Solving the effect of Fading on wireless communication by

MIMO Antenna

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE(S) Id No.

1. ASFAW AYELE………………………………..ENG/R/0877/07

2. ABERA KEFIYALEW………………………...ENG/R/0269/07

3. ABRHAM GAFATO…………………………..ENG/R/0402/07

4. HABTAMU BELETE………………………….ENG/R/0095/07

5. ESAYAS WAYNASHA………………………...ENG/R/0621/07

A SEMESTER PROJECTSUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT FOR DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
(COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING)
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled “solving the effect of fading in
wireless communication by MIMO Antenna” is submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of the degree in BSc Degree in Electrical and
Computer Engineering(Communication Engineering), Wolaita Sodo University, is
a record of our own work carried out by us during the academic year 2018/19
under the supervision and guidance of Mr. DEGEFE SAMUEL, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering. The extent and
source of information are derived from the existing literature and have been
indicated through the project at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this
work is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree,
either in this or any other University.
Student Name ID Signature
1. ASFAW AYELE ENG/R/0877/07 _________
2. ABERA KEFIYALEW ENG/R/0269/07 _________
3. ABRHAM GAFATO ENG/R/0402/07 _________
4. HABTAMU BELETE ENG/R/0095/07 _________
5. ESAYAS WAYNASHA ENG/R/0621/07 _________

ii
Approval Sheet
This is to certify that Project report entitled “solving the effect of fading in
wireless communication by MIMO antenna” that is submitted by this group
members in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree BSC
in ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING (Communication stream)
of Wolaita Sodo University, is a record of the candidate own work carried out by
him under my own supervision. The matter embodies in project is original and has
not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

_____________________ _________
Advisor S ig n .

_____________________ _________
Department Head S ig n .

Place: _____________________

Date: _____________________

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all thanks to almighty God for each and every success in my life and satisfactory
accomplishment at this semester project.

We would like to thank our family members for their constant support and encouragement.
Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our advisor “Advisor Mr. Degefe
Samuel”, for his continuous support of our ‘Project Study’, for his patience, motivation,
enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped us in all the time of research and
writing of this project.
We would like to express gratitude to our head of the department, Electrical and Computer
Engineering “Head of the department Mr. Degu M” and dean of the College, College of
Engineering “Dean of the college Mr.Tsegaye” who helped us to finalize our project.
Lastly, we offer our regards to the faculty and all of those who supported us in any respect
during the completion of the project.

iv
ABSTRACT
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) transmission systems provide high data rates and a
good reliability for a given signal to noise ratio. The channel quality always cannot be
determined perfectly due to different aspects like the fading effects, Interference, scattering of
EM wave etc. Also due to different fading effects often the transmitted data is not recovered
properly at the receiving end. In this project we measure and analyze the performance of a
wireless system in Rayleigh and Rician fading channel using Multiple Input Multiple Output
(MIMO) and show how the capacity increases with respect to signal to noise ratio. MIMO
systems exploit the multipath propagation in rich scattering environment using multiple transmit
and receive antennas to increase the capacity of a link. In this contribution, we provide a BER
analysis for fading channels with maximal-ratio combining (MRC) and imperfect channel
estimation at the received. The BER characteristics for the various transmitting and receiving
antennas simulated in MATLAB tool box and it shows that the MRC equalizer based receiver is
a good choice for removing some ISI and minimizes the total noise power. The results show that
the BER decreases as the m x n antenna configurations is increased.

Keywords: Bit Error rate, Fading channel, MRC, MIMO, Noise Power and ISI

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... ii
Approval Sheet............................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. v
List of figure: ............................................................................................................................................. viii
ABBREVATION ......................................................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Problem of statement ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1. General objective ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.2. Specific objective ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.4. Scope of the Project ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.5. Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.6. Project Organization .......................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................................... 5
2. Literature Review.................................................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................................... 9
3. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND SYSTEM DESIGN ....................................................................................... 9
3.1. Fading ................................................................................................................................................ 9
3.2. Large Scale Fading .......................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1 Path Loss .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Shadowing Effect ....................................................................................................................... 11
3.3. Small-Scale Fading .......................................................................................................................... 11
3.3.1 Small-Scale Fading Factors ....................................................................................................... 11
3.3.2 Small-Scale Fading Types: ........................................................................................................ 12
3.4. Channel Fading ................................................................................................................................ 13
3.4.1. Causes of Fading ....................................................................................................................... 13
3.5. Rayleigh and Rician Distributions ................................................................................................... 14
3.6. MIMO ANTENNA SELECTION ................................................................................................... 16
3.6.1 Single Input Single Output ......................................................................................................... 16
3.6.2 Single Input Multiple Output ..................................................................................................... 17

vi
 3.6.3. Multiple Input Single Output .................................................................................................... 17
3.6.4 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) .................................................................................. 18
3.7. MIMO Diversity .............................................................................................................................. 20
3.5.1 Spatial Diversity......................................................................................................................... 21
3.6. Water Filling Model ......................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 25
4. Result and Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Maximal-Ratio Combining ............................................................................................................... 25
4.3. Channel Capacity ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.4. Without considering MIMO............................................................................................................. 29
4.4.1 Rayleigh fading with different received signal .......................................................................... 29
4.4.2. Rician fading with different received signal ............................................................................. 30
4.5. Capacity allocation using MIMO..................................................................................................... 31
4.6. Water filling Model.......................................................................................................................... 32
4.7. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 34
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ............................................................................................... 34
5.1. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 34
5.2. Future Work ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Reference ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Appendices.................................................................................................................................................. 36

vii
List of figure:
Figure 1: depicts amplitude versus distance chart for slow fading and fast fading types. ............................ 9
Figure 2: Rayleigh fading distribution. ....................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3: Rician fading distribution ............................................................................................................ 16
Figure 4: SISO - Single Input Single Output .............................................................................................. 17
Figure 5: SIMO - Single Input Multiple Outputs ........................................................................................ 17
Figure 6: MISO - Multiple Input Single Outputs ........................................................................................ 18
Figure 7: MIMO antenna system ................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 8: MIMO wireless communication system diagram. ....................................................................... 19
Figure 9: Block diagram of MIMO system. ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 10: Spatial diversity ......................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 11: Maximal ratio combining technique .......................................................................................... 26
Figure 12: Rayleigh Plot ............................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 13: Rician plot with different received signal.................................................................................. 30
Figure 14: MIMO system............................................................................................................................ 31

