International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056

Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

PROPAGATION MODELS FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Zahera Naseem1, Iram Nausheen2, Zahwa Mirza3
1,3 Student, M.Tech.1st Year, Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Anjuman College of
Engineering & Technology, Maharashtra, India.
2Assistant Professor, Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Anjuman College of

Engineering & Technology, Maharashtra, India.

---------------------------------------------------------------------***---------------------------------------------------------------------
Abstract – This paper gives an overview of the
propagation models in wireless communication systems.
Wireless communication system uses several physical
media, ranging from sound to radio to light. These
characteristics are affected by the physical environment
between the transmitter and receiver. Wireless
communication system suffers from various unwanted
effects of fading which may be caused due to multipath
propagation, path loss, shadowing, Doppler spread and co-
channel interference. There are various signal propagation
ranges in wireless communication channels.
Key Words: Characteristics of wireless communication
system, path loss, fading, interference, types of propagation
models-outdoor & indoor propagation model.
1. INTRODUCTION
The wireless communication system posses several
challenges for the reliable and a high speed communication.
It is not receptive of noise channel and other channel
hindrance, but these obstacle changes with time in
unforeseeable ways due to user movement. We will
characterize in detail the variation in the received signal
power over the distance due to path loss and shadowing.
Path loss models describe the signal attenuation between a
transmitter and receiver antenna as a function of
propagation distance and other parameters which is caused
by the dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter
as well as effects of the propagation channel. Shadowing is
caused by obstruction between the transmitter and the
receiver that attenuate the signal power through absorption,
reflection, scattering, and diffraction. A very important
practical issue is to test and validate the ability of the “smart”
antenna array to meet performance requirements. For this
purpose, a channel model is needed to take into account the
temporal and spatial characteristics of radio propagation.
2. WIRELESS CHANNEL
The wireless signal proliferate in space, based on the rule of
physics. An electromagnetic Radio Frequency (RF) signal
which proceed in a medium suffers an attenuation (path
loss) based on the nature of the medium. In addition, the
signal experiences objects and gets reflected, refracted,
diffracted, and scattered. The cumulative effect results in the
signal getting absorbed, signal travel across multiple paths,
signal’s frequency being shifted due to relative motion
between the source and objects (Doppler Effect), thus are
getting modified in a sufficient way. It is clear that the radio
frequency signal is a space-time-frequency signal.
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRELESS CHANNEL
The main characteristics of wireless communication
channel are as follows:
1. Path loss
2. Fading and shadowing
3. Interference
4. Doppler shift
3.1 Path loss
Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of power of
transmitted signal to the power of the same signal received
by the receiver on a given path. It is a function of the
propagation distance.
 Estimation of path loss is very important for designing and
deploying wireless communication networks.
 Path loss depends on the number of factors such as the
radio frequency used and the nature of the terrain.
 The free space propagation model is the simplest path loss
model in which there is a direct-path signal between the
transmitter and the receiver with no atmosphere
attenuation or multipath components.
In this model, the relationship between the transmitted
power Pt and the received power Pr is given by
Where,
 Gt is the transmitter antenna gain
 Gr is. the receiver antenna gain
 d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver
 λ is the wavelength of the signal
Two-way model also called as two path models is widely
used path loss model. The free space model give a detail
amount of above assumes that there is only one single
path from the transmitter to the receiver.
It is actually experienced that the signal reaches the receiver
through the multiple paths. The two path model struggles to
capture this phenomenon. The model assumes that the

© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 237
 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)
Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net
signal reaches the receiver through two paths, one a line-of-
sight and the other the path through which the reflected
wave is received.
According to the two-path model, the power which is
received is given by
Where,
 Pt is the transmitted power
 Gt represent the antenna gain at the transmitter
 Gr represent the antenna gain at the receiver
 d is the distance between the transmitter and receiver
 ht is the height of the transmitter
 hr are the height of the receiver
3.2 Fading
Fading mentions the fluctuations in strength of the signal
when the signal is received at the receiver. Fading can be
classified into two types –
 Fast fading/small scale fading and
 Slow fading/large scale fading
Fast fading refers to the swift fluctuations in the amplitude,
phase or multipath delays of the received signal, due to the
interference between the multiple versions of the same
transmitted signal arriving at the receiver at slightly
different time interval.
The time between the reception of the first version of the
signal and the last echoed signal can be expressed as delay
spread. The multipath propagation of the transmitted signal,
which causes fast fading, is because of the three propagation
mechanisms, namely –
 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
The multiple signal paths may sometimes add constructively
or sometimes destructively at the receiver causing a
variation in the received signal’s power level. The received
single envelope of a fast fading signal is said to follow
a Rayleigh distribution to see if there is no line-of-sight path
between the transmitter and the receiver.
2.1 Slow Fading
The name Slow Fading itself indicates that the signal fades
away slowly. The features of slow fading are as given below.
 Slow fading occurs when objects that partially absorb the
transmission lie between the transmitter and the receiver.
© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171
e-ISSN: 2395-0056
p-ISSN: 2395-0072
 Slow fading is so called because the duration of the fade may
last for multiple seconds or minutes.
 When the receiver is inside a building and the radio wave
passes through the walls of a building slow fading occurs.
The blocking object causes an irregular variation in the
power of received signal.
 Slow fading may causes the received signal power to vary,
though the distance between the transmitter and receiver
remains the same.
 Slow fading can also be expressed as the shadow fading since
the objects that cause the fade, which may be large buildings
or other structures, block the direct transmission path from
the transmitter to the receiver.
3.3 Interference
Interference is the sum of all signal contributions that are
neither noise not the wanted signal. Lets understand how its
effect, its type and what possible source for it.
3.3.1 Effects of Interference
 Interference is an important limiting factor in the
performance of cellular systems.
 Interference degrades the quality of the signal.
 It initiates bit errors in the received signal.
 Bit errors are partly recoverable by means of the channel
coding and the error correction mechanisms.
 The situation of the interference is not reciprocal to the
uplink and downlink direction.
 Mobile stations and base stations are introduced to different
interference situation.
3.3.2 Sources of Interference
 When another mobile is present in the same cell.
 When a call is in progress in the neighboring cell.
 When other base stations are operating on the same
frequency.
 When any non-cellular system leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band.
Fig-1: Interference
| ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 238
 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)
Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net
3.3.3 Types of Interference
There are two types of system generated interference
1. Co-channel interference
2. Adjacent channel interference
1. Co-Channel Interference
 Co-channel interference occurs the because of
frequency reuse, i.e. several cells use the same set of
frequency.
 These cells are called co-channel cells.
 Co-channel interference cannot be combated by
increasing the power of the transmitter. This is
because an increase in carrier transmit power
increases the interference to neighboring co-
channel cells.
 To reduce the co-channel interference, the cells
must be separated by a minimum distance to
provide sufficient isolation due to propagation or
reduce the footprint of the cell.
 Some factors other than reuse distance that
influence co-channel interference are antenna type,
directionality, height, site position etc.
2. Adjacent channel interference
 Interference concluding from the signals which are
adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called
adjacent channel interference.
 Adjacent channel interference results from
imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the pass band.
 Adjacent channel interference can be minimized
through channel assignments and careful filtering.
 By keeping the frequency separation between each
channel in a given cell as large as possible, the
adjacent interference may be reduced considerably.
4. DOPPLER SHIFT
The Doppler Effect is named after Austrian physicist
Christian Doppler who proposed it in 1842. Doppler shift is
referred as the change in frequency of a wave for an
observer moving relative to the source of the wave. It is
heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches,
passes, and recedes from an observer. The frequency is
higher at the instant when it is emitted. The frequency is
identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during
the recession. For the waves that propagate in a medium like
sound waves, where the velocity of the source and of the
observer is corresponding to that of the medium in which
the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler Effect may
result from the motion of the observer, motion of the source,
or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is examined
separately. For the waves which do not require any medium,
such as gravity or light in general relativity, only the relative
© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171
e-ISSN: 2395-0056
p-ISSN: 2395-0072
difference in velocity between the source and the observer
needs to be considered.
Fig-2: Doppler Shift
4. Radio propagation model
The radio propagation model is an experimental
mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio
wave propagation as a function of distance frequency and
other conditions. A single model is usually developed to
anticipate the behavior of propagation for all identical links
under identical constraints. Create with the goal of
formalizing the way radio waves are propagated from one
place to another, such models typically predict the path loss
along a link or the effective coverage area of a transmitter.
The propagation models are classified mainly into two types:
1. Outdoor propagation model.
2. Indoor propagation model.
4.1 Outdoor propagation models
In the mobile communication system radio transmission
often takes place over discontinuous terrain. The terrain
profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a
highly mountainous profile. The presence of trees, buildings,
and other obstacles also must be taken into account. A
number of propagation models are available to predict path
loss over irregular terrain. Some commonly used outdoor
propagation models are now discussed.
4.1.1 Longley-Rice Model
The Longley-Rice model is application to point-to-point
communication systems in the frequency range from 40 MHz
to 100 GHz, over different kinds of terrain. The main
transmission loss is predicted using the path geometry of the
terrain profile and the refractive of the troposphere.
Geometric optics techniques are used to predict signal
strengths within the radio horizon. The Longley-Rice model
is also available as a computer program to calculate large –
scale median transmission loss relative to free space loss
over irregular terrain for frequencies between 20 MHz and
10 GHz.
The Longley-Rice method operates in two modes. For the
availability of complete path terrain, the path-specific
parameters can be easily determined and the prediction is
called a point-to-point mode prediction. On the other hand ,
if the terrain path profile is not available, the Longley-Rice
method provides techniques to estimate the path-specific
| ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 239
 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)
Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net
parameters, and such a prediction is called an area mode
prediction.
There have been many predictions and corrections to the
Longley-Rice model since its original publication. One
important modification deals with radio propagation in
urban areas and this particularly relevant to mobile radio.
This modification introduces an excess term as an allowance
for the additional attenuation due to urban clutter near the
receiving antenna. This extra term called, urban factor, has
been derived by comparing the prediction by the original
Longley-Rice model with those obtained by Okumura.
4.1.2 Okumura model
Okumura model is one of the most widely used models for
signal prediction in urban areas. This model is applicable for
frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz and
distances of 1km to 100 km. It can be used for base station
antenna ranging from 30 m to 1000 m.
Okumura developed a set of curve giving the median
attenuation relative to free space (Amu) in an urban area over
a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effect antenna
height (hte) of 200 m and the height of mobile antenna (hre)
of 3m. To determine path loss using Okumura’s model, the
free space path loss between the points of interest is first
determined, and then the value of Amu (f,d) is added to it
along with correlation factors to account for the type of
terrain. The model can be expressed as
L50 (Db) = LF+Amu(f,d)-G(hte)-G(hre)-GAREA
Where, L50=50th percentile value of propagation path loss.
LF=free space propagation loss.
Amu=median attenuation relative to free space.
G (hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor.
GAREA=gain due to the type of environment.
4.1.3 Hata Model:
It is an empirical formulation of graphical path loss data
provided by Okumura and is valid from 150MHz-1500MHz.
Hata established empirical mathematical relationships to
describe the graphical information given by Okumura. Hata’s
formulation is limited to certain ranges of input parameters
and is applicable only over quasi-smooth terrain. The
mathematical expression and their ranges of applicability
are as follows:
L (db) = 69.55 + 26.16fc - 13.82loghte - a (hre) +
(44.96.55loghte) log10d
Carrier frequency: 150MHz≤ fc ≤1500MHz
Base station antenna height (hte): 30m ≤ hb ≤ 200m
Mobile unit antenna height (hre): 1m ≤ hm ≤ 10m
Transmission distance (d):1km≤ d ≤ 20 km
The following expressions have considerably enhanced the
practical value of the Okumura method, although Hata’s
© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal
e-ISSN: 2395-0056
p-ISSN: 2395-0072
formulations do not include any of the path specific
corrections available in the original model.
4.1.4 Durkin’s Model
It provides a perspective in to the nature of propagation over
irregular terrain and the losses occur due to obstacles in a
radio path. The demerit of this model is it cannot predict
propagation effects due to foliage, buildings, and other
human structures and doesn’t support multi path
communication.
This model provides anticipations which satisfy well with
measurements when the base station antenna is above
rooftop height, giving mean output errors of about 3db with
standard deviations in the range 4-8 db. However the
performance degrades as hb reaches hr and is quite poor
when hb<<hr. The model produces much bigger errors in
the microcellular situation.
4.2 Indoor Propagation Models
It provides a alternative in to the nature of propagation over
irregular terrain and the losses occurred due to obstacles in
a radio path. The disadvantage of this model is it cannot
assumes propagation effects due to foliage, buildings, and
other manmade structures and does not supports multi path
communication.
4.2.1 Free Space Path Loss
The free space path loss model is not directly related with
the indoor propagation. As it is required to compute the path
loss at a close-in reference distance as desired by the models.
The free space model gives a measure of path loss as a
function of T-R separation when the receiver and transmitter
are under the LOS range in a free space environment. The
model is defined by equation given below, which depicts the
path loss as a positive quantity in dB:
Where, Gt and Gr are the individual ratio gains of the
transmitting and receiving antennas respectively, l gives the
wavelength in meters, and d is the T-R separation in meters.
When antennas are removed, we assume that Gt = Gr = 1. The
free space path loss equation gives desired results only if the
receiving antenna is in the far-field or Fraunhofer region of
the transmitting antenna. The far-field denoted as the
distance df given by equation below.
Here, D = largest linear dimension of the antenna.
Additionally, for a receiver to be assumed in the far-field of
the transmitter, it must satisfy df >> D and df >> λ.
| Page 240
 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)
Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net
4.2.2 Log-Distance Path Loss
The log-distance path loss model assumes the path loss
variations takes place exponentially with distance. The path
loss in dB is given by equation (7.3).
Where n gives the path loss exponent, d defines the T-R
separation in meters, and do defines the close-in reference
distance in meters. PL (do) is calculated using the free space
path loss equation mentioned above. The value d0 should be
considered such that it is in the far-field of the transmitting
antenna; however some small relative to any practical
distance used in the mobile communication system. The
path loss exponent value n varies according to the
environment. In free space environment, n is equal to 2. In
practice, the value of n is calculated using empirical data.
4.2.3 Log-Normal Shadowing
One major drawback of the log-distance path loss model is
that it does not counts for shadowing effects which can be
caused by changing degrees of clutter between the
transmitter and receiver. The log-normal shadowing model
tries to overcomes this. The log-normal shadowing model
assumes path loss as a function of T-R separation.
Where, Xs denotes the zero-mean Gaussian random variable
with standard deviation s. Both Xs and s are defined in dBs.
The random variable Xs tries to counteract for random
shadowing effects that can result from clutter. The values n
and s are considered from empirical data.
4.2.3.1 Addition of Attenuation Factors to Log-
Distance Model
Many researchers have attempted to enhance the log-
distance model by taking into account certain additional
attenuation factors based upon measured data. One relevant
example is the attenuation factor model proposed by Seidel
and Rappaport. The attenuation factor model includes a
special path loss exponent and a floor attenuation factor to
give an estimation of indoor path loss. The model is
described in equation mentioned below:
PL
where nsf provides the exponential path loss for a same floor
measurement and FAF defines a floor attenuation factor
completely based on the counts of floors between
transmitter and receiver. Both nsf and FAF are approximated
from empirical data. A quite familiar model was developed
© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal
e-ISSN: 2395-0056
p-ISSN: 2395-0072
by Devasirvatham. Devasirvatham’s model has an additional
loss factor which improves exponentially with distance. The
modified path loss equation is given below:
Where, α denotes an attenuation factor in dB/m for a defined
channel. A third model includes additional attenuation
factors. This new model was developed by Motley and
Keenan and is of the form shown below:
Where, k gives the number of floors within the transmitter
and receiver and F is the individual floor loss factor. The
main point of difference between Motley and Keenan’s
model and the one developed by Seidel and Rappaport is
that Motley and Keenan give an individual floor loss factor
which is later multiplied by the number of floors separating
transmitter and receiver. Seidel and Rappaport proposed a
table comprising of floor attenuation factors which changes
are based upon the number of floors separating the
transmitter and receiver respectively.
4.2.3.2 An Additive Path Loss Model
An additional path loss model which has been found out by
researchers is named as an additive path loss model. In this
model, individual losses occured due to obstructions
between transmitter and receiver are approximated and
added together. Researchers have proposed tables of
recorded average attenuation values for different
obstructions including walls, floors, and doors. However,
maximum of the recorded information is related to only a
few carrier frequencies. Furthermore, the resulting
attenuations are not equal among various researchers.
REFERENCES
[1] Jeff Kennington, Eli Olinick, Dinesh Rajan, Book on
“Wireless network design: optimization model and
design solution”.
[2] Thomas L. Marzetta,” BLAST Training: Estimating
Channel Characteristics”, Proceedings 37th Annual
Allerton Conference on Communication, Control, and
Computing, Monticello, IL, Sept. 22-24, 1999.
[3] Nitika Sachdeva, Deepak Sharma, “Diversity: A Fading
Reduction Technique”, International Journal of
Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software
Engineering, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012.
[4] R.H.Clarke,”A statistical theory of Mobile Radio
Reception”,The bell system technical journal, July-
August 1968.
| Page 241
 International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 05 Issue: 01 | Jan-2018 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

[5] Md. Golam Sadeque, Shadhon Chandra Mohonta, Md.

Firoj Ali,” Modeling and Characterization of Different
Types of Fading Channel”, International Journal of
Science, Engineering and Technology Research, Volume
4, Issue 5, May 2015.

[6] M.N.Jayaram, “Indoor and Outdoor Propagation Models”,

Dept. of E&C, SJCE, Mysore – 06.

[7] Mr. Sumit Joshi, “Outdoor propagation models a

literature review”, International Journal on Computer
Science and Engineering, Vol. 4 No. 02 February 2012.

[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_loss

[9] https://www.tutorialspoint.com/wireless_communicati
on/wireless_communication_channel_characteristics.ht
m

[10] http://www.teletopix.org/gsm/what-are-interference-
and-its-source-effect-and-types-in-gsm/

[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect

[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_propagation_mod
el

[13] http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~sloyka/elg4179/Lec_4_E
LG4179.pdf

[14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log-
distance_path_loss_model

[15] https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919
/36779/Ch7.pdf?sequence=8
[16] https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-
55615-4_2/fulltext.html

© 2018, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 6.171 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 242