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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled performance analysis of channel state information
and spectral efficiency optimization on massive MIMO is submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirement for the award of the degree in BSc Degree in Electrical and Computer
Engineering (Communication Engineering), Ambo University, is a record of our own work
carried out by us during the academic year 2022 under the supervision and guidance of Mr.
Tessema K., Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Institute of Technology.
The extent and source of information are derived from the existing literature and have been
indicated through the project at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this work is
original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree, either in this or any
other University.
No. NAME OF CANDIDATES ID No Signature
1. Tariku Desta BRT/1013/10 _____________
2. Tariku Taye BRT/1014/10 _____________
3. Wasihun Ersido BRT/1065/10 _____________
4. Taha Awel BRT/1005/10 _____________
5. Gezehegn Terefe BRT/0635/10 _____________

Place: __________
Date:___________

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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that final Project Report entitled “performance analysis of state channel state
information and spectral efficiency optimization on massive MIMO” that is submitted by this
group members in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the fulfilment of final
project/Thesis in the degree BSC in Electrical and computer engineering (Communication
Engineering) of Ambo University, is a record of the candidate own work carried out by him
under my own supervision. The matter embodies in final project is original and has not been
submitted for the award of any other degree.

_____________________ _____________

Advisor Sign.

_______________________ _______________

Department Head Sign.

Place: _________
Date: _________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We grateful to the god, without his blessing and mercy; this final/thesis project would not
have been possible. Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to my advisor
“Mr Tessema K”, for the continuous support of our „final project Study‟, for his patience,
motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. He gives us general over view related to
our project and supporting us in the simulation part and also His guidance helped us in all the
time of research and writing of this project. Lastly, we offer our regards to the faculty and all
of those who supported us in any respect during the completion of the project.

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ABSTRACT
Massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) refers to the use of a huge number of
antennas at the base station to transmit and receive signals that fully utilize spatial resources,
improving wireless network spectral efficiency. There are many radio frequency chain
components corresponding to each antenna which results in higher power consumption in
massive MIMO system. Massive multiuser multiple-input multiple-output (MU-MIMO)
systems are being considered for the next generation wireless networks in view of their
ability to increase both the spectral and energy efficiencies. For such systems, linear detectors
such as zero-forcing (ZF) and maximum-ratio combining (MRC) detectors on the uplink
(UL) transmission have been shown to provide near optimal performance. As well, linear
precoders such as ZF and maximum-ratio transmission (MRT) precoders on the downlink
(DL) transmission offer lower complexity along with a near optimal performance in these
systems.
One of the most challenging problems in massive MU-MIMO systems is obtaining the
channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter as well as the receiver. In such systems, the
base station (BS) obtains CSI using pilot sequences, which are transmitted by the users. Due
to the channel reciprocity between the UL and DL channels in the time-division duplex
(TDD) mode, BS employs CSI obtained to pre-code the data symbols in DL transmission. To
accurately decode the received symbols in the DL transmission, the users also need to acquire
CSI. To this end, new SE expressions are derived to enable efficient system-level analysis
with power control, arbitrary pilot reuse, and random user locations. The value of K⋆ in the
large-M regime is derived in closed form, while simulations are used to show what happens
at finite M, in different interference scenarios, with different pilot reuse factors, and for
different processing schemes. Up to half the coherence block should be dedicated to pilots
and the optimal M/K is less than 10 in many cases of practical relevance. Interestingly, K⋆
depends strongly on the processing scheme and hence it is unfair to compare different
schemes using the same K.
Key word: MU-MIMO, Pre-coding, Multi-user interference, Maximum ratio transmission.

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Table of Contents
Contents Page No

DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... I
CERTIFICATION .................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... III
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................IV
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... V
List of figures ......................................................................................................................... VII
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ VIII
List of Acronyms .....................................................................................................................IX
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
1. BACKGROUND HISTORY OF MIMO............................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of Problem ....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objective .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 General Objective ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific Objective...................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of Project ............................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Significance of the Project ............................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 5
2. Literature Review................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Different Types of MIMO System ................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Single-In Single-Out System ..................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Single-In Multiple-Out…...…………………………………………………………7
2.1.3 Multiple-In Single-Out System……………………………………………………..8
2.1.4 Multiple-In-Multiple-Out .......................................................................................... 8
2.2 Characteristics of Massive MIMO ................................................................................... 9
2.2.1Time Division Duplex (TDD) .................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) ......................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Linear Processing .................................................................................................... 11
2.2.4 Favourable Propagation ........................................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Antenna Array ......................................................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Scalable .................................................................................................................... 12

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2.3 Massive MIMO Advantages .......................................................................................... 12

2.4. Challenges in Massive MIMO ...................................................................................... 13
2.5 Features of Massive MIMO
2.6 Architectural Model of Massive MIMO Antenna Array ............................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 16
3. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 16
3.1 How Does Massive MIMO Operate............................................................................... 17
3.2 Channel Estimation ........................................................................................................ 18
3.3 UL Data Transmission ................................................................................................... 20
3.3.1 UL Channel Capacity .............................................................................................. 21
3.4 DL Data Transmission ................................................................................................... 22
3.5 Asymptotic analysis ....................................................................................................... 23
3.6 Massive MIMO and Its Parameters ................................................................................ 23
3.6.1 Spectrum Efficiency ................................................................................................ 24
3.6.2 Channel State Information ....................................................................................... 24
3.6.3 Frequency Reuse...................................................................................................... 24
3.7 Beam Forming / Precoding Techniques ......................................................................... 25
3.7.1 Linear Precoding Schemes ...................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 30
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 30
4.1 Spectral Efficiency and Receive Combining ..................................................................... 30
4.2 Spectral Efficiency and Transmit Precoding .................................................................. 32
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................... 34
5.1. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 34
5.2. Recommendation and Future Work .............................................................................. 34
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………36
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................................. 37