viii
ABBREVATION
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise

BLAST Bell Labs Layered Space-Time

BER Bit Error Rate
CC I Co- Channel Interference
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
ISI Inter Symbol Interface
LOS Line of sight
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MR C Maximum Ratio Combining
MR T Maximal Ratio Transmission
NT Transmit Signal
NR Receivers Signal
RF Radio Frequency
SISO Single Input Single Output
SIMO Single Input Multiple Output
SC Selection Combining
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
Wireless communication is used to transfer information over both short and long distances
depending on requirement. In modern wireless communication fading is a common
characteristic. Fading is caused because of both long term and short term fluctuations of the
received signal compared to the transmitted signal transmitted by the transmitter. Multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) systems are a natural extension of development in antenna array
communication fading makes it extremely difficult for the receiver to recover the transmitted
signal unless the receiver is provided with some form of diversity, i.e. replicas of the same
transmitted signal with uncorrelated attenuation. This project is detail deal how the multiple
input and multiple output (MIMO) helps to reduce the fading effect of wireless communication
at the transmission of signal from starting to the end start up. Multiple inputs multiple outputs is
an antenna technology for wireless communications in which multiple antennas are used at both
the source (transmitter) and the destination (receiver). The antennas at each end of the
communications circuit are combined to minimize errors and optimize data speed. MIMO is one
of several forms of smart antenna technology, the others being (multiple inputs single output)
and SIMO (single input multiple outputs). In conventional wireless communications, a single
antenna is used at the source and another single antenna is used at the destination. In some cases,
this gives rise to problems with multipath effects. When an electromagnetic field (EM field) is
met with obstructions such as hills, buildings, and utility wires, the wave fronts are scattered, and
thus they take many paths to reach the destination. The late arrival of scattered portions of the
signal causes problems such as fading. In digital communications systems such as wireless
Internet, it can cause a reduction in data speed and an increase in the number of errors. The use
of two or more antennas, along with the transmission of multiple signals (one for each antenna)
at the source and the destination, eliminates the trouble caused by multipath wave propagation,
and can even take advantage of this effect. The main challenges in this area include the
development of efficient coding and modulation techniques to improve the quality and
spectral efficiency of wireless systems.
In this project we have discussed about Rayleigh fading, Rician fading, flat fading, slow fading,
Bit Error Rate (BER), Signal to noise ratio (SNR) and Channel capacity etc. The rest of this
project is organized as follows; firstly we present different types of fading with appropriate curve
and then through discussion about MIMO and its previous versions in second section. We then
provided discussion about SNR, Channel capacity, Water filling model, Channel Capacity versus
SNR curve. And finally the ending section gives the result and conclusion about the whole
project.

1.2. Problem of statement

When a signal is transmitted from source to destination through the channel, There are two main
aspects related to performance of wireless communication, first is the phenomenon of fading: the
time-variation of the channel strengths due to the small-scale effect of multipath fading, as well
as larger scale effects such as path loss via distance attenuation and shadowing by obstacles and
second is unlike in the wired world where each transmitter-receiver pair can often be thought of
as an isolated point-to-point link, the wireless users communicate over the air and there is
significant interference between them in wireless communication. One of the most powerful
techniques to mitigate the effects of fading is to use diversity combining of independently fading
signal paths. Other aspects that may also affect the performance of wireless communication are
path loss and noise.

1.3. Objectives
1.3.1. General objective
The main aim of this project is solving the effect of fading in wireless communication by MIMO
antenna.

1.3.2. Specific objective

 Technique to mitigate fading effect.
 To optimize time and space MIMO antenna system.
 To study the multipath fading effect.
 To optimize signal strength power.
 To increase capacity of a MIMO system by using water filling model.

2
1.4. Scope of the Project
The scope of this project is to study proposed MIMO antenna design to increase the capacity of
the point-to-point communication channel. The project started with the Simulation of radiation
pattern and return loss and bandwidth response by using Shannon capacity theorem and
Maximum ratio combining (MRC). Finally, the results of actual antenna and simulated design
compared.

The scope to investigate as per below details:

 Literature on the concept of effect fading by MIMO antenna.
 Review on previous work related to point-to-point wireless communication of
antenna.
 Simulation of the, SISO and MIMO antenna.
 Solving the effect of fading wireless communication by using MIMO antenna.
 Compare the results between simulated and MIMO antenna.

1.5. Methodology
The methodologies used to achieve the desired objectives of this objective were as follows. First,
literature reviews about MIMO and cooperative diversit y were conducted. Second, we combined
both MIMO and cooperative diversit y and modeled the system, and then we programmed the
s ystem in (Mathlab2014a) software as a simulation tool . Finall y, the results were interpreted
and conclusion was drawn based on the results obtained. This section describes methods that
can help reduce the problem of fading in wireless communication channels. They are Diversity
for fast and slow fading, Equalization for flat and frequency selection fading multipath fading
and Channel Coding for deep fading.

1.6. Project Organization

This project organized in five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction, which provides
information regarding the project background, problem statement, objective, methodology and
scope of work and the layout of the project. The second chapter summarizes the literature and
among the topics that are discussed, effect of antenna fading overview, channels fading antenna
and its properties. In the third chapter the block diagram and system design description of
project. The fourth chapter presents all the design specifications and results obtained from

3
manual calculation and simulation respectively. The simulation results and subsequent analysis
discussed. In the fifth chapter, conclusion and recommendations, this chapter concludes the
finding of the project and provides recommendations for future work.

4
 CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review
To get basic understanding of the project concepts we have reviewed recent related literatures.
To minimize the effect of fading, a lot of projects have been done which most of them have
mainly focused on either cooperative or MIMO schemes.

