1

TITLE: Physiology of Alpine Skiing: A review

AUTHORS
1,2
Jonathon Turnbull, 1Andrew E. Kilding, 2Justin Keogh
1
Institute of Sport and Recreation Research New Zealand, Faculty of Health and

Environmental Sciences, AUT University, New Zealand

2
New Zealand Academy of Sport: Winter Performance Programme

Corresponding Author

Jonathon Turnbull,
34 Noema Terrace,
RD 2, Lake Hawea,
Wanaka,
New Zealand.
Ph. +64 21 2227246,
Email: Jon_T@xtra.co.nz

Running Head: Physiology and Alpine Skiiing

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ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................4
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION.................................................................................6
Measurement of Physical Capacities:..........................................................................6
LIMITATIONS AND FACTORS TO CONSIDER OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH.....9
Physiological Environment..........................................................................................9
Allometric Scaling.......................................................................................................9
Quantifying Subjects Abilities.....................................................................................9
Training Emphasis.....................................................................................................10
PHYSICAL CHARACTERSITICS OF SKI RACERS................................................11
Aerobic Power...........................................................................................................11
Anaerobic Power........................................................................................................12
Muscular Strength......................................................................................................12
DEMANDS OF COMPETETIVE SKI RACING.........................................................14
Interdisciplinary Physiology......................................................................................14
Seasonal Changes in Physiological Variables............................................................15
Recovery versus Energy Provision............................................................................15
Physiological Demands and Energy System Contributions.......................................15
Effects of Aerobic Training........................................................................................16
Muscle physiology and mechanics............................................................................17
Muscle Fatigue...........................................................................................................17
Influence of Muscle Fibre Type.................................................................................18
Factors affecting Aerobic Metabolism.......................................................................18
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS.........................................................................20
CONCLUSIONS:.............................................................................................................21
REFERENCES:...............................................................................................................22
TABLES:...........................................................................................................................26
FIGURES:........................................................................................................................32
Instructions to Authors....................................................................................................34
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ABSTRACT
The sports of skiing involves a complex integration of many different
physiological systems, none of which may be more important than the
other to overall performance. This review comprises more than 30 years
of research and includes 4 review articles, 9 off-snow investigations of
the physiological capacities of ski racers of varying ability, 29 on-snow
investigations of specific physiology relating to the various ski racing
disciplines. The extreme environment of cold, altitude, and movement
complexity make ski racing a difficult sport to study. Perhaps the most
important understanding gained from investigation into the physiology
of ski racing is that no single physiological variable can be identified as
being more important than another. Whilst technical ability appears the
greatest influencing factor, the ability to continually exhibit technical
competence through a long competitive season requires high
capabilities within all physiological systems, and the complex
integration of training all these systems together should remain the
focus of the sport scientists input. Further research is required using
modern portable investigative tools for determining aerobic and
anaerobic demands and abilities, especially in the areas of muscle
function and relative energy system contribution during both single and
multiple runs on varying terrain.

Key Words: energy systems, muscle fatigue, muscle fibre, physiological

capabilities, Ski racing.
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INTRODUCTION
Alpine ski racing requires physical and technical competence. The more that is known
about the physiological and biomechanical environments of world class ski racers, the
more effectively we may direct our efforts to replicate and progress these qualities in our
own athletes. Knowledge of the muscular forces and energy system usage in ski racing is
important for future performance enhancement, injury prevention, talent identification
and training prescription.

Ski racing consists of two speed and two technical events, each differentiated by gate
placement, turning radius, speed, and course length. Speed events follow the fall line of
the hill and can reach up to ~130km/h. A Downhill race (DH) may last as long as 2 – 3
minutes and a Super Giant Slalom (SG) race, which involves more turns but a shorter
course, usually lasts 1 – 2 minutes. Technical events are slower are the GS and SL the
technical events? If so specify here, with skiers only reaching 20 – 40km/h, but occur on
steeper terrain. The Giant Slalom (GS) typically lasts 60 – 90 seconds, while the Slalom
(SL) lasts 45 – 60 seconds and includes very narrow, short turns (White 1993; 1996;
Szmedra 2001).

According to Bacharach and Duvullard, (1995) “No singular feature can be used to judge
the potential for success of an Alpine Ski Racer”. Many have suggested that the
multifaceted nature of the sport is the most relevant factor when considering training and
talent identification (Tesch 1978; Veicsteinas 1984; Saibene 1985; White 1991; White
1993; Tesch 1995; Haman 2002). The technical nature of ski racing means that ‘time on
the snow’ is paramount to athlete development (Nygaard 1978). During periods of intense
competition, where technical and physical training becomes limited, through lack of
training facilities, time or finance, it is important that what little training is performed is
both effective and relevant (Laurent 1993; Bacharach 1995). A thorough understanding of
specific physiological requirements and how they affect training, competition and
recovery processes is therefore essential to ensure precise, quality training without wasted
time or effort (Neumayr 2003; Hartmann 2005).
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METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
Historical reporting of the physiology of ski racing has focused mostly on central
circulation and gross energy output. However, with the advent of new investigative
technologies, as well as a more muscular and dynamic skiing style, recent focus has been
on peripheral muscle physiology and specifically, muscle energy output, oxygen delivery
and fuel use (Karlsonn 2005).

Controversy over which energy systems are dominant during alpine skiing has led to the
utilization of several different physical tests and training methodologies. The most
commonly reported tests are presented below. Each has, at some time, been identified as
being ‘significantly related to performance’ in one or all of the four ski events
(Veicsteinas 1984; Andersen 1988; Andersen 1990; White 1991; White 1993; Bosco
1994; Tesch 1995; Neumayr 2003). One thing that these tests certainly identify is that
physiological parameters alone are not sufficient to predict or create a good ski racer.