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List of figures
Figure No. Name of the Figure Page No.
Figure2. 1:- SISO System .......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.2:- SIMO system.......................................................................................................... 8
Figure2. 3:- MISO system.......................................................................................................... 8
Figure2. 4:- MIMO system ........................................................................................................ 8
Figure2. 5:- the regions of possible (M, K) in TDD and FDD systems ................................... 11
Figure2. 6:- linear processing of Massive MIMO ................................................................... 11
Figure2.7:- Designs of the Antenna Element and the Antenna Array ..................................... 15
Figure3.1:- Flow chart for spectral efficiency simulation ....................................................... 17
Figure3.2:- TDD Protocol of massive MIMO Transmission ................................................... 19
Figure3.3:The transmission is divided into frames of S=Tc Wc symbols,transmission…….19
Figure 3.4 Uplink data transmission ........................................................................................ 20
Figure 3.5 down link data Transmission .................................................................................. 23
Figure4.1Simulation of optimized SE asfunction of M,with averageinter-cell interference.30
Figure4.2Simulation of optimized SE as function ofM,withbestcaseinter-cell interference.31
Figure 4.3 SimulationofoptimizedSE as function of M,with worst-case inter-cell interferen. 32
Figure4.4 optimized per cell SE with or without hard ware impairment................................ 33

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List of Tables
Table No. Name of Table Page No.
Table3.1:-Input Parameters for ZF that are used in the simulation ......................................... 26
Table3.2:-Input and Output Parameters of MMSE .................................................................. 28
Table4.1:- Average sum SE [bit/s/Hz/cell] .............................................................................. 31
Table4.2:-Average UL sum SE [bit/s/Hz/cell]......................................................................... 33

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List of Acronyms
AOA Angle of Arrival
BS Base Station
CSI Channel State Information
DL Downlink
EE Energy Efficiency
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
GB Gigabyte
IID Independent and Identically Distributed
LMMSE Linear Minimum Mean Square Error
LTE Long Term Evolution
MIMO Multiple Input multiple output
MU-MIMO Multi-User MIMO
MSE Mean Square Error
SCM Spatial Channel Model
SINR Signal-to-Interference-Plus-Noise Ratio
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SU-MIMO Single-User MIMO
TDD Time Division Duplex
UE User Equipment
UL upper link
P-ZF new full pilot zero-forcing
ZF zero-forcing
MR maximum-ratio transmission

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CHAPTER ONE
1. BACKGROUND HISTORY OF MIMO
1.1 INTRODUCTION
There is a remarkable history behind the phrase “Multiple Input Multiple Output”. Even
though it is used to refer to one of the communication techniques, it was used in the 1950s in
filters theory and electric circuit. The term MIMO was used to indicate circuits with multiple
input and multiple output ports in its original context. During the 90s, however, this term has
been adopted by communication systems researchers and information theorists to denote a
novel signal processing technique that was developed for wireless systems with multiple
antennas. The reference point in this different use of the term was the communication
channel.
The term multiple input was used to denote the signals that were entering the communication
channel from the multiple antennas. Also, the word multiple output implied signals received
at the multiple antennas of the receiver, which were regarded as the output of the
communication channel. It was in the paper published in 1999 by Gerry faschini and Peter
Driessen where the term MIMO used in wireless communications as part of analysing the
theoretical communication capacity of a wireless system with multiple transmit and receive
antennas Although multiple antennas are required in MIMO communications, it is not the
first technique that utilizes multiple antennas to be developed.
In fact, using multiple antenna technology to enhance the performance of radars and other
aspects of communications dates back to the early 1900s. During 1905 Karl Braun showed
the first application of multiple antennas which uses phased array antennas to enable rapidly
steerable radar, and later, in AM radio broadcasting to switch between sky-wave and ground-
wave propagations. Fading has been combated in wireless communications using the multi
antennas technology for more than 70 years through the receive diversity. The idea of receive
diversity showed up in 1931 in a paper published by H. Peterson and H. Beverage. The
receive diversity was used in military applications such as the troops scatter during the 1950s
Because of the ever-increasing number of users with multimedia communications, demand
for wireless services is rising extensively. The design of high data rate and reliable wireless
communication systems is also difficult due to the effects of multipath fading, restricted
transmitter capacity, and scarce spectrum. To conquer the obstacle, Multiple Input Multiple
Output (MIMO) technology is employed, which utilizes multiple antennas for transmission

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and reception. MIMO is a physical layer technology that allows more data to be delivered
within the same amount of time and with the same available bandwidth. Signal mixing will
occur at receivers if many streams are transmitted across wireless channels at the same time.
As a result, additional signal processing, either at the receiver or at the transmitter, or both, is
required to separate the data stream, which is referred to as MIMO processing.
In Multiuser MIMO systems a base station with multiple antennas can employ scheduling
techniques to simultaneously serve several spatially separated user equipment‟s over the
same time-frequency resource. These systems offer multiple access and broadcast capabilities
where, each user‟s equipment in an MU-MIMO system can use a single antenna yet
achieving equivalent performance gain to point-to-point MIMO systems.
In fact, the physical size and cost constraints of UEs limit the performance of point-to-point
MIMO systems, as UEs are often low-cost handheld devices that are unable to support
multiple antennas. Massive MIMO systems are one of very essential technology for fifth
generation mobile networks since they can improve energy efficiency and spectral efficiency
of cellular network. In these systems, hundreds or even thousands of antennas employed at
base. The more the BS antennas used, the more the data streams can be released to serve
more terminals, reducing the radiated power, while boosting the data rate. This will also
improve link reliability through spatial diversity and, provide more degrees of freedom in the
spatial domain, and improve the performance irrespective of the noisiness of the
measurements. In addition, because massive MIMO systems have a broad range of states of
freedom, and greater selectivity in transmitting and receiving the data streams, interference
cancellation is enhanced.
BSs can relatively easily avert transmission into undesired directions to alleviate harmful
interference which, leads to low latency as well. In addition, massive MIMO makes a proper
use of beam forming techniques to reduce fading drops; this further boosts signal-to noise-
ratio (SNR), bit rate and reduces latency. Massive MIMO is a newest form of the MIMO
technology that has yet to be employed in the next generation of wireless systems due to its
many advantages that will enhance the wireless Communications. The name of this
technology refers to the concept of equipping the BS with a very large number of antennas. It
is going to be an important solution to handle the exponential growth in data traffic.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Wireless communication is a form of unguided media which involves no physical link
established between two or more device, communicate wirelessly and signal are spread over

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in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antenna. Fading effect is reducing
the quality of wireless Communication. It may vary with time, geographical position or radio
frequency, and is often modelled as a random process. Due to multipath propagation,
spectrum is not efficient and data rate is very slow. In addition to fading higher radiated
power, latency, lesser signal to noise ratio and small value of through put are considered as
barriers for quality of service.
Capacity and energy efficiency are one of the most important performance metrics of any
wireless system. This dissertation investigates the performance of massive MIMO using these
two metrics. The SE performance is also compared under different linear precoding
techniques zero forcing (ZF) and maximum ratio combing (MRC). A massive MIMO with
hundreds of BS antennas can optimize the performance of the spectral efficiency easily.