Interference is caused by deep-fades that occur at a particular point in space, or at a particular

time or frequency and results in severe degradation of the quality of signals at the receiver
making it impossible to detect or decode. Several mathematical models have been developed to
describe such channels. The model takes into account the phenomenon of multipath fading and
correlation between sub-channels. Common models employ Rayleigh, Ricean and Nakagami-m
distributions to approximate actual channel conditions [2].
Wireless Communication has made a tremendous impact on the lifestyle of a human being.
Wireless Network provides high speed mobility for voice as well as data traffic from variety of
sources. The fundamental phenomenon which makes transmission unreliable is time varying
fading [1].
Shadow fading is caused by transient or location-dependent obstruction of the line-of-sight path,
for instance by a passing person. Shadow fading is typically slow, leading to burst losses on the
order of tens to hundreds of packets or longer term outages which cannot be handled effectively
using retransmissions or interleaving due to the incurred delay. Shadow fading cannot be
overcome with compact multi-antenna arrays due to the much higher spatial correlation in LOS
attenuation [3].
Therefore spatial diversity in shadow fading is fundamentally limited by the antenna packing
problem on small form factor devices, whether client or access point. At times, there will be
changes in the relative path lengths. This could result from either transmitter or receiver moving,
or any of the objects that provide a reflective surface moves. This will result in phases of the
signal arriving at the receiver changing, and in turn this will result in the signal strength varying.
When a mobile receiving antenna receive a large number of reflected and scattered signals,
because of the signal cancellation effect, the instantaneous received power seen by a moving
antenna becomes a random variable, dependent on the location of the antenna[4].

5
Since, modern wireless communication systems are typically used in urban setting, where many
high buildings, foliage and street signs are located between the transmitter and receiver, the radio
transmission environment in urban areas is characterized by multi-path propagation [5].
Stefanoveta l. Showed that cooperative diversity can be exploited together with spatial diversity
from multiple transmitter receive antennas. However, it is not clear that whether the
combination of cooperative diversity with multiple antennas will continue to substantially
improve the performance if the number of relays or antennas is large [6].
L.Chueta l. anal yzed the performance of space-time coded cooperative s ystem on slow upper
bounds, we could see that user cooperative space time coded s ystem in wireless network can
achieve full cooperation diversity gain and coding gains [7].
The seminal work by Foschini and Gans [9] and, independently, Telatar [8] suggested that is
well known that, compared with wire line communication systems, one major impairment for
wireless communication systems is the complicated time-varying channels with possibly multi-
path fading, shadowing, pass loss, interference, and so on. This may leads to severe data rate loss
or performance degradation, or both. One effective way to combat fading channel is to use the
so-called “diversity” techniques, which means that other replicas of the transmitted signal must
be sent to the receiver in other formats (or through other paths). The intuition is to take
advantage of the low probability of concurrent deep fades in all independent paths to lower the
probability of error. The commonly used diversity techniques include temporal diversity,
frequency diversity and spatial (antenna) diversity. In many cases, wireless channel is slow time-
varying (no temporary diversity), non-frequency selective (no frequency diversity), thus spatial
diversity is needed to improve the performance. Such spatial diversity can be achieved by the use
of MIMO systems. For example, the same signal can be transmitted over NT different transmit
antennas, and received by NR receive antennas. Since the signal goes through NT × NR
independent paths, it is possible to achieve the diversity of NT × NR by appropriately combining
these signals. On the other hand, fading channels may also be beneficial for a wireless
communication system. By increasing the independent fading paths between the transmitter and
receiver, the degrees of freedom of the whole system are increased as well. If the different
degrees of freedom are used to transmit different signals, the total data rate can be increased
significantly. This is why MIMO systems can provide much higher spectral efficiency than
single-antenna systems. The signals propagating through the wireless channel experience

6
multipath fades. Under the assumption that the fades between pairs of transmit to receive antenna
elements are independent and identically distributed. In this situation the signal normally does
not have enough signal or power to be detected by the receiver. In our project to mitigate this
problem by using techniques are known to combine the signals from multiple diversity
branches. In Maximum Ratio combining each signal branch is multiplied by a weight factor that
is proportional to the signal amplitude. In telecommunications, maximal-ratio combining is a
method of diversity combining in which the signals from each channel are added together and
the gain of each channel is made proportional to the RMS value of signal and inversely
proportional to the mean square noise level in that channel. Different proportionality constants
are used for each channel. It is also known as ratio-squared combining and redetection
combining. Maximal-ratio-combining is the optimum combiner for independent AWGN
channels. In maximal ratio combining (MRC), the signals from all of the MR branches are
weighted according to their individual SNRs and then summed. Here the individual signals need
to be brought into phase alignment before summing. a well-known technique to mitigate the
performance degradation of multipath fading and co channel interference (CCI) in wireless
systems. In flat fading channels, maximal ratio combining (MRC) diversity is well known to be
optimum in the sense of maximizing the output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The transmit antenna
array can also be used to provide diversity gain, and the optimum technique under background
noise is Maximal Ratio Transmission (MRT), equivalent to MRC. MIMO systems employing
both MRT and MRC are usually referred to as MIMO MRC. These transmit diversity techniques
were built on objectives other than to maximize the SNR. It is well known that maximal-ratio
combining (MRC) is the optimal linear combining technique. However, with receiver MRC,
most of the system complexity concentrates at the receiver side. To decrease the receiver
complexity in terms of the number of RF chains, a simple suboptimal combining scheme,
referred to as selection combining (SC).in which only one receive antenna with the largest
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is selected for demodulation. The SC scheme has been extended to
the cases where the signals on more than one receive antenna with the largest instantaneous
SNRs are combined. This scheme is referred to as maximal-ratio combining.MRC is a powerful
technique. It is most common in MIMO channels.

7
This project presents the concept, principles, and analysis of maximum ratio transmission for
wireless communications, where multiple antennas are used for both transmission and reception.
The principles and analysis are applicable to general cases, including maximum-ratio combining.
In our project the MIMO system is also studied by using the water filling model.

8
 CHAPTER THREE

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1. Fading
Fading is the time variation of received signal power due change in transmission medium or
path. Fading depends on atmospheric conditions such as rainfall, lightening etc.

Figure 1: depicts amplitude versus distance chart for slow fading and fast fading types.

9
Types of fading in wireless communication:

3.2. Large Scale Fading

Large scale fading occurs due to the shadowing effect of large sized objects. The time constant
associated with the variations are very long as the receiver moves. In this fading variation occurs
over very large distances. Because of the wave is shadowed or blocked by the obstacles leads to
significant loss of signal strength. Generally this type of fading is independent of frequency.

