19
Table 9. Advantages and disadvantages of two typical intermediate pressures 23
Table 10. Reference table 23
Table 11, Reference table 24
Table 12. Reference table 26
Table 13. Typical R744 pressures in retail systems 27
Table 14. Maximum pressure of a range of copper tube, calculated using EN14276-2:2007
and EN13480-3:2002 30
Table 15. Steel pipe withstands a greater pressure than copper tube 30
Table 16a. Copper pipe sizes and their maximum spacing of supports 30
Table 16b. Steel pipe sizes and their maximum spacing of supports 30
Table 17. Pipe diameters for copper and steel pipes 32
Table 18. Maximum solubility of moisture in R744 33
Table 19. F-gas regulation leak check 35

List of References
International Institute of Refrigeration 2011, CO2 as a Refrigerant. Editor: Dr A. B. Pearson. First Edition, Paris,
France.

The Right Balance Calculator, Refrigerant Choices for Commercial Refrigeration. Emerson Climate Technologies,
www.emersonclimate.eu.

p,h-Diagrams by ILK Dresden, Institut für Luft- und Kältetechnik gGmbH, Germany.

43
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