1.3 Objective
1.3.1 General Objective
The main objective of this project is performance analysis of channel state information and
spectral efficiency optimization on massive MIMO.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

 To analysis the Performance of different Precoding Techniques.
 Average DL sum SE as a function of the number of BS antennas for different
precoding schemes.

1.4 Scope of Project

Massive MIMO is one of the technologies to facilitate the communication system. We are
going to show how this technology can improve the efficiency and the overall
communication analytically. Our project mainly consider on the uplink spectral efficiency
optimization and down link spectral efficiency optimization by showing different techniques
those are zero forcing, Maximum ratio combing and Minimum mean square error. The other
one out of our scope is not our consideration we went to show only what we say on the
above.

1.5 Significance of the Project

The 5th generation of wireless communication systems (5G) promises much higher capacity
and speeds under limited spectrum and tight power compared to the current systems. Massive
MIMO can be considered as a gold mine of research problems. The huge advantageous that
massive MIMO is bringing to the next generation of wireless communication such as the

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ability to accommodate high number of users with very high data rates and reliability with
very low power consumption, a lot of aspects must be addressed before it can be practically
used.
To optimize spectral efficiency in massive MIMO systems, pre-coding is used at the
transmitter in order to reduce the complexity of system, noise effect and optimize stream data
transmission based on channel state information (CSI). Precoding provides two fundamental
advantages, including reduce interference and performing beam forming to the desired users.
In general, there are two types of precoding, non-linear precoding schemes and linear pre-
coding schemes.
Non-linear precoding can achieve both of these two functions, while the linear one can only
reduce inter-users interference. The simulation capabilities of MATLAB are exploited to
inspect the effect of the imperfect channel knowledge and user allocation on UL channel
estimation, capacity and EE using the mathematical model of massive MIMO.

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CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review
In [1]as technologies are becoming more advanced, it can be taken for granted that more
wireless throughput is always going to be needed. It is expected that, within few years,
millions of users will want to use mobile multimedia applications such as online gaming, e-
healthcare, streaming videos and communicating through holographic videos. Thus, hundreds
of megabits per second will be essential for every user.
In [2]Availability of spectrum which will never increase, fundamentals of information theory
and the electromagnetic laws of propagation are all aspects that impact the amount of
information that can be transferred wirelessly. Hence, the performance of wireless networks
is always limited at the physical layer.
In [3]Improving the efficiency of a wireless networks is typically done by first utilizing the
free or underutilized areas of the spectrum and increasing the density of access points then
improving the spectral efficiency by increasing the number of bits that can be carried in each
Hertz . Millimetre wave and small cells are used to handle the first two respectively. It is
likely that the tradition of using new bands and deploying more access points will continue in
the future, but the necessity to maximize the spectral efficiency is inevitable.
In [3]a thesis titled as “Spectral Efficiency and Energy Efficiency in Massive MIMO
Systems” by Diwei Sun analyses the relationship between signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
capacity and discuss energy depend on single cell massive MIMO system but his work does
not consider multi-cells massive MIMO system. Based on his thesis, if we do not consider
system complexity, MMSE has the best performance in terms of spectral efficiency and
energy efficiency (perfect CSI is assumed). Compared to ZF, MRC performs better in low
power regime (with SNR ranging from 0 dB to 15 dB).
In [4]On the contrary, the performance of ZF in high power regime (with SNR larger 10 dB)
is better and even approaches to that of MMSE. Moreover, the simulation results demonstrate
that massive MIMO systems cannot enhance spectral efficiency and energy efficiency
infinitely due to the existence of interference among users.
In [4]to optimize system performance and maximize economic benefit, it is significant to find
out the optimal power allocation. Distances between users and BS are not being taken into
account in the thesis. This will be considered in our work for more accurate simulation
results.

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In [5]a thesis titled as “Massive MIMO: Fundamentals and System Designs” by Hien Quoc
Ngo focuses on fundamental limits of the system performance under practical constraints
such as low complexity processing, limited length of each coherence interval, inter-cell
interference, and finite- dimensional channels. He studied the potential for power savings of
the Massive MIMO uplink with maximum ratio combining (MRC), zero-forcing (ZF), and
minimum mean square error (MMSE) receivers, under perfect and imperfect channels.
In [3]the energy and spectral efficiency trade-off is investigated. Secondly, he considers a
physical channel model where the angular domain is divided into a finite number of distinct
directions. A lower bound on the capacity is derived, and the effect of pilot contamination in
this finite dimensional channel model is analysed. Finally, some aspects of favourable
propagation in Massive MIMO under Rayleigh fading and line of sight (LoS) channels are
investigated.
In [6]this shows that both Rayleigh fading and LOS environments offer favourable
propagation. The thesis proposes some system designs for Massive MIMO. The acquisition
of channel state information (CSI) is very important in Massive MIMO. Typically, the
channels are estimated at the BS through uplink training. Owing to the limited length of the
coherence interval, the system performance is limited by pilot contamination.
In [3]a paper titled as “Massive MIMO Wireless Networks: An Overview” by Noha Hassan
and Xavier Fernando discussed major elements of massive MIMO networks, namely pilot
usage, precoding, encoding, detection, and beam forming. They observe that fast booming
massive MIMO would be more promising to improve data rates and provide flexibility in
user-BS association. But there are many interconnected design issues that need to be properly
understood and solved before widespread deployment of the massive MIMO technology.
Several open research challenges are still facing the progress and development of this
emerging technology.
In [3]more research is needed to introduce new adaptive beam forming techniques to achieve
higher received symbol power and less interference. As detection becomes harder when the
number of BS antennas increases, more advanced signal processing methods are required for
better detection and are associated with introducing low complexity optimum and nonlinear
detectors, and precoders to improve the performance and reduce the computational
complexity. [3]
In [3]a lower bound on the capacity is derived, and the effect of pilot contamination in this
finite dimensional channel model is analysed. Finally, some aspects of favourable