3.2.1 Path Loss

The free space path loss can be expressed as follows.

Pt/Pr= {(4*𝜋*d) 2/ λ2} = (4*𝜋*d) 2/c2

Where,

Pt=Transmit power

Pr=receive power

λ =wave length

D=distance between transmitting and receiving antenna

10
C=speed of light i.e. 3*108

From the equation it implies that transmitted signal attenuates over distance as the signal is being
spread over large and large area from transmit end towards receive end.

3.2.2 Shadowing Effect

It is observed in wireless communication. Shadowing is deviation of frequency power of EM
signal from average value.

It is a result of obstacles over the path between transmitter and receiver. It depends on
geographical position as well as radio frequency of EM (Electro Magnetic) waves.

3.3. Small-Scale Fading

Small scale fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of amplitudes, phases, or multipath
delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance. Due to interference of
different versions of the transmitted signal the receiver gets these different signals in different
times.

In modern era fading happens due to the surrounding obstacles around the antenna and also
because of the reflection, refraction and the scattering of the signal.

3.3.1 Small-Scale Fading Factors

Small scale fading is concerned with rapid fluctuations of received signal strength over very
short distance and short time period.

Small scale fading factors are:

 Multiple path propagation:

Due to the scattering in the channel and presence of reflecting objects results to a constantly
changing environment that lessens the signal energy involving amplitude, phase and time. For
these effects multiple the transmitted signals arriving the receiving end displaced with respect to
another signal in time. In multipath propagation the time required for the baseband signal to
reach the receiver gets lengthy for inter symbol interference (ISI).

11
  Device (receiver) speed:

If the device is moved on a fast speed there will be maximum fading. Due to the movement
Doppler shift affects. If the device is moving towards the base station then there will be positive
Doppler shift and if the device is moving away from the base station then there will be negative
Doppler shift.

 Speed of surrounding objects:

If the surrounding environment rapidly changes then fading occurs. But if the surrounding
environment not changing and the device are moved to a short distance then there is fading due
to the device not by the surrounding environment.

3.3.2 Small-Scale Fading Types:

 Flat fading:

If a channel has constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than
the bandwidth of the transmitted signal then the channel will undergo flat fading. Flat fading
can also occur when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal B is smaller than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel Bm =B × Bm .If the SNR drops we can see the flat fading channel.

 Frequency selective fading:

If a channel has constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is smaller than
the bandwidth of the transmitted signal then the channel will undergo frequency selective fading.
The delay spread is also greater than the symbol period. These fading channels are more difficult
to model then flat fading channels because each multipath signal must be modeled and the
channel must be considered as a linear filter.

 Fast fading:

If the coherence time of a channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal
then the fading is known as the fast fading. In fast fading there are rapid changes in the
transmitted baseband signal. And because of frequency dispersion Doppler spreading leads to
distortion of the baseband signal. In fast fading the channel variation is much faster than the
baseband signal variations.

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  Slow Fading:

In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted baseband signal. Slow fading is caused by the shadowing effect caused by
different obstacles like buildings, mountains etc. In different small areas the average varies from
one small area to the next in a random manner. In slow fading there is low Doppler spread and
the channel variation is slower than the baseband signal variations.

3.4. Channel Fading

The statistics depends on the fading conditions. Unless otherwise mentioned, we will
always consider Rayleigh fading, which is valid for a rich scattering propagation environment,
where no line-of-sight (LOS) exists between transmitter and receiver (denoted hereafter by Tx
and Rx, respectively). Under such conditions, will be proper complex Gaussian random
processes.

We also assume that the antenna elements at both Tx and Rx are spaced sufficiently apart,
so that independent fading can be considered for each Tx/Rx antenna pair.

3.4.1. Causes of Fading

The multipath effect is the main cause of fading and may be due to reflection of satellite signals
(radio waves) from objects. In any terrestrial radio communications system, the signal will reach
the receiver not only via the direct path, but also as a result of reflections from objects such as
buildings, hills, ground, water, etc that are adjacent to the main path. The overall signal at the
radio receiver is a summation of the variety of signals being received.

The causes of fading are mainly reflection, diffraction and scattering

 Reflection

This occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is much larger in size compared to
the wavelength of the signal. Examples are reflections from earth and buildings. These
reflections may interfere with the original signal constructively or destructively.

13
  Diffraction

This occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable
body and by a surface with sharp irregularities (edges). This details how radio signals can travel
urban and rural environments without a line of-sight (LOS) path.

 Scattering

This occurs when the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are on the order of the
wavelength or less of the propagating wave and also when the numbers of obstacles are quite
large. They are produced even by small objects, surface roughness and other irregularities on the
channel. It follows same principles of diffraction. It causes the transmitter energy to be radiated
in many directions. Examples are lamp posts and street signs that may cause scattering.

3.5. Rayleigh and Rician Distributions

 Rayleigh Fading Distribution:

In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distributions is commonly used to describe the
statistical time varying nature of the received envelop of a flat fading signal or the envelope
of an individual multipath component. It is well known that the envelope of the sum of
two quadrature Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution. The Rayleigh distribution
has a probability density function (pdf) given by the following equation.

2
𝑟 −� 𝑟 2 �
𝑃(𝑟) � 2 𝑒 2𝜎 ; (0 � 𝑟 � ∞) �3.1�
𝜎
0 ; (r<0)
Where; 𝜎 is the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection and

𝜎 2 is the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection.

14
 Figure 2: Rayleigh fading distribution.

 Rician Fading Distribution:

When there is a dominant stationary (none fading) signal component present, such as line-of
sight propagation path the small scale fading envelope distribution is Rician. In such a
situation random multipath component arriving at different angles are superimposed on a
stationary dominant signal. At the output of an envelope detector, this has the effect of adding a
dc component to the random multipath.

The Rician distribution is given by the following equation:

2 2
𝑟 − �𝑟 +𝐴 � 𝐴𝑟
𝑝(𝑟) � 𝑒 𝐼𝑜 � � ; (𝐴 � 0, 𝑟 � 0) �3.2�
𝜎2 2𝜎 2 𝜎2

0 ; (r<0)
Where, r=receiver antenna.

A=amplitude

𝜎 2 =is the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection.

15
 Figure 3: Rician fading distribution

3.6. MIMO ANTENNA SELECTION

The wireless communication system has gone through different generation starting from SISO
(Single Input Single Output) systems to MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) system. There
are certain differences between SISO, SIMO, and MISO as transmission of high data rate is the
main concern for a particular antenna. When the number of transmit and receive antenna
increases, capacity is increasing. The major goal of wireless communication system is to create a
strong network system with less capacity loss issue.

3.6.1 Single Input Single Output

The simplest form of radio link can be defined in MIMO terms as SISO-Single Input Single
Output. This is effectively a standard radio channel this transmitter operates with one antenna as
does the receiver .There is no diversity and no additional processing required. The advantage of a
SISO system is its system. SISO requires no processing in terms of the various forms of diversity
that may be used. However the SISO channel is limited in its performance as interference and
fading will impact the system more than a MIMO system using some form of diversity. The
through depends upon the channel bandwidth and the signal to noise ratio.

16
 Figure 4: SISO - Single Input Single Output

3.6.2 Single Input Multiple Output

This is also known as receiving diversity. In SIMO transmitter is equipped with single antenna
and receiver has multiple antennas. SIMO is used in uplink transmission. SIMO has the
advantage that it is relatively easy to implement although it does have some disadvantages in that
the processing is required in the receiver. The SIMO systems are acceptable in many applications
but where the receiving system is located in the mobile device like mobile phone, the
performance me be limited by size, cost and battery drain. SIMO systems were used for short
waves listening. SIMO technology has widespread applications in Digital Television (DTV),
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), and Mobile
Communications.

Figure 5: SIMO - Single Input Multiple Outputs

3.6.3. Multiple Input Single Output

MISO is one of the smartest antenna technology in which multiple antenna are MISO is one
of the smartest antenna technology in which multiple antenna are mounted at transmitter with

17
a single antenna at the receiving end. MISO systems has several advantage because the
redundancy and coding has been shifted from receiving end towards the transmitting end and
hence for examples of mobile phones, less power and processing is required at the user end and
hence for examples of mobile phones, less power and processing is required at the user end or
the receiver end. These results less battery consumption as lower level of processing requires.
MISO used in downlink transmission. The same data is transmitted redundantly from the two
transmitter antennas. Hence, the receiver able to receive the optimum signal which it can then
use to receive and extract the required data. When an electromagnetic wave interacts with cars,
hills, high storage buildings and other obstacles, wave gets scattered and takes mult iple paths
to reach the destination. Such issues are known as multipath. This causes several issues like
fading, losses and attenuation. The use of multiple antennas along with transmission of multiple
signals in the transmitting side might reduce the trouble caused by multipath wave propagation.

Figure 6: MISO - Multiple Input Single Outputs

3.6.4 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO)

MIMO is effectively a radio antenna technology as it uses multiple antennas at the transmitter
and receiver to enable a variety of signal paths to carry the data, choosing separate paths for
each antenna to enable multiple signal paths to be used. One of the core ideas behind MIMO
wireless systems space-time signal processing in which time is complemented with the spatial
dimension inherent in the use of multiple spatially distributed antennas, i.e. the use of
multiple antennas located at different points. Accordingly MIMO wireless systems can be
viewed as a logical extension to the smart antennas that have been used for many years to
improve wireless.

18
 Figure 7: MIMO antenna system

MIMO communications channels provide an interesting solution to the multipath challenge by

requiring multiple signal paths. In effect, MIMO systems use a combination of multiple
antennas and multiple signal paths to gain knowledge of the communications channel.

Figure 8: MIMO wireless communication system diagram.

Tx transmits antennas and Rx receives antennas. The MIMO transmitter potentially includes
error control coding as well as a complex modulation symbol mapped. After frequency
demodulation to radio frequency (RF), filtering and amplification, the signals are transmitted
through the wireless channel.
For Tx transmit and Rx receive antennas, in the case of a MIMO at fading channel,
the capacity of the MIMO channel is given by
𝑃
𝐶𝑀𝐼𝑀𝑂= 𝐸𝐻 �log 2 �det �𝐼𝑅𝑥 � 𝐻𝐻 ∗ �� �3.3�
𝑇𝑥
19
Where,

EH=is the statistical expectation operator with respect to H

IRx=is the identity matrix of size Rx

P=is the SNR at any receive antenna

H=is the TX×Rx channel matrix

(.)*=denote the transpose-conjugate.

Basic block diagram of MIMO system

Figure 9: Block diagram of MIMO system.

3.7. MIMO Diversity

In wireless transmission, signal quality suffers severe degradations due to effects like fading
caused by multipath propagation. There are several approaches to implement approaches to
implement. Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by finding independent
signal paths for communication. As there is more than one path to select, both the instantaneous
and average SNRs at receiver may be optimized significantly. Diversity decisions are usually

20
made by receiver. Unlike equalization, diversity requires no training overhead as a training

sequence. Note that if the distance between two receivers is a multiple of 𝜆/2, there

might occurred a destructive interference between the two signals, where λ is the wavelength
of the carrier. Hence receivers in diversity technique are used in such a way that the signal
received by one is independent of the other.

3.5.1 Spatial Diversity

Spatial diversity is a part of antenna diversity techniques in which multiple antennas are used to
improve the quality and reliability of a wireless link. Usually in densely populated areas, there is
no clear Line of Sight (LOS) between the transmitter and the receiver. As a result, multipath
fading effect occurs on the transmission path. In spatial diversity several receive and transmit
antennas are placed at a distance from each other. Thus if one antenna experiences a fade,
another one will have a LOS or a clear signal.

Spatial diversity used in this narrower sense often refers to transmit and receive diversity. These
two methodologies are used to provide improvements in the signal to noise ratio and they are
characterized by improving the reliability of the system with respect to the various forms of
fading. Different multipath and fading characteristics a reused by different antennas and a
stronger signal can be produced by this property. If the spacing of antennas is greater than half of
wavelength then channels which are spatially uncorrelated are formed. Copies of information
signal are transmitted over uncorrelated spatial channels and hence spatial diversity occurs.
Spatial diversity does not include the problems that occur with frequency diversity and time
diversity. But the one drawback of this diversity is that it includes use of multiple antennas at
transmitter and receiver and thus makes it not feasible every time. Space diversity techniques
employ multiple transmits and receives antennas. The antennas are separated far enough that the
signals have significantly different propagation paths and hence experience independent fading.

21
 Figure 10: Spatial diversity

The same signal is fed through a single antenna or multiple antennas, and the same signal is
captured by a single antenna or multiple antennas. In figure 10 several antennas are placed in a
distance from each other. There are various obstacles on the signal’s path. However, it can be
noticed in the figure that from transmitter TX2 there is a clear LOS to receiver RX2.

3.6. Water Filling Model

The efficiency of the system can be enhanced with proper water filing model. The capacity of a
MIMO system can further be increased by knowing the channel parameters both at the
transmitter and at the receiver side and assign extra power at the transmitter by allocating the
power according to the water filling algorithms to all the channels.

The method of water filling is like pouring the water in a bottle and each antenna of MIMO is
considered as a bottle. And the dark portion is considered as noise and the white portion is the
signal power.

22
 𝛿𝑛2� 𝛿𝑛2� 𝛿𝑛2�
𝜇� 𝜆1 𝜇� 𝜆2 𝜇� 𝜆3

Figure-11: Water filling model

Here, on Figure-11 𝜇 represents the power constraints. The total power of the bottle remains
constant. Here, λ is the Eigen value and 𝛿𝑛2 is the variance of the noise.

Power allocated by the individual channel is given by following equation

1
𝑃𝑇 � ∑𝑛𝑖=1 1
𝐻𝑖
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 � � �3.4�
∑ 𝐶�𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐻𝑖
Where PT is the power of the MIMO system which is distributed among the different channels
and H is the channel matrix of the systems. The Capacity of a MIMO system is algebraic sum of
the capacities of all channels and is given by the following equation

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 � � log1 (1 � 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝐻 ) �3.5�

𝑖=1

23
We have to maximize the total number of bits to be transported, the results shows that the
proposed water-filling power allocation scheme is. As per the scheme following steps are
followed to carry out the proposed water filling algorithm.

Algorithm Steps:-

1. We do not need to reorder the MIMO-OFDM sub channel gain realization in a descending
order.

2. Take the inverse of the channel gains.

3. Water filling has non uniform step structure due to the inverse of the channel gain.

4. Initially take the sum of the Total Power Pt and the Inverse of the channel gain. It gives the
complete area in the water filling and inverse power gain.

𝑛
1
𝑃𝑇 � � �3.6�
𝐻𝑖
𝑖=1
5. Decide the initial water level by the formula given below by taking the average power
allocated (average water Level)

1
𝑃𝑇 � ∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝐻𝑖
�3.7�
∑ 𝐶�𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
6. The power values of each sub channel are calculated by subtracting the inverse channel gain
of each channel.

1
𝑃𝑇 � ∑𝑛𝑖=1 1
𝐻𝑖
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 � � �3.8�
∑ 𝐶�𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐻𝑖
6. In case the Power allocated value becomes negative stop the iteration process.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR
4. Result and Discussion
4.1 Maximal-Ratio Combining
Signals from all of the m branches are weighted according to their individual signal voltage to
noise power ratios and then summed. Individual signals must be co phased before being
summed, which generally requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna
element. Produces output SNR equal to the sum of all individual SNR. Advantages of producing
output with an acceptable SNR none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable.
Modern DSP techniques and digital receivers are now making this optimal form, as it gives the
best statistical reduction of fading of any known linear diversity combiner. In terms of voltage
signal,
𝑚

𝑟𝑚= � 𝐺𝑖 𝑟𝑖 �4.1�
𝑖=1

Where,

Gi=is gain

ri = is the voltage signal from each branch.

rm=sum of signal.

25
 Figure 11: Maximal ratio combining technique

4.2 Signal -to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Here, the correlation matrix is,
𝑟𝑥 � 𝐸𝑋𝑋 𝐻 [ ] �4.2�
� σ2xInT
Where,
𝑟𝑥 =Coo relation matrix
E=Expected value
X=Transmit vector
H=Channel matrix
InT is the NT× NT identity matrix.
𝑟𝑛=𝐸𝑁𝑁𝐻[ ] �4.3�

� σ2n InR
At the receiving end the Signal-to-Noise Ratio is,
received signal power
SNR �
Noise power

4.3. Channel Capacity

The normalized channel capacity is expressed as,

26
 1
𝐶� 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 � 𝑆𝑁𝑅) �4.4�
2
If the receiver has the knowledge of the channel state then channel capacity can be represented
as,

�2 𝑝𝑇
𝐶 � 𝐸�log 2 � 1 � �� �4.5�
𝜎𝑛2
For MIMO,

det(𝑅𝑛 � 𝐻𝑅𝑥 𝐻𝐻 )
𝐶 � 𝐸�log 2 � �� �4.6�
det(𝑅𝑛 )
MIMO channel capacity represented as,
1
𝐶 � log 2 �𝑑𝑒𝑡 �𝐼𝑛 � 𝐻𝑅𝑆 𝐻�� bit/sec/Hz (4.7)
𝜎2

Shannon’s Channel Capacity Theorem

In 1948, Shannon showed that by proper encoding of the information, errors induced by a noise
channel can be reduced to any desired level without sacrificing the rate of information transfer.
Shannon’s channel capacity formula is applicable to the AWGN channel and is given by:

𝑆 𝑃 𝐸𝑏𝑅𝑏
𝐶 � 𝐵 log 2 �1 � � � 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 �1 � � � 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 �1 � � �4.7�
𝑁 𝑁0 𝐵 𝑁𝑜 𝐵
Where,

C= is the channel capacity (bit/s).

B= is the channel bandwidth (Hz).
P= is the received signal power (W).
N0= is the single sided noise power density (W/Hz).
𝐸𝑏 = is the average bit energy.
𝑅𝑏 =is transmission bit rate.
Equation (1) can be normalized by the bandwidth B and is given as,

27
 C EbRb
� Blog 2 �1 � � �4.8�
B No B
Where, C/B is denoted as bandwidth efficiency.
Introduction of redundant bits increases the transmission bit rate and hence it increases the
bandwidth requirement, which reduces the bandwidth efficiency of the link in high SNR
conditions, but provides excellent BER performance at low SNR values. This leads to the
following two inferences.

 While dealing within maximum channel capacity, introduction of redundant bits increase
the transmitter rate and hence bandwidth requirement also increases, while decreasing the
bandwidth efficiency, but it also decreases the BER.
 If data redundancy is not introduced in a wideband noisy environment, errors free
performance in not possible (for example, CDMA communication in 3G mobile phones).

28
4.4. Without considering MIMO
4.4.1 Rayleigh fading with different received signal
We can plot the Rayleigh probability density function (pdf) in “MATLAB” by varying the
received voltage signal ơ. With increasing the received voltage signal ơ the pdf decreases as
fading takes place.

Figure 12: Rayleigh Plot

29
4.4.2. Rician fading with different received signal
In Rician fading pdf plot we can also plot the pdf by varying the received voltage signal ơ. And

also can see difference in the signals with the variation of received voltage signal ơ. With
increasing the received voltage signal ơ the probability density function (pdf)a decrease thus
fading occurs.

Figure 13: Rician plot with different received signal

30
4.5. Capacity allocation using MIMO
In the blow figure, a 4×4 MMO system is considered with 4 transmit and receive antennas. In the
1stcurve (blue) we can see the capacity of the received signal of receiver antenna 𝑁𝑅1 which was
transmitted from transmit antenna𝑁𝑇1. In the 2nd curve (red) we can see the capacity of the
received signal of receiver antenna 𝑁𝑅2 which was transmitted from transmit antenna𝑁𝑇2. In
the 4th curve we can see the capacity of the received signal of receiver antenna 𝑁𝑅4 which was
transmitted from transmit antenna𝑁𝑇4. But in the 3rd curve (green and black) we can see that if
we send the same information using the transmit antennas 𝑁𝑇3 and 𝑁𝑇2 respectively and
received by the received antennas 𝑁𝑅2 and 𝑁𝑅3 respectively we can see there is absolutely no
change in the capacity of the signal in the curve with respect to SNR.

Figure 14: MIMO system

31
4.6. Water filling Model
Also in figure we can see the Probability Density Function (PDF) for the same transmit and
receive antennas. And as we can see from the figure the probability density function for transmit
antennas 𝑁𝑇3 and 𝑁𝑇2 respectively and received by the received antennas 𝑁𝑅2 and 𝑁𝑅3 are
almost the same. Hence almost the same signal is received by the receive antennas. We can also
see there is inter symbol interference between the signals and it will increase further with
increase with the increasing number of transmit and receive antennas.

Figure 15: Waterfilling Model

32
4.7. Conclusion
In this project, we have tried to provide s om e ide a of SISO, SIMO, MISO, MIMO using
single to multiple antennas on the Performance, capacity and BER analysis of wireless
communication by using MATLAB (2014a) codes. The performance analysis of MIMO
system is studied using the water filling model. Here we considered a 4×4 MIMO system
which provide increased capacity and gives almost the same capacity like an antenna in line
of sight (LOS). The capacity can be further increased by using more number of transmit and
receive antennas. Capacity increases linearly with signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at low SNR,
but increases logarithmically with SNR at high SNR. Also it should be considered that if the
number of transmit and receive antennas are increased then the inter symbol interference
(ISI) will also increase. MIMO systems enable high spectral efficiency at much lower
required energy per information bit.

33
 CHAPTER FIVE

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1. Conclusion
This project has examined basics of fading in wireless communication system. The effective
ways of mitigating the effect of fading using diversity receiver were discussed. Also from the
result of this study, it is obvious that the implementation of these techniques will indeed enhance
effective fading and inters symbol interference reduction in wireless communication systems.

Rayleigh distributions is commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelop of a flat fading signal or the envelope of an individual multipath component.
Where is a dominant stationary signal component present, such as line-of sight propagation path
the small scale fading envelope distribution is Rician. We conclude that MIMO communications
channels provide an interesting solution to the multipath challenge by requiring multiple signal
paths. In effect, MIMO systems use a combination of multiple antennas and multiple signal
paths to gain knowledge of the communications channel. We send the same information using
the transmit antennas 𝑁𝑇3 and 𝑁𝑇2 respectively and received by the received antennas 𝑁𝑅2 and
𝑁𝑅3 respectively we can see there is almost the same the capacity of the signal in the curve with
respect to SNR.
Generally, fading is the time variation of received signal power due change in transmission
medium or path. Its depends on atmospheric conditions such as rainfall, lightening and the main
cause of fading and may be due to reflection of satellite signals (radio waves) from objects.

5.2. Future Work

Future wireless communication with MIMO systems will give better results by using of
antennae arrays, equalizer, diversity technique and OFDM technique on both sides of the
communication link.

34
Reference
[1]. G. J. Foschini and M. J. Gans. On limits of wireless communications in a fading
environment when using multiple antennas. Wireless Personal Communications, 6(3):311–335,
Mar. 1998.

[2]. T. S. Rapp port, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. Singapore:
Pearson Education, Inc., 2002.

[3] S.Diggavi, N. Al-Dhahir, A. Stamoulis, and A. Calderbank.Great expectations: The value of

spatial diversity in wireless networks. Proc. of the IEEE, 92(2):219{270, 2004.[15] T. B.
Sorensen. Correlation model for shadow fading in a small urban macro cell. In Proc. Personal,
Indoor andMobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), 1998.
[4]. J.J. Popoola, Simulation of Hata’s Equation for Signal Fading Mitigation. The Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology available via
[5]. M. Karim, M. Sarraf, Textbook on W-CDMA and CDMA 2000 for 3G Mobile Networks,
Mc Graw - Hill, 2002.
[6].On the performance analysis of cooperative space time coded system. Erkip., Andrej
Stefanov and Elza. s.l.: IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking, 2003.
[7].The performance analysis of cooperative space time coded systems. L.chu, J.Yuan.s.l. :
Vehicular Technology Conference, IEEE65th, 2007.
[8]. I. E. Telatar. Capacity of multi-antenna Gaussian channels.European Trans. On Telecomm.,
10(6):585–596, Nov.–Dec. 1999.
[9] W. C. Jakes, 3rd ed., Microwave Mobile Communications, New York: Wiley, 1974.

35
Appendices
1 Raleigh fading pdf plot MATLAB code

sig=1; %RMS value of received voltage signal

r = 0:0.01:10; %the range of value of 'r'
pdf=(r/sig.^2) .* exp(-r.^2/2*(sig.^2)); % the Rayleigh PDF
figure;
plot(r,pdf,'b') %Plotting the Rayleigh PDF
title('Rayleigh PDF Plot');
grid on;
xlabel('r');
ylabel('pdf');

2 Rician fading pdf plot MATLAB code:

r=0:0.01:10;
v=5;
I0=0.55;
sig = 2; %the range of value of 'r'
pdf=(r./sig.^2) .* exp(-r.^2+v.^2./2*(sig.^2)).*I0.*(r.*v./(sig.^2)); % the rician PDF
figure;
plot(r,pdf,'b') %Plotting the rician PDF
title('Rician PDF Plot');
xlabel('r');
ylabel('pdf');
grid on;

36
3 Rayleigh fading with different received signal plot MATLAB code:
sig1=1; %RMS value of received voltage signal
sig2=2;
sig3=3;
r = 0:0.01:10; %the range of value of 'r'
pdf1=(r/sig1.^2) .* exp(-r.^2/2*(sig1.^2));
pdf2=(r/sig2.^2) .* exp(-r.^2/2*(sig2.^2));
pdf3=(r/sig3.^2) .* exp(-r.^2/2*(sig3.^2));
plot(r,pdf1,'b',r,pdf2,'r',r,pdf3,'g');
title('Rayleigh pdf plot with Different received signal');
legend('received voltage signal \sigma=1','received voltage signal \sigma=2','received voltage
signal \sigma=3');
xlabel('Distributional Range ');
ylabel('pdf');
grid on;

4 Rician fading with different received signal plot MATLAB code:

r=0:0.01:10;
v=1;
I0=0.55;
sig1=1; %the range of value of 'r'
sig2=2;
sig3=3;
pdf1=(r./sig1.^2) .* exp(-r.^2+v.^2./2*(sig1.^2)).*I0.*(r.*v./(sig1.^2));
pdf2=(r./sig2.^2) .* exp(-r.^2+v.^2./2*(sig2.^2)).*I0.*(r.*v./(sig2.^2));

37
pdf3=(r./sig3.^2) .* exp(-r.^2+v.^2./2*(sig3.^2)).*I0.*(r.*v./(sig3.^2));
title('Rayleigh pdf plot with Different received signal');
plot(r,pdf1,'b',r,pdf2,'r',r,pdf3,'g');
legend('received voltage signal \sigma=1','received voltage signal \sigma=2')
'received voltage signal \sigma=3';
xlabel('Distributional Range');
ylabel('pdf');
title('Rician pdf plot with Different received signal');
grid on;

5 Waterfilling algorithm MATLAB code:

function [Capacity PowerAllo] = WaterFilling_alg(PtotA,ChA,B,N0);

%
% WaterFilling in Optimising the Capacity
%===============
% Initialization
%===============
ChA = ChA + eps;
NA = length(ChA); % the number of subchannels allocated to
H = ChA.^2/(B*N0); % the parameter relate to SNR in subchannels
% assign the power to subchannel
PowerAllo = (PtotA + sum(1./H))/NA - 1./H;
while(length(find(PowerAllo< 0 ))>0)
IndexN = find(PowerAllo<= 0 );

38
IndexP = find(PowerAllo> 0);
MP = length(IndexP);
PowerAllo(IndexN) = 0;
ChAT = ChA(IndexP);
HT = ChAT.^2/(B*N0);
PowerAlloT = (PtotA + sum(1./HT))/MP - 1./HT;
PowerAllo(IndexP) = PowerAlloT;
end
PowerAllo = PowerAllo.';
Capacity = sum(log2(1+ PowerAllo.' .* H));
title(‘MIMO Model’)

6 MIMO system MATLAB code:

% in this programe a highly scattered enviroment is considered. The
% Capacity of a MIMO channel with nt transmit antenna and nrrecieve
% antenna is analyzed. The power in parallel channel (after
% decomposition) is distributed as water-filling algorithm
% the pdf of the matrix lanada elements is depicted too.
clear all
close all
clc
nt_V = [1 2 3 2 4];
nr_V = [1 2 2 3 4];
N0 = 1e-4;
B = 1;
Iteration = 1e4; % must be grater than 1e2
SNR_V_db = [-10:3:20];
SNR_V = 10.^(SNR_V_db/10);

39
color = ['b';'r';'g';'k';'c'];
notation = ['-o';'->';'<-';'-^';'-s'];
for(k = 1 : 5)
nt = nt_V(k);
nr = nr_V(k);
for(i = 1 : length(SNR_V))
Pt = N0 * SNR_V(i);
for(j = 1 : Iteration)
H = random('rayleigh',1,nr,nt);
[S V D] = svd(H);
landas(:,j) = diag(V);
[Capacity(i,j) PowerAllo] = WaterFilling_alg(Pt,landas(:,j),B,N0);
end
end
f1 = figure(1);
hold on
plot(SNR_V_db,mean(Capacity'),notation(k,:),'color',color(k,:))
f2 = figure(2);
hold on
[y,x] = hist(reshape(landas,[1,min(nt,nr)*Iteration]),100);
plot(x,y/Iteration,'color',color(k,:));
clearlandas
end
f1 = figure(1)
legend_str = [];
for(i = 1 : length(nt_V))
legend_str=[legend_str ;...
{['nt = ',num2str(nt_V(i)),' , nr = ',num2str(nr_V(i))]}];

40
end
legend(legend_str)
grid on
set(f1,'color',[1 1 1])
xlabel('SNR in dB')
ylabel('Capacity bits/s/Hz')
f2 = figure(2)
legend(legend_str)
grid on
set(f2,'color',[1 1 1])
ylabel('pdf of elements in matrix lamda in svd decomposition of marix H')
xlabel('Distributional Range')
(‘waterfilling title Model’)

41