Measurement of Physical Capacities:

Aerobic Function
The 20m Multi Stage Fitness Test (MSFT) continues to be the standard field test to
indirectly assess aerobic function in ski racing The 12 minute run has also been used
(Brown and Wilkinson 1983). Although no explanation for the preference of the MSFT is
given, one postulates that the more consistent nature combined with small turn phases of
the MSFT is more applicable to the general aerobic environment of skiing, rather than the
straight line 12 minute run.

In the laboratory, treadmills have been used in the direct determination of VO 2max.
However, it should be acknowledged that many skiers lack running technique and can
report lower measurements in this mode of testing than they are perhaps physiologically
capable (Brown and Wilkinson 1983; Svensson 2005). The cycle ergometer provides
greater crossover of skiing musculature than treadmill running, and the predominance of
calf and knee injuries in ski racers has led to a preference for cycling rather than treadmill
methods of assessment (Koutedakis 1992; Davidson 1996; Neumayr 2003; Noe 2005).
Incremental cycle step tests to determine onset of blood lactate accumulation and VO2max
have been used to assess skiers (Karlsonn 2005).

Douglas bags of varying size and shape have been used for field-based determinations of
VO2 in a number of studies. Veicsteinas et al (1984) measured post-exercise O2
consumption to derive VO2 during actual skiing. Specifically, Saibene et al, (1985) used
small Douglas bags during a GS course, with a valve which opened and then closed for a
section of the course, directly measuring energy expenditure for that period. More
recently, however, the advent of small portable gas analyzers have allowed greater
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freedom of movement and application for the individual , but they are still limited as a
tool for measuring energy expenditure for large groups (McLaughlin 2001; Karlsonn
2005).

Given the challenges of measuring VO2 during on-snow skiing, investigators have used
different methodologies to estimate VO2. For example, Tesch et al (Tesch 1978) measured
post-race blood lactates. Blood lactate derivation is based upon the assumption that
1mmol/L blood lactate, relates to 3.15ml O2/kg. Others (Andersen 1988; Kahn 1993)
have used heart rate based on laboratory measures. The use of heart rate to estimate VO 2
may be affected by the impact of altitude, temperature, and intermittent exercise on
physiological work load measurement (Kuno 1994; Koistinen 1995; Haman 2002;
Glaister 2005; Seifert 2005) as well as competition anxiety.

Anaerobic Capacity & Power

While the 30s Wingate appears to be the most commonly used test, the 60s and 90s tests
have become more popular and may be more relevant to the time scales and energy
systems involved in ski racing. While some correlations exist between 40 sec and 2min
maximal tests, significant power reductions are seen in tests longer than 30 seconds
(Bacharach 1995). Stark, Reed, and Wenger 1987 in (Bacharach 1995), report a crossover
between SL and DH skiers; that is SL racers have greater maximal power outputs but are
unable to sustain these while conversely DH racers were able to sustain higher average
power outputs for longer but showed lower maximal powers. This crossover occurred
after ~30 seconds, indicating that anaerobic tests should last longer than 30sec to exhaust
the anaerobic energy supply.

Field based anaerobic tests for skiers have included the repeated box jump (continuous
jumps over a 40cm box) and the Hex test (revolutions around a hexagonal perimeter)
(Andersen 1990). The 40m and 400m sprints are included in the USA “Medals Test” for
ski fitness although neither test has received much support or attention in the literature
(Andersen 1990; White 1991; White 1993). Explosive power measures have almost
universally involved a vertical jump, repeated vertical jumps or double and single leg
bounding (Andersen 1990; White 1991; White 1993).

Blood lactate can be easily used as an indicator of metabolic acidosis and the degree to
which energy systems are contributing to the exercise bout. More invasively, muscle
biopsy techniques and muscle fibre dying, have been used to identify muscle properties,
such as glycogen depletion patterns and muscle fibre type (Nygaard 1978; Tesch 1978).
More recently, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has also been used to identify
individual muscle metabolism (Laurent 1993; Karlsonn 2005) and Szmedra (2001) used
markers of muscle damage (myoglobin, creatine kinase and cortisol) to quantify the work
performed and fatigue induced during skiing, in their investigation of nutrition and
skiing.

Strength
Isokinetic dynamometry, utilising leg extension (and sometimes leg flexion) has become
the standard laboratory tool for assessing leg strength in skiers as it is able to accurately
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identify concentric, isometric and eccentric torque at various joint velocities. Field tests
such as the static wall sit, prone hold and various sit up tests have also been used to assess
strength, as well as lifting techniques such as the squat and leg press. However, these tests
must be applied with caution due to technique and athlete condition considerations (Hoff
2005; Blazevich 2006).

Portable EMG and in-boot force plates have been used to gather information on muscle
activity, % maximum voluntary contraction (%MVC) and force distribution during skiing
(Berg and O. 1999; Karlsonn 2005; Kroll 2005). Most research has focused on activity of
the vastus lateralis muscles, with some data available for the abdominals, erector spinae
group and tibialis group. Limited attention has been paid to the activity of the gluteal and
upper body muscles during skiing (Berg and O. 1999).
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LIMITATIONS AND FACTORS TO CONSIDER OF

PREVIOUS RESEARCH
Much of the skiing literature dates back to a period between the 1970s and 1990s. Such
early research must be reviewed critically as some of the investigative methods and
technology used are now out-dated. These studies reflect the demands of the sport as it
was more than 20 years ago, before the influx of carving skis and specific training
regimes (Karlsonn 2005).