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propagation in Massive MIMO under Rayleigh fading and line of sight (LOS) channels are
investigated.
In [6]as detection becomes harder when the number of BS antennas increases, more advanced
signal processing methods are required for better detection and are associated with
introducing low complexity optimum and nonlinear detectors, and pre-coders to improve the
performance and reduce the computational complexity.
In [7]The SE performance is also compared under different linear precoding techniques zero
forcing (ZF) and maximum ratio combing (MRC). A massive MIMO with hundreds of BS
antennas can optimize the performance of the spectral efficiency easily.
In [5]our paper we analyse the different techniques to optimize the spectral efficiency (SE) of
a massive MIMO in Time Division Duplex (TDD) architecture. The SE performance is also
compared under different linear precoding techniques zero forcing (ZF) and maximum ratio
combing (MRC). A massive MIMO with hundreds of BS antennas can optimize the
performance of the spectral efficiency easily.

2.1 Different Types of MIMO System

These types of MIMO systems models are:-
 Multiple-input multiple-output systems
 Single-input single-output (SISO) systems
 Single-input multiple-output (SIMO) systems
 Multiple- input single-output (MISO) systems

2.1.1 Single-In Single-Out System

The SISO system model is shown in the figure below. The signal transmitted from the Tx
antenna. The signal received at the Rx antenna passes through the channel with impulse
response in an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) environment.

Figure2. 1:- SISO System

2.1.2 Single-In Multiple-Out
A single-input multiple-output (SIMO) system with one transmit antenna and multiple
receive antennas is illustrated in the figure below.

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Figure 2.2:- SIMO system

2.1.3 Multiple-In Single-Out System

A multiple-input single-output (MISO) system with multiple transmit antennas and one
receive antenna is illustrated in figure below

Figure2. 3:- MISO system

2.1.4 Multiple-In-Multiple-Out
In System A multiple-in multiple-out (MIMO) system with multiple transmit antennas and
multiple receive antennas is illustrated in figure below. For a faded channel, it is assumed that
channel responses from each transmit antenna to each receive antenna are independent.

Figure2. 4:- MIMO system

MIMO radio systems develop multiple antennas in order to send and receive multiple data
streams at once. The number of antennas required is defined by the radio manufacturer based
on what they determine will work for optimal transmission and reception with their particular
hardware and software. There are three main differences that distinguish between massive
MIMO and multiuser MIMO. First, knowledge of the channel is only required at the BS.
Second, the number of antennas M at the BS is usually much larger than the number of users
K. Third, both the DL and the UL use simple linear signal processing. Therefore, scaling up

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this technology can be easily done when it comes to the number of antennas at the BS. As the
number of transmitter antenna increases, spectral efficiency also increases dynamically.
Based on the simulation results and their implication it can be make comparison between
traditional MIMO and massive MIMO. Compared to traditional MIMO, the advantages of
massive MIMO include:- Enhancement of SE Massive amount of degrees of freedom in
spatial domain Good system performance with only linear (simple) precoding scheme, e.g.
Zero forcing, Maximum Ratio Transmission, Minimum Mean Square Error Facilitate
resource allocation. The total time spent for training, however, increases linearly. Massive
MIMO avoid this problem by taking measures to ensure that operations do not approach
Shannon limit, however achieving a performance that overtake any typical multiuser MIMO
system. In massive MIMO, hundreds of terminals can be simultaneously served with a BS
equipped with hundreds of antennas over the same time/frequency resources. Some key
enabling characteristics for this technology are:

2.2 Characteristics of Massive MIMO

Characteristics of massive MIMO are the following: -
 Time Division Duplex
 Frequency Division Duplex
 Linear Processing
 Favourable Propagation
 Antenna Array
 Scalable

2.2.1Time Division Duplex (TDD)

On the contrary of the frequency division duplex (FDD), the overhead required to estimate
the channel does not depend on the number of BS antennas M under time division duplex
(TDD) protocol. Hence, it is preferred to use TDD protocol in massive MIMO. Exploiting the
channel reciprocity can considerably reduce the overhead required for CSI acquisition. The
advantage of TDD over FDD. It shows that the possible (M, K) dimensions in TDD is much
more than FDD. For example, when the coherence interval T is 200 symbols, the constraint
for the number of users and BS antennas is M+K < 200 in FDD system, while the constraint
for TDD systems is 2k<200 .
In TDD systems, multi-user precoding in the downlink and detection in the uplink require
CSI knowledge at the BS. The resource, time or frequency needed for channel estimation is
proportional to the number of the transmit antennas. TDM separates uplink and downlink

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signals by matching full duplex communication over a half-duplex communication link. This
method is highly advantageous in case there is an asymmetry of uplink and downlink data
rates
TDD systems have the following features: -
The time required to acquire CSI does not depend on the number of BSs or users. Only the
BS needs to know the information about the channels to process antennas coherently.

2.2.2 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

Uplink and downlink use different frequency bands (CSI in both links) in FDDThe uplink
channel estimation at the BS is done by letting all users send different pilot sequences. To get
the CSI for the downlink channel, the BS transmits pilot symbols to all users. The users
respond by the estimated CSI for the downlink channels. CSI can be estimated at the receiver
side only, or at both at the transmitter and the receiver. Estimation at both sides has some
advantages.
As the number of BS antennas goes up, the time required to transmit the downlink pilot
symbols increases. In addition, as the number of BS antennas grows, FDD channel estimation
becomes almost impossible and a TDD approach can resolve this issue. In TDD systems, due
to channel reciprocity, only CSI for the uplink needs to be estimated. In addition, linear
MMSE based channel estimation can provide near-optimal performance with low
complexity.

Figure2. 5:- the regions of possible (M, K) in TDD and FDD systems

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The figure above shows the regions of feasible (M, K) in FDD and TDD systems. We can see
that the FDD region is much smaller than the TDD region. With TDD, adding more antennas
does not affect the resources needed for the channel estimation.

Figure2. 6:- linear processing of Massive MIMO

2.2.3 Linear Processing

Signal processing at the user terminal ends must handle large dimensional channel matrices
due to the large number of BS antennas and users. As a result, it is preferable to use simple
signal processing. Linear processing which is linear precoding scheme for downlink and
linear combing schemes for uplink are almost optimal in Massive MIMO.

2.2.4 Favourable Propagation

In massive MIMO, Base Station is suited with an excessively large number of antennas
relative to the number of User terminals. Deploying a huge number of antennas at the Base
Station results in favourable propagation, where the wireless channels become nearly
deterministic because the BS-UE channel vectors become near-orthogonal to each other. This
is due to the fact that when the number of antennas at the BS is increased unboundedly the
effects of small-scale fading tend to disappear asymptotically.

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2.2.5 Antenna Array

Antenna arrays of Massive MIMO Base Station do not have to be physically big in order to
limit them from occupying large space.

2.2.6 Scalable
Since the BS acquires the channel through UL pilot when operating in TDD protocol, the
time spent on channel estimation does not depend on the number of Base Station antennas.
Thus, the number of Base Station antennas can be increased without adding more time to the
estimation process. Furthermore, because multiplexing and demultiplexing are not needed at
the user ends, signal processing on each terminal is independent of the other users.

2.3 Massive MIMO Advantages

Massive MIMO have many advantages compared to the conventional MIMO system.
Some of them are listed below.
I. High spectral efficiency and communication reliability
Massive MIMO takeover all gains from multiuser MIMO. Having M number of antenna on
the Base station and K users with single antenna, a diversity of order M and multiplexing
gain can be achieved. Very high spectral efficiency and communication reliability can be
obtained by increasing both the number of antenna and number of users.
II. High energy efficiency
Base station focuses the energy on directions where user terminals found in the downlink.
Therefore, huge antenna arrays will minimize the emitted power by an order of magnitude,
allowing us to achieve high energy efficiency. Energy can be concentrated into small regions
in space with a large number of antennas this makes increase in energy efficiency possible.
Enhancement in spatial resolution and the coherent superposition of wave fronts is mainly the
reason for this. The wave fronts are radiated by antennas summed up constructively at users
the locations. Interference among users can be suppressed by using suitable precoding
scheme.
III. Simple signal processing
The use of huge number of base station antenna over the number of user results in favourable
propagation in many of propagation environments where the channel vector between user and

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Base Station nearly orthogonal. Under favourable propagation, the effect of inter user
interference and noise can be eliminated with simple linear signal processing or linear
precoding and linear decoding in the downlink and uplink respectively. As a result, simple
linear processing schemes are nearly optimal.
IV. Reduction of latency
Wireless communication systems performance restricted by fading, where the signal strength
minimized drastically. This happens in multi path channels where signals on arrival add up
destructively. Fading results in a difficulty to obtain reduced latency wireless links since
Mobile Subscriber must wait until the propagation channel has sufficiently altered before
receiving any data if it is trapped in a fading dip. Massive MIMO which depends on the use
of huge numbers and beam forming avoid fading, so that fading no longer limits latency.

2.4. Challenges in Massive MIMO

Despite the huge advantages of Massive MIMO, there are issues that needs to be tackled the
main challenges in massive MIMO are listed below;
V. Pilot Contamination
Practical cellular networks consist of many cells. This many cells share the same time
frequency resources due to the limited availability of frequency spectrum. In multicellular
systems, orthogonal pilot sequences for all users in all cells cannot be assigned, due to the
limitation of the channel coherence interval. Orthogonal pilot sequences have to be reused
from cell to cell. So, the channel estimate obtained in a given cell will be contaminated by
pilots transmitted by users in other cells. This is called pilot contamination which reduces the
system performance and it‟s the major limitation of Massive MIMO.
VI. Unfavourable propagation
Massive MIMO normally works under favourable propagation environments. But practically
there may be propagation environments where the channels are not favourable. Like in
propagation environments where the numbers of the scatters‟ is small compared to the
numbers of users, or when some common scatters‟ share the channels from different users to
the BS, the channel is not favourable. Distribute the BS antennas over large area can be One
possible solution for this.
VII. High power consumption
In Massive MIMO because of the presence of huge number of antenna and also large number
radiofrequency chain corresponding to each antenna there is more power consumption. Every

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components of the radio frequency chain consume more power as they as large in number.

2.5 Features of Massive MIMO

Compared to long term evolution (LTE 4G) the most important feature is to allow users to
enjoy much higher data speed with peak data rate of 10Gbps. However, path loss and fading
is increasingly serious as the frequency increases. Moreover, inter-user interference creates a
performance bottleneck in MIMO systems. To address this issue, massive MIMO (Multiple
inputs and multiple outputs) technology is applied.
Due to application of millimetre wave communication, antennas can be designed smaller than
before, while the distance among two of them will be shortened. As a result, antennas array is
possibly integrated in a small area. In massive MIMO systems, the large number of antennas
can provide with a large amount of degrees of freedom (DoF) to facilitate efficient wireless
communication signals, thus increasing spectral efficiency (SE) and capacity.