Physiological Environment
Skiing research must consider the existence of several disciplines (SL, GS, SG, DH) and
levels of involvement (Skilled vs. Unskilled, Club, Regional, National, International,
Elite). Physiological testing is most reliable and allows accurate performance prediction
when steady states are achieved. Indeed repetitive movements dictate that energy cost
during a short period would be indicative of whole duration cost (Saibene 1985). Skiing,
however, involves fast, erratic and variable, short duration, high intensity efforts, which
take place under cold, alpine environments. These performances and environments affect
not only human physiology, but the ability to directly and accurately measure this
physiology (Koutedakis 1992; White 1993; Ferber 2003; Neumayr 2003; Seifert 2005).
Clearly, quantifying the real demands of downhill skiing is a challenge for scientists.

Allometric Scaling
Much of the early, ground breaking evidence of aerobic and strength parameters in skiing,
fails to take into account differences in lean body mass (Haymes 1980; George 1999).
Such information is vital when comparing performance in any sports where the forces
being withstood are proportional to the body weight of the athlete. For example when
Haymes & Dickinson (1980) compared absolute VO2max vs. body weight adjusted VO2max
and anaerobic power, females appeared more similar (< 23% difference) to males than
absolute measures would suggest. To ensure a meaningful comparison of physiological
measures such as aerobic capacity, muscle power between skiers should consider
differences in body size.

Quantifying Subjects Abilities

In sporting events where the outcome is not set against a standard, it is difficult to
quantify how skilled an athlete is. Skiing ability has been defined by various measures,
including time trials through a course, Federation Internationale de’ Ski (FIS – the sport’s
governing body) points, predefined but qualitative racing accomplishments, and inclusion
or exclusion in National teams (White 1993). Different countries may define their
National teams as “Elite”, but this does not necessarily define them as good skiers on the
international scene. For example, while Koutedakis et al (1992), Bosco et al (1994), and
Haymes & Dickinson (1980) all investigated “International/Elite” athletes, Koutedakis et
al (1992) identified that their Internationals were of a lower standard than those in the
other studies.
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Many differences exist between expert and novice skiers. Several studies have identified
a dominance of slow twitch (ST) muscle fibers in Elite skiers, although none confirmed
whether this is a trained or an innate quality (Nygaard et al (1978), Tesch et al (1978)
Duvillard (1995). Clarys et al (2001), following the earlier work of Hintermeister et al
(1995; Hintermeister 1997) highlight the fact that elite skiers utilize a more aggressive
dynamic motion than the more static, novice skiers. These factors influence both the
muscle forces and the energy systems used. When interpreting studies from studies
involving skiers identifying the actual level of subjects needs careful consideration.

Training Emphasis
Emphasis on a specific training variable, such as muscular strength or aerobic power,
may result in a group or nations’ skiing success being attributed to this variable. For
example, the apparent dominance of aerobic training among Austrian skiers may explain
the high correlations observed between aerobic power and world cup (WC) ranking
(Neumayr 2003). The different approaches that are used to condition and prepare skiers to
compete at the highest level suggest that the sport requires multiple competencies, at least
from a physical perspective. These physical qualities may influence the technique a skier
adopts during training and competition though no study has investigated this to date.
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PHYSICAL CHARACTERSITICS OF SKI RACERS

Recent studies have identified a change in the physical makeup of alpine ski racers,
towards a heavier and taller athlete (White 1993; Neumayr 2003). This progression
towards more physical athletes is a natural evolution as a sport becomes more
competitive internationally (Müller 1998; Stõlen 2005). Modern skiers also appear to be
leaner (lower body fat), although earlier research used the less reliable skin-fold method
rather than hydrostatic weighing (Haymes 1980; White 1991). White and Johnson (1991)
also observed that Elite level skiers are not only heavier; they are also older than
previously reported, reflecting the time course needed to develop sufficient skill and
physicality. Table 1 shows the changing physical characteristics of high level skiers.

New technologies have allowed and even encouraged greater skier physicality. For
example, breakaway poles have made slalom a faster and more aggressive straight line
course. This new technology requires a bigger, larger body mass to ski ‘through’ rather
than ‘around’ the gate (White 1993). The carving ski has created a sharper, reduced radius
turn, indirectly increasing the forces on lower limb joints due to changed posture and
limb position. Greater muscle strength (accompanied by hypertrophy) is required to cope
with such forces (Neumayr 2003).

Adoption of modern training methods by skiers has also been responsible for the
development of a more athletic skier (Müller 1998). For example, portable bikes are
common place in hotel rooms during racing and training camps, assisting in aerobic
development. Modern power training methods focusing on weight lifting exercises such
as the clean and jerk, have also become common place in training regimes worldwide.
These lifts incorporate significant upper body input, resulting in greater upper body
development than previously documented (Neumayr 2003). Unfortunately, very few
studies exist showing the benefit of different, or new, training methods to enhance
downhill ski performance.

INSERT TABLE 1 HERE

Aerobic Power
While many authors have reported the influence of aerobic power for ski racing, there is
disagreement as to how important this capacity is and why (Bacharach 1995). Tesch
(Tesch 1995), for example, boldly states that “maximal aerobic power, or aerobic
capacity, are unlikely determinants for success in competitive Alpine skiing” (pp 311).
White and Johnson (1993) also note that “aerobic power, although important does not
discriminate competitors of varying ability categories” (pp 170). Contrary to these earlier
investigations, a recent report on the world-dominating Austrian National Team, showed
aerobic power was strongly correlated with international skiing success (Neumayr 2003).
However it is unclear whether aerobic energy supply is important for ski racing or
whether it is a consequence of the large training load some nations administer (Tesch
1995; Neumayr 2003).
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Considering the confusion about the importance of the aerobic system, it is not surprising
that developments in the aerobic power of ski racers are not apparent in the literature.
Indeed some variance in aerobic power has been reported between studies published to
date. For example, Saibene et al (1985) and Brown and Wilkinson (1983) identified
VO2max of 58.9 ± 2.17 ml/kg/min and 63.1 ± 1.3 ml/kg/min respectively. Andersen and
Montgomery (1988) report much higher values (67 ml/kg/min) while Veiscteinas et al
(1984) report lower values (52 ml/kg/min). Recent data on the World Champion Austrian
team identify values of 59.5  4.7 ml/kg/min and 58.7  3.2 ml/kg/min for the 1999 and
2000 seasons respectively (Neumayr 2003) which are similar to those reported ~20 years
earlier.

Anaerobic Power
The number of investigations into anaerobic and muscular energy systems and how they
relate to skiing far outweigh those focusing on aerobic fitness and aerobic contribution.
Early research into the energy demands of skiing took a time-perspective approach,
concluding that, as races lasted less than 2 minutes, they were predominantly anaerobic
(Tesch 1978; Saibene 1985; White 1993; Hintermeister 1995; Tesch 1995). It is now
known that events of this duration significantly engage the aerobic system. Table 2
identifies the range of power measures reported in the literature.

Duvillard (1995) reports that anaerobic power tests, especially when adjusted for body
mass, correlate with ski success more than tests of aerobic power. Shea (1983 in (White
1993)) reported that vertical jump was the best indicator of skier performance, while
Haymes & Dickinson (1980) found vertical jump to correlate well with FIS points.
Andersen et al (1990) concluded that the Box Jump and Hex test correlated best with
skiing performance because of the need to displace the feet under the centre of mass.

INSERT TABLE 2 HERE

Muscular Strength
Skiers are renowned for having significant leg strength (Berg 1995). Early research found
strength to be the best determinant of skiing performance for US ski team members
(Tesch 1978; Haymes 1980). Despite a shift towards power training and heavier skiers,
more recent findings report no correlation between strength and World Cup ranking
(Andersen 1988; Neumayr 2003). Anecdotal reports suggest that DH skiers display
greater strength than skiers in other disciplines. However, research has failed to find
strength differences between the Technical, Speed or Combined skiers (Berg and O.
1999; Neumayr 2003). Skiers demonstrate very high leg strength when tested at slow
movement velocities (i.e. 30o/s). However, when testing at higher velocities such as those
found in Freestyle moguls (180o/s), skiers show similar strength as other athletic
populations (White 1993; Berg and O. 1999) (see Table 4 for more detail). Berg & Eiken
(1999) reported a maximum angular knee velocity of 69o/s for slalom, with other
disciplines being even slower. Evidence such as this has led researchers to question the
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relevance of the speed training methods common throughout ski racing (Berg 1995; Berg
and O. 1999; Neumayr 2003).

Neumayr et al (2003) proposed that beyond a certain cutoff, depending on body weight
and its interaction with speed and slope angle, greater strength is not a determinant of
skiing ability. The numerical value of this cutoff is, however, not explained and needs
further research. Metabolically, higher maximal strength may allow the athlete to work at
a reduced percentage of their maximum voluntary contraction, thereby reducing the
metabolic consequences of sustained high intensity activity (Rundell 1996; Foster 1999;
Szmedra 2001).

While strength from a performance perspective may exhibit a threshold above which np
performance gains will be realized, injuries, especially those involving the knee, are
common in skiing (Langran 1999; Kalbermatten 2000; Muller 2005; Koyangi 2006).
Insufficient strength may limit a skiers’ ability to withstand the high forces and eccentric
loads of ski racing. A rigid boot and binding system, coupled with the super side cut ski,
have reduced the radius of the carving ski turn which has resulted in significant increases
in valgus subluxation forces within the knee joint. The load on the muscle system is a
function of the accelerative force, proportional to body weight and velocity of the skier,
but inversely proportional to the turn radius (Hintermeister 1995; Berg and O. 1999).
Recent reports suggest that the carving ski turn radius may soon exceed the physiological
capacity of the skier (Langran 1999; Kalbermatten 2000; Neumayr 2003; Muller 2005;
Koyangi 2006).

While there remain numerous factors associated with ski injuries, if the quadriceps are
over trained, and/or the hamstrings are under trained, there is an increased risk of knee
injury. The ratio of hamstring to quadriceps strength is used to identify predisposition to
such injury. Neumayr et al (2003) found Hamstring/Quadriceps ratios to be between 0.57
and 0.60 among a group of world champion skiers, indicating good controlling hamstring
strength relative to power producing quadriceps activity. These values are not particularly
high when compared to some sprint athletes and are similar to those observed by Brown
and Wilkinson (1983) 20 years ago (Table 3), when a lack of strength was reported in the
lower level athletes. While it is not clear whether the poor ratio in lower level athletes is
due to weak hamstrings or strong quadriceps, the authors have observed great awareness
of the need for quadriceps strength but very limited awareness of hamstring importance
among most developing ski racers.

INSERT TABLE 3 HERE

While flexibility is often considered important for injury prevention and strength/stability
through joint range of motion, Brown and Wilkinson (1983) and Andersen and
Montgomery (1988) found little difference between National, Divisional and Club level
skiers. This indicates that, similar to the strength parameters outlined by Neumary et al
(2003), beyond a certain minimum level, a lack of flexibility may not significantly limit
performance.
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DEMANDS OF COMPETETIVE SKI RACING

Interdisciplinary Physiology
Most research has been directed towards GS in order to make conclusions about skiing in
general, assuming that this event serves as a midpoint between SL and DH (Saibene
1985). The more we know of the intricacies of ski racing, the more we come to question
the differences between the disciplines, and the more previous assumptions appear
fraught with uncertainty. Within the literature there is some comparison of GS vs SL and
SL vs DH, but little has been reported about the newer hybrid SG.

Neumayr et al (2003) found little difference between the fitness levels of technical
(SL/GS) or speed (SG/DH) specialists, and combined/all-rounders (GS/SG/DH), as a
function of gender. Aerobic power among male and female specialists correlated
positively with racing performance, based on 1997-2003 WC results. The authors
suggested that this may reflect higher volumes of specific on-snow training for slalom
skiers, rather than an actual physiological requirement of the event (Neumayr 2003).

Szmedra et al (2001) investigated SL and GS using near-infrared spectra-photometry to

measure blood volume oxygen desaturation of the Vastus Lateralis, compared with
maximal levels determined through thigh cuff ischemia (see Table 4 for summarized
results). Berg and Eiken (1999) investigated the kinematics of the different disciplines
(see Table 6). Ankle, knee and hip angles were all smaller for GS than for SL, while the
speed of movement was more than twice as fast (Berg and O. 1999; Szmedra 2001). The
change in blood volume was 30% greater during GS than SL. Maximum heart rate was
higher and oxygen desaturation of muscles was 33% higher during GS than SL. The
shorter, quicker turns of SL create a greater cyclical motion, reducing centrifugal forces
and snow speed, resulting in a reduction in the isometric duty cycle and a corresponding
elevated posture/knee angle, when compared to GS (Szmedra 2001). Thus, %MVC is
reduced and less blood occlusion may occur in SL than GS.
INSERT TABLE 4 HERE

Technical events appear to rely more on anaerobic power, whereas the longer speed
events incorporate greater contributions from aerobic metabolism (Duvillard 1995).
Veicsteinas et al, (1984) reported similar total energy costs for SL and GS. Considering
that GS may last 15 or more seconds longer than SL, the rate of energy supply is
therefore greater for SL than for GS (200% VO2max vs 160% VO2max respectively),
reflecting a greater energy requirement from anaerobic sources (Veicsteinas 1984).

Direct comparisons between other events are lacking in the literature, with Haymes &
Dickinson’s (1980) comparison of characteristics of Elite SL and DH skiers, being one of
the few examples. Finally, greater body fat % and body size was observed for DH skiers
compared to SL skiers.
 14

Seasonal Changes in Physiological Variables

The length of the competitive season and the need for as much technical, on-snow
training as possible through the non-competitive season leaves little time for enhancing
physical fitness. If the opportunities to train physical qualities are limited, genetic talent
may become increasingly important for success. Nonetheless, maintaining physiological
capacities and quantifying the drop off in these parameters, has directed much of the
literature (Koutedakis 1992; Bosco 1994).

Bosco et al (1994) investigated the effect of strength and jumping exercises, relative to
traditional aerobic conditioning, before, during and after a period of on-snow training,
and during a 5 month competitive period where no formal off-snow physical training was
performed. Neurological capacity for strength and explosiveness was significantly
increased over the training period. When training was replaced with ski racing, this effect
was not significantly altered and was even marginally enhanced, indicating that skiing
provided a sufficient training effect to maintain explosive strength capabilities (Bosco
1994). Concurringly, Neumayr et al (2003) claimed that sufficient anaerobic power
training is gained via on snow training. They proposed that anaerobic capacity and
“lactate tolerance” should be the focus of high intensity training, rather than anaerobic
power methods. Koutedakis et al (1992) and Karvonen et al (1985), however, found post
season reductions in average and peak power measured via a 30s Wingate. Koutedakis et
al (1992) also found significant reductions in low angular velocity force capacity (60o/s)
as the season progressed. Finally, the same study observed increased weight and body fat
measures over a competitive season and attributed this to the lack of consistent,
structured “on-snow” training. These studies identify the need for a comprehensive
understanding of on- and off-snow work rates as well as a sound integrated nutrition,
recovery and aerobic power programme.

Recovery versus Energy Provision

Much of the literature acknowledges the influence of aerobic power with respect to its
role in recovery rather than in energy provision. An efficient aerobic system is essential
for recovery between runs, and to sustain the long and exhausting competition and on-
snow training seasons (Neumayr 2003). When skiing for 5-7 days, subjects working at
high work loads relative to their individual fitness were found to maintain average heart
rates equivalent to 75% of predicted maximum heart rate (HRmax), despite rarely
exceeding maximal levels (Grover 1990; Kahn 1993; Kahn 1996). Karvonen (1985)
found that the only significant change after 3 months of relatively intense SL training was
to anaerobic capacity and lactate tolerance. They concluded that the demands of SL were
insufficient to develop aerobic power.

Physiological Demands and Energy System Contributions

Saibene et al (1985) reported VO2 demands of 120% VO2max during GS skiing. Earlier
investigations (Tesch 1978) observed even lower values; 80-90% VO 2max for elite skiers
and around 60% VO2max for unskilled skiers. Considering maximal cycle tests of equal
duration elicit values of up to 175% VO2max, GS skiing has been considered a sub-
maximal activity (Saibene 1985). In contrast to the findings of these studies, Veicsteinas
 15

et al, (1984) found that the VO2 of elite skiers was around 200% and 160% VO2max in SL
and GS respectively, while even in unskilled skiers, VO 2 was 130% VO2max. In this study,
each subject reportedly reached their maximum heart rate (HRmax), by the end of the
course, and remained at this level for 30sec after cessation, before beginning to decline,
indicating significant aerobic input. Those studies which have measured very low VO 2
contributions have only measured O2 consumption during the task (a measure of the
aerobic system only), rather than the total expenditure rate, which includes oxygen cost of
anaerobic sources (Veicsteinas 1984). This may account for the differences observed in
these studies.

While it appears there is a larger aerobic component than early research suggested, a clear
understanding of the relative input of the aerobic versus anaerobic system will determine
the emphasis each is given during physical training. Veicsteinas et al (1984) and Saibene
et al (1985) investigated the relative energy contribution to skiing (Table 5). Both groups
concluded that ski racing involves a 65% contribution from the anaerobic system and
suggested that force production and neuromuscular coordination should remain the focus
of training (Veicsteinas 1984; Saibene 1985).

INSERT TABLE 5 HERE

Both studies used blood lactate measures to infer Lactate contribution to energy
metabolism, relying on the assumption that 1mmol/L blood lactate relates to 3.15ml
O2/kg (Saibene 1985). While this is thought to be fairly accurate, it does involve some
error, and may become more erroneous with the addition of variables such as higher
intensity exercise and altitude (Veicsteinas 1984; Saibene 1985). While the research of
Veicsteinas et al (1984) and Saibene et al (1985) point to a larger anaerobic input than
aerobic, it could be argued that greater aerobic contributions would further reduce strain
on the neuro-muscular system, thereby reducing the dependence on anaerobic and force
production/training (Duvillard 1995; Kyrolainen 1998).
.

Effects of Aerobic Training

Despite a lack of consensus in the literature, there appears to be a trend towards large
aerobic training volumes among many nations (authors’ personal observation). Neumayr
et al (2003) reported that Austrian skiers train aerobically for around 6-7 hours per week.
The maintenance of explosive capacity, which Bosco et al (1994) found when they
removed strength and explosive training during 5 months of on-snow training, could be
attributed to their training programme in earlier months, combined with the rigors of
skiing, or to the lack of aerobic training included in the programme. Hoff (2005) holds
that so long as strength training outcomes are neural rather than hypertrophic, detriments
of incorporating both methods should be minimal due to limited effect on power to body
weight interaction. Little attention in the skiing literature has been paid to the effect of
large volume-low intensity aerobic work on strength parameters.
 16

Muscle physiology and mechanics

Skiing is often thought of as an “explosive” sport. This is reflected in the time trainers put
into training fast concentric movements (Steadman 1987; Tesch 1995). However, as
discussed above, and considering the slow angular knee velocities of ski racing compared
to freestyle moguls and running (Table 6), this may not be the case (Tesch 1995; Berg and
O. 1999). Berg et al (1995) investigated the effect of the accelerative forces resulting
from fast downhill skiing, combined with successive sharp forceful slalom turns. They
found eccentric actions to be the prevalent muscle contractive force during ski racing.
Freestyle moguls (FM) has shown more common eccentric/concentric patterns similar to
those of running (Tesch 1995; Szmedra 2001). Such findings suggest that strength
training for skiing should include a predominance of eccentric activity (Berg 1995; Berg
and O. 1999).

INSERT TABLE 6 HERE

Such a dominance of eccentric load has not been reported in other sports, and is thought
to result from continuous downward displacement, negating the need for the forceful
concentric actions typical of running and jumping or pushing off from a bicycle pedal
(Berg and O. 1999; Foster 1999). Recognizing the eccentric components of ski racing
Szmedra et al (2001) identified a significant intramuscular pressure increase during ski
racing, which creates a greater anaerobic load during the turning phase. The resultant
metabolic processes include muscle ischemia and hypoxia, and altered ion concentration
and substrate availability (Seifert 2005). Glycogen utilization increases by up to 50% of
pre-exercise levels due to CP exhaustion, inhibition of aerobic metabolism, and reduced
glucose uptake by blood, due to insufficient blood flow (Tesch 1995; Seifert 2005). Low
knee angles and large slow sustained contractions typical of ski racing pertain to reduced
VO2max, larger reductions in blood volume, increased lactate accumulations at given
speeds, and disproportionately high HR, ultimately resulting in reduced blood perfusion
of the active muscle (Petrofsky 1984). Therefore, muscle ischemia and a greater reliance
on anaerobic metabolism occur (Rundell 1996; Foster 1999; Szmedra 2001).

Muscle Fatigue
The metabolic environment of eccentric load outlined above is further confounded by the
mechanical mechanisms responsible for fatigue and the resultant reductions in force
generation and performance. Eccentric load, and its effect on actin-myosin cross-bridge
rupturing, has been identified as a major mechanical destructor (Seifert 2005). Seifert et
al (2005) found that by controlling the work (mechanical) load across all participants,
increases in the indices of muscle damage were a factor of metabolic stress. These
stressors include muscle ischemia, hypoxia, altered ion concentration and substrate
availability.

The development of the metabolic system to cope with these stressors is an important part
of ski conditioning. The use of endurance training has resulted in reduced
phosphocreatine depletion (and reduced ADP build up), improved ATP formulation,
improved oxidative capacity of lactic acid (by inhibiting glycogen utilization and lactic
acid and inorganic phosphate build up which lead to altered ion concentration) and
 17

enhanced antioxidant levels (Kuno 1994; Subidhi 2001). The implications of low-
intensity, high-volume aerobic training versus high-intensity interval-based training on
muscle metabolism and force production in skiers remain unconfirmed. However it may
be that the capillarisation created by low-intensity, high-volume work assists in coping
with the fatigue causing metabolic and mechanical environment of sustained eccentric
contractions (Duvillard 1995; Kyrolainen 1998).

Influence of Muscle Fibre Type

Tesch et al (1978) introduced the idea of the influence of type I and type II fibres and
how they influence skiing performance. By examining glycogen depletion patterns, elite
DH skiers exhibited greater exhaustion of slow twitch (ST) fibres and reduced fast twitch
(FT) fibre exhaustion than unskilled (ski school) participants, during race training (Tesch
1978; Steadman 1987). Furthermore, the elite skiers had approximately 10% more ST
fibres than unskilled skiers (Steadman 1987). These findings are similar to the studies of
Thorstensson et al (1977, in Koutedakis, 1992 #23}), and Nygaard et al (Nygaard 1978)
which found less ST recruitment in recreational skiers than in more experienced skiers.

A ST endowed skier may be more able to sustain the ischemia and hypoxia of low
angular velocity contractions, allowing them greater utilization of aerobic power. More
capillaries surround ST than FT fibres, so fatiguing anaerobic by-products will more
easily disperse into the blood (Duvillard 1995; Kyrolainen 1998).

While patterns of ST dominance were apparent from early research, the impact of new ski
technology and the design of faster courses may suggest that a greater percentage of FT
fibres may be advantageous (Steadman 1987; Hartmann 2005). More investigation is
needed to identify the role of fibre type in coping with ischemic conditions, combined
with the high forces required by racing turns.

Factors affecting Aerobic Metabolism

The utilization of the aerobic system during ski racing is complicated, as evidenced by
contradictory reports on VO2 during skiing. As discussed above, aerobic metabolism is
hindered by vascular occlusion sustained during isometric contractions of ski racing
(Tesch 1978; Foster 1999). This occlusion creates increased lactate production, as does
the hypoxic environment of altitude. Gladden & Welch (1978 in (Saibene 1985) pp 315)
identify a 15% increase in anaerobic lactate system contribution to exercise during
cycling at 120% VO2max at around 2000m above sea level. Cold, and the hypoxic,
hypobaric environment (typical of 1500-2000m altitude) result in reduced alveolar and
arterial oxygen pressure, subsequently increasing glycolytic rates and reducing glycogen
stores straining the anaerobic system more significantly than if the same exercise were
performed in a more temperate, lower level climate (Kuno 1994; Haman 2002; Roberts
2005; Seifert 2005; Svensson 2005). Figure 1 provides a simplified step-by-step process
of the effects of altitude and cold on muscle metabolism.

INSERFT FIGURE 1 HERE

 18

During low to moderate exercise, glycogen depletion occurs earlier in low temperatures
due to the energy cost of shivering and increased muscle tone (Jacobs 1985). While the
high exercise intensity of skiing will counteract shivering during the activity, these results
have implications for non-skiing time during training and pre- and post-competition
(Tesch 1978; Jacobs 1985; Haman 2002). Thus, appropriate clothing and nutrition,
including sufficient carbohydrate intake, are essential in maintaining energy system
function so that the skier can train to the highest level at such extreme environmental
conditions.

Koistinen et al (1995), using both power and endurance athletes, found that those with
higher aerobic capacities showed a greater decline in their ability to tolerate lactate and
work aerobically at higher altitudes (Kuno 1994; Koistinen 1995; Haman 2002; Seifert
2005). Furthermore, the better trained the athlete, the greater the percentage decrease in
VO2max (Martin and O'Kroy 1993). Finally, as discussed above, a larger number of more
proficient ST fibres, for a given VO2max, may reduce the peripheral limitations placed on
the leg muscles, (which are induced by hypoxia, hypobaria and hypothermia), reducing
the anaerobic load and therefore aid with coping in these environmental conditions
(Haman 2002; Seifert 2005).
 19

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Much of the current skiing literature describes the energy demands of a single ski run, or
the general capacities of skiers. Apart from Kahn and colleagues (1993; 1996) work with
sedentary subjects investigating the cardiovascular responses to several days skiing, there
has been little attention paid to the physiological requirements of single or multiple day
race training. Quantification of energy consumption, muscle damage and nutritional
requirements of one, or several days, of high intensity race training is required. This
should consider activity such as discussion time with coaches, free skiing, lift riding time
and queue waiting, as well as the race itself, as this will all have an impact on training,
recovery and nutritional requirements.

Considering the conflicting reports of aerobic vs anaerobic requirements in ski racing,

and the fact that technical skill remains essential, quantifying the more qualitative aspects
of skiing: agility, balance, flexibility, motor ability, skill and psychological variables, such
as imagery and concentration, among top level racers is of interest (White 1993). Further,
technology such as EMG, video and GPS should be utilized more to, for example,
identify specific athlete requirements based upon course type (technical or speed) and
terrain (steepness and snow/ice condition).

More specific physiological measurements of World Class skiers, with special reference
to tissue oxidization, fibre type, mitochondrial density, and enzymatic differences is also
necessary. In particular, further investigation into fibre type distribution and metabolism,
with respect to the capacity of the athlete to cope with cold, altitude, high force and
ischemic conditions, is necessary. Finally, a greater understanding of the impact of low-
intensity/high-volume, versus high-intensity/low-volume work, on muscle metabolism
and force production under ischemic ski conditions is required.

Ski research is often descriptive and short term. To clearly understand ski racing and how
performance maybe altered by physical conditioning requires longitudinal studies to be
performed. Tracking of athletes, from their initiation into top level racing, and their
physiological progression with maturity, matched with that of skill and performance
success, may highlight what type of athlete can be a successful skier. Such information
may be helpful for talent identification and training periodization (Bacharach 1995).
Furthermore, several authors note a potential threshold, beyond which further
improvements in physical capacity (e.g. flexibility or strength) cease to improve skiing
performance (Brown and Wilkinson 1983; Neumayr 2003). If this is true, identifying
these points will help national teams set requirements for team selection and provide
direction in training programmes.
 20

CONCLUSIONS:
Ski racing is a multifaceted sport, incorporating significant input from a variety of energy
systems. Skiers train and compete in extreme environments of cold, altitude and sustained
high force muscle contractions. The conditions and complexity of ski racing make
investigation difficult and the physiological demands of ski racing hard to accurately
quantify. Until further research is conducted, this provides an ongoing challenge for sport
scientists and conditioning experts to establish appropriately structured training and
periodization programmes, nor does it explain who is best suited to ski racing, or whose
physical makeup may lend them to alternative sports. There remains a need to establish
accurate profiles of current, world leading athletes, which do not show bias from nation-
specific training methodology. There is also a need to identify the specific physiological
costs of ski racing and the usefulness of aerobic versus anaerobic training methodologies,
given advances in both ski technique and technology, and physiological investigation
technology.
 21

REFERENCES:
 22

TABLES:
Table 1: Physical characteristics reported amongst skiing literature
Age (yrs) Height (m) Mass (kg) Body Fat (%)
Author Level
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
(Neumayr 2003) International 27.6±3.5 25.2±3.9 1.810.06 1.66±0.05 87.07.1 65.1±6.5 15.83.7 24.53.6

(George 1999) National 22 ±4 21 ±4 1.80±0.03 1.62±0.03 78.4±3.6 62.3±2.5 11.5±2.1 20.6±1.8

(Bosco 1994) International 23.4 ±4.3 177.0± 1.4 79.0 ± 8.5

(Haymes 1980) National & 21.8±2.0 19.5±1.6 177.8±4.1 165.1±4.5 75.5±4.9 58.8±4.6 10.2±1.5 20.6±3.7%
International %
(White 1991) International 21.5 20.4 179 ±0.72 166 ±0.97 78.83 ± 1.51 63.07 ± 6.08 ± 13.14 ±
±0.55 ±0.56 1.2 0.92% 1.08%
(White 1991) National 21.6±0.5 21.8± 173 ±1.84cm 165 ±1.80 72.59 ± 1.57 63.64 ± 6.53 ± 16.62±
7 0.49 0.91 1.57% 1.82%
(Saibene 1985) National 19.6±0.7 171.2±6.25c 67±5.13
4 m
(Veicsteinas 1984) National 21 ± 2 178 ± 0.5 78 ± 4.0 9.9 ± 2.6

(Brown and National / 21.9±0.6 178.5±1.0 / 77.6±1.3kg /

Wilkinson 1983) Divisional /8.6±0.4 177.3±1.5cm 71.5±5.3
 23

Table 2. Anaerobic Power results for various methods and authors.

MALE
Author Testing Method International National Regional
(Bacharach 1995) 30 Second Wingate Peak:896.5sd 63W
Average: 717.3sd56.1W
(White 1991) 30 Second Wingate Peak: 836±26W Peak: 859±39W Peak:772±37W
Average:735±16W Average: 694±10W Average: 616±24W
(Koutedakis 1992) 30 Second Wingate Peak: 963±51W
Average: 665±34W
(Andersen 1990) 60 Second Wingate Peak:798±25.9W
Average: 486.3±10.3W
(Bacharach 1995) 90 Second Wingate Peak: 885.1sd 70.8W
Average: 754.5sd46.3W
FEMALE
Author Testing Method International National Regional
(Bacharach 1995) 30 Second Wingate Peak: 681.7 ±75.2W
Average: 517.7± 42.6W
(White 1991) 30 Second Wingate Peak: 669±14W Peak: 650±25W Peak:572±30W
Average:546±9 Average: 496±14W Average: 434±25W
(Bacharach 1995) 90 Second Wingate Peak: 666.7±70.8W
Average: 413.6 ± 69.7W
 24

Table 3: Results of Hamstring/Quadriceps strength ratio from the 1982-1983

Canadian Team. (Brown and Wilkinson 1983)
Hamstring/Quadriceps
Skiing Level
Ratio %
National 57.6±1.4
Divisional 61.8±1.7
Club 65.6±1.9
 25

Table 4. Joint angle and Heamoglobin/Myoglobin Oxygen Desaturation

during Giant Slalom (GS) and Slalom (SL) Ski Racing. (Szmedra 2001))
GS SL
Ankle angle (deg) 83.8±11.9 98.6±15.7
Knee angle (deg) 107.4±14.4 118.3±18.0
Hip angle (deg) 98.8±14.3 107.5±16.2
% Max O2
79.2 65.7
Desaturation
Heart Rate (b.min-1_ 177.3±10.6 171±14.7
 26

Table 5. Relative energy contribution to a single run on a ski race course.

Author Aerobic % Lactic % Phosphate %
25.4 (O2 equivalent of 28.3 (Gross Alactic
(Saibene 1985) 46.4 (Net O2 Uptake)
Lactic acid) Debt contracted)
(Veicsteinas
30-35 ~40 25-30
1984)
 27

Table 6. Muscle force parameters of various skiing events. From (Berg and O. 1999)
Outside Load Bearing Knee Angular Movement (Duty) Maximum
Knee Angles (deg) Velocity (o/s) Cycle L-R (s) Intensity
(%MVC)
SL 98-111 (smallest range) 69±11 1.6±0.2 74±33
GS 86-114 34±2 3.5±0.6 73±21
SG 83-96 ~17 ~4.1
FM 62-133(* ~300** ~0.8
*Normal running gait Angle 45o (Ferber 2003)
**Normal sprint gait cycle ~600-700 o/s (Mjølsnes 2004)
 28

FIGURES:

Altitude → Hypoxia + Hypobaria + Hypothermia → reduced O2

availability → increased cardiac output to support the required VO2 →
reduced time for red blood cells to diffuse O 2 → reduced alveolar and
arterial partial pressure → increase hemoglobin desaturation →
increased glycolytic rate → increase Lactate accumulation → reduced
Lactate threshold.

Figure 1. Simplified process of environmental conditions and their effect on energy

metabolism.
29
 30

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