2.6 Architectural Model of Massive MIMO Antenna Array

The use of antenna arrays is seen as a promising approach for managing many of the
problems associated with wireless communication. An array of multiple antennas may be
placed at the receiver, transmitter, or at both sides of the communication link. Alternatively,
the polarization may vary among the antennas. The resulting Multi-Input-Multi-Output
(MIMO) channel represents a natural extension of the previously described MISO case. In
sufficiently rich multipath scattering environments, these extra degrees of freedom lead to a
channel capacity substantially higher than when only a single antenna array is used,
regardless of whether the transmitter knows the channel parameters or not. The use of dual
antenna arrays in rich scattering environments gives rise to a multiplicative effect that makes
the channel capacity increase.
The models of the massive MIMO antenna element and array. The antenna element consists
of two cross dipoles which achieve ±45◦ polarizations. Four square metal sheets with slots
added on are designed as the arms of the dipoles. The size of the antenna is 27.2 mm × 27.2
mm × 17 mm, and the gap between the antenna arms is 0.8 mm. The dipoles are fed by two
cross feeding pads, which have the size of 10 mm × 3.2 mm × 0.8 mm.

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A) Antenna Element B)Elements Massive Antenna Array

Figure2.7:- Designs of the Antenna Element and the Antenna Array

The antenna array consists of 64 elements which operate at the frequency ranging from 3.6 to
4.8 GHz. The two dipoles with the same polarization of the two adjacent antenna elements
along the vertical direction share one RF channel. So the number of RF channels to be
optimized is 32. Taking the trade-off between beam forming and correlation coefficient into
consideration, the distance between two antenna elements is designed to be 0.9λ, where λ is
the wavelength corresponding to the centre frequency. The gain of the antenna at the centre
frequency is 26.8 dB.

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CHAPTER THREE
3. Methodology
The methods that going to use to do our project are described below. The first thing is that we
prepare a proper time schedule that specifies the things we will do. Then we gather different
information that is needed for our project from sources such as, books and internet. We then
assemble each information to a meaningful and in supportive way to the project. Since we
have already chosen the software that we are going to use for our project, i.e. MATLAB, we
have to design and analyse the model (From T.L. Marzetta, Cell-Free Mssive MIMO Versus
Small Cells, vol. 16, 2014, pp. 1-30).
Also try to analyse and simulate it using Mat-lab. To do so we need to figure out the code so
we will again read different sources about Mat-lab coding which are related to massive
MIMO. We have read through different materials regarding our project and we collected the
data. The next thing we have done is choosing the right procedure of implementation of the
project. That is we are going to do our work based on linear precoding techniques such as
PZF, ZF and MR. Finally, we analyse simulated result in accordance with the objectives
listed and the results that we obtain from simulation are snipped and discussed briefly based
on mathematical equation derived in the process (From H.Q.Ngo, A. Ashikhmin, H.Yang,
E.G. Larsson).
Generally, subdivide the contributions of this research as two-fold, such as the theoretical
contributions and the contributions to field of multi-antenna signal processing for wireless
communication. Theoretically, contribute to the field of estimation and optimization theory
by formulating the detection, estimation and resource allocation algorithms. Besides the
theoretical analysis, also proposed analytical closed form lower bound spectral efficiency and
energy efficiency formulations for multiuser massive MIMO systems. Further, energy
efficient power control and resource allocation algorithms are formulated. In line with these,
several peer reviewed conference and journal papers are published (D. Gesbert, M. Shafi and
D. Shiu, An Overview of MIMO Space Time Code Wireless Systems, vol. 21, 2003, pp. 281-
302).

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start

Input the value of the variables

Channel generation

Imperfect CSI

Calculate the system capacity

Check the reuse frequency

Calculate the spectral efficiency of the system

By taking the average of all realization

Repeat the process of different variables

Result
Result

Figure3.1:- Flow chart for spectral efficiency simulation

Massive MIMO is a multi-user MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) technology that can
provide uniformly good service to wireless terminals in high-mobility environments. The key
concept is to equip base stations with arrays of many antennas, which are used to serve many
terminals simultaneously, in the same time-frequency resource. The word “massive” refer to
the number of antennas and not the physical size.
Massive MIMO is seen as a key technology to delivering mobile 5G. Massive multiple-
input, multiple-output, or massive MIMO is an extension of MIMO, which essentially
groups together antennas at the transmitter and receiver to provide better throughput and
better spectrum efficiency.

3.1 How Does Massive MIMO Operate

UL and DL operations of massive MIMO might represent a single cell site, or cell taken out
of a network. A large number of UE K inside the cells are served through an array of
antennas in the BS. Each terminal usually have a single antenna. Other cells are served by
different BSs that do not cooperate among each other except for pilot assignment and power

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control. All terminals use the full frequency-time resources simultaneously for UL/DL
transmissions. On the UL, individual signal sent by the terminals are recovered at the BS. The
BS, on the DL, makes sure that every UE receives only the signal that was intended for
it.Multiplexing/DE multiplexing processing at the BS are possible because of the available
knowledge of the CSI. The BS creates an arrow beam towards the direction of the terminal
under line of sight (LOS) propagation environment. The concentration of these beams
become more accurate (i.e. they become narrower) as the number of antennas is increased. In
the case of the existence of a local scattering, the signal received at any UE consists of the
superposition of many independent components as a result of scattering and reflections which
can add up destructively or constructively.
These components add up constructively exactly at the location of the user if the transmitted
waveforms are perfectly selected. The precision of the power concentration to a certain
terminal can be increased by adding more antennas to the BS. Therefore, it is very important
to have CSI at the BS that is sufficiently accurate to focus the power.

3.2 Channel Estimation

One of the most essential tasks of the BS is detecting the user‟s transmitted signals on the UL
and precoding the DL signals. Hence, the BS requires the CSI which can be obtained using
the UL training. Terminals that are assigned orthogonal pilot signal each, send these pilot to
the BS. The pilot sequences transmitted from all terminals are already known to the BS.
Thus, the BS can estimate the channels using these pilot signals.
Moreover, partial knowledge of CSI might be required at every terminal for coherent
detection of the transmitted signals from the BS. This partial knowledge can be either
obtained using DL training or through some algorithm that can blindly estimate the channel.
To detect its intended signal, the terminal only requires the effective gain of the channel
because the signals performing is conducted using linear precoding techniques at the BS.

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Figure 3.2:- TDD Protocol of massive MIMO Transmission

We consider the time-division duplex (TDD) protocol shown in Fig. 1, where B ≥ 1 out of the
S symbols in each frame are reserved for UL pilot signaling. There is no DL pilot signaling
and no feedback of CSI, because the BSs can process both UL and DL signals using the UL
channel measurements due to the channel reciprocity in TDD systems. The remaining S − B
symbols are allocated for payload data and are split between UL and DL transmission. We let
ζ (ul) and ζ (dl) denote the fixed fractions allocated for UL and DL, respectively. These
fractions can be selected arbitrarily, subject to the constraint ζ (ul) + ζ (dl) = 1 and that ζ (ul)
(S − B) and ζ (dl) (S − B) are positive integers. Below, we define the system models for the
UL and DL. The BSs are not exchanging any short-term information in this work, but we will
see how the pilot allocation and transmission processing can be coordinated in a distributed
fashion.

Figure 3.3: The transmission is divided into frames of S = TcWc symbols, whereof B
symbols are dedicated to pilot transmission.

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The remaining S − B symbols are used for payload data, where ζ (ul) and ζ (dl) are
respectively the fractions of UL and DL transmission.

3.3 UL Data Transmission

UL data transmission occupies part of the coherence interval. In the UL, the BS
receives the transmitted data from all K terminals in the same frequency-time resource.
The BS detects the signals transmitted from all terminals exploiting the channel
estimates and the linear combining techniques.

Figure 3.4 Uplink data transmission

The number of orthogonal sequences during the UL pilot signalling to estimate all the
channels at the BS is . Where N is dimension of channel and K is number of
user equipment. Thus, the matrix that contains the pilots of user k is denoted.
Where is the pilot energy constraint to minimize the MSE of
channel estimation using the pilot matrix.
(3.1)
Where is used to distribute the maximum power between the
N dimensions of the channel. Satisfies and when
Hence, the received uplink signal at the BS is
∑ ∑ (3.2)

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Where and denotes the noise at the receiver. It the

statistical information is available at the receiver then the LMMSE estimate of the
channel is
̂ ( )( ) (3.3)
Where ⁄ ⁄√ if the column of is
then

̂ ̂ (3.4)

Where ( )

3.3.1 UL Channel Capacity

When every user transmitter knows only its channel while the BS has perfect
knowledge of the CSI to all users, every terminal pre-code its transmitted signal to
maximize the capacity.
If the precoding matrix of user k during the transmission of the UL data is denoted
̅ , then 𝐓 = 𝐕 𝐏 (3.5)
Where denotes the power allocation matrix with
Therefore, the received UL signal at the BS can be expressed as
∑ ̌ ∑ (3.6)
Where the data symbol transmitted for the user k is denoted x ~𝒞𝒩 (0, σ ) and the
noise at the receiver noise is donated 𝐧~𝒞𝒩 0, σ . The mutual information between
y and x= [x, … x] has the following lower bound.
( ̂ ) ∑ { | ̂ ∑ ̂ |} (3.7)
Where ̂ |̂ ̂ | is the imperfect base station at the receiver

UL capacity of the user k can be maximized using the following MMSE detector
√ ∑ (3.8)
Where ∑ ∑ ∑ = (∑-1 k + H kOk HH k) -1 The UL channel
capacity of user k after applying the MMSE detector to the signal in 4.5 is

∑ { ( )} (3.9)

Where SINR is

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| |
(3.10)
|

Uplink process has the following steps:

 Encoding is employed to prepare data for transmission.
 Pilot sequences and uplink data sequences are transmitted at the same time and
over the same frequencies from each user to the BS.
 The BS receives the sum of data streams from all the users, and estimates the
channel.
 Decoding and detection operations produce individual data streams by utilizing
the estimated CSI.

3.4 DL Data Transmission

The BS transmits the DL data to all the terminals on the same frequency/time resource.
In specific, the BS creates M pre-coded signal and feed them to M antennas. This can
be done using the estimated channel and the symbol intended for the Kth user, the
received signal is
∑
(3.11)
Where xℓ ~𝒞𝒩 (0, σ ) indicates the DL signal dedicated for xℓ user and nk ~ 𝒞𝒩 (0,
σ ) is the additive noise at the receiver. The processed received signal with user‟s k
eigenvector of its correlation matrix 𝐕 is
∑
(3.12)
The mutual information between and has the following lower bound
| ̂ ̌ ̂ |

(3.13)
The DL channel capacity of user k after applying the MMSE detector to the signal is
∑
(3.14)
Downlink process has the following steps:
 Beam forming:-Data streams are transmitted from the BSs to only the intended
users by means of beam forming, where the different data streams may occupy
the same frequencies at the same time (space division multiplexing).

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 Precoding:-The previous operation is carried out knowing the frequency

response of the propagation channels (or CSI) between each of its elements and
each user and precoding the signals accordingly.

Figure 3.5 down link data Transmission

3.5 Asymptotic analysis

Asymptotic analysis is input bound i.e., if there's no input to the algorithm, it is concluded to
work in a constant time. Other than the "input" all other factors are considered constant.
Asymptotic analysis refers to computing the running time of any operation in mathematical
units of computation. Asymptotic means approaching a value or curve arbitrarily closely (i.e.,
as some sort of limit is taken). A line or curve that is asymptotic to given curve is called the
asymptote. More formally, let be a continuous variable tending to some limit.
 Benefits of Asymptotic Analysis
The asymptotic analysis helps a lot in analyzing the efficiency of an algorithm with run-time
inputs. Otherwise, if we do it manually using passing test cases for different inputs, it can
happen Performance may vary when the input provided to the algorithm changes.

3.6 Massive MIMO and Its Parameters

Massive MIMO is a form of MU-MIMO systems where the number of BS antennas and the
numbers of users are large. In Massive MIMO, hundreds or thousands of BS antennas
simultaneously serve tens or hundreds of users in the same frequency resource. There are a
lot of parameters and state of arts in massive MIMO.
Those are:-
Spectral Efficiency

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Channel state information

Frequency Reuse
SDMA
Spatial Channel Model
Minimum frequency and etc…. But our project mainly focused on in detail
about Spectral Efficiency and Channel State Information.

3.6.1 Spectrum Efficiency

Spectrum efficiency (bandwidth efficiency) refers to the information rate that can be
transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific communication system. It is a measure of
how efficiently a limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and
sometimes by the media access control (the channel access protocol). It also refers to the use
of a radio frequency spectrum in more efficient ways.
The wireless spectrum or wireless frequency spectrum is the set of radio frequencies used for
wireless devices. Each specific type of radio frequency use has its own frequency bands
available within a complex set of spectrum allocations, including allocations for government,
amateur, broadcasting and specific private sector uses. As frequency bands become
increasingly crowded, today‟s research on smartphones includes consideration as to how to
use radio frequency bands more efficiently.

3.6.2 Channel State Information

Channel state information (CSI) refers to known channel properties of a communication link.
This information describes how a signal propagates from the transmitter to the receiver and
represents the combined effect of scattering, fading, and power decay with distance. The
method is called Channel estimation. The CSI makes it possible to adapt transmissions to
current channel conditions, which is crucial for achieving reliable communication with high
data rates in multi antenna systems.

3.6.3 Frequency Reuse

Providing continuous service and wide service area must be satisfied in design of mobile
radio network, while efficiently using the radio spectrum. Each base station is allocated a set
of radio channels, which are to be used in a geographic area called a cell. Base stations in the
neighbouring cells are allocated radio channel sets, which are entirely different.
The antennas of base station antennas are designed to get the required coverage within the
specific cell. By restricting the coverage area of a base station to within the cell boundaries,

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the same set of radio channels can be used in the different cells that are separated from each
other by distances which are large enough in order to maintain interference levels within
limits. The procedure of radio sets selection and allocation to all the base stations present
within a network is called frequency reuse.

3.7 Beam Forming / Precoding Techniques

Beam forming is a technique that enables focusing the signal from multiple antennas into one
strong beam, minimizing energy in side lobes at the transmitter end. At the receiver, beam
forming refers to a kind of spatial multiplexing that combines the received signals to add up
in a certain direction, and rejecting the signals coming from any other direction, and
considering them as interference.Precoding provides two fundamental advantages, including
eliminate interference and performing beam forming to the desired users. In general, there are
two types of precoding, nonlinear precoding schemes and linear pre-coding schemes. Non-
linear precoding can achieve both of these two functions, while the linear one can only reduce
inter-users interference. In wireless communication system, due to the geographic effect,
received signal cannot be obtained simultaneously. Inter-user interference cannot be
eliminated by multi-user detection as well. Under this circumstance, precoding will play a
significant role in improving system performance. Beam forming is a technique that enables
focusing the signal from multiple antennas into one strong beam, minimizing energy in side
lobes at the transmitter end. At the receiver, beam forming refers to a kind of spatial
multiplexing that combines the received signals to add up in a certain direction, and rejecting
the signals coming from any other direction, and considering them as interference. Precoding
provides two fundamental advantages, including eliminate interference and performing beam
forming to the desired users.
In general, there are two types of precoding:-
 non-linear precoding schemes and
 linear precoding schemes
Non-linear precoding can achieve both of these two functions, while the linear one can
only reduce inter-users interference. In wireless communication system, due to the
geographic effect, received signal cannot be obtained simultaneously. Inter-user
interference cannot be eliminated by multi-user detection as well. Under this
circumstance, precoding will play a significant role in improving system performance.
Performance Analysis of Massive MIMO for Spectral Efficiency Optimization
Compared to nonlinear precoding schemes, the complexity of linear precoding schemes

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is remarkably lower. Moreover, due to a massive amount of DoF in massive MIMO,

linear precoding schemes are enough to satisfy communication requirements.

3.7.1 Linear Precoding Schemes

To optimize spectral efficiency in massive MIMO systems, pre-coding is used at the
transmitter in order to reduce the complexity of system, noise effect and optimize
stream data transmission based on channel state information (CSI).
There are three common linear pre-coding schemes including:-
I. Maximum Ratio Combiner (MRC)
II. Zero Forcing (ZF)
III. Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)

I. Maximum Ratio Combiner

In MRC, the multiple antenna transmitters use the channel estimate of a terminal to
maximize the strength of that terminal‟s signal by adding the signal components
coherently. MRC precoding maximizes the SNR and works well in the massive MIMO
system, since the base station radiates low signal power to the users on average.
When the BS employs MRC detection, it neglects the effects of inter-user interference
and maximizes the received signal to noise ratio (SNR). Note that MRC detection
experiences performance degradation in interference-limited situations because the
effects of inter user interference are neglected.
II. Zero Forcing
ZF precoding is a method of spatial signal processing by which the transmitter can null
out multi-user interference signals. In general, ZF precoders performs well under high
SNR conditions. System based on ZF precoding scheme has a poor performance in low
power regime since ZF scheme does not take noise into consideration.
Table 3.1 Input Parameters for ZF that are used in the simulation
Parameters Their use
Alpha Proportional the RF power
M Number of BS antennas
K Number of UEs
Ijl_ pc Vector with average relative channel attenuations from the
interfering cells that use the same pilot sequences in a given system.
Ijl nonpc Vector with average relative channel attenuations from the

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interfering cells that use orthogonal pilot sequences in the given

system.

TauUL Relative pilot length in the uplink (1, 2, 4 are typical values that
correspond to different pilot reuse patterns
Bsigma2sxeta Defines the total RF power

A Parameter a in the power consumption model

Circuit Circuit power (i.e., Excluding RF power) for ZF processing with the
power numbers of antennas and UEs.

Prelog factor Factor in front of the logarithm in the rate expression

EE Energy efficiency achieved for given processing scheme and SINRs

The performance in high-power regime approaches to peak. When the BS employs ZF

detection, it neglects the effects of noise and maximizes the received signal to
interference ratio (SINR).The resulting signal estimate is free from inter-user
interference in the system. When compared to MRC, computational complexity is
higher in ZF detection because it requires computation of the pseudo-inverse of the
channel matrix.
The performance in high-power regime approaches to peak. When the BS employs ZF
detection, it neglects the effects of noise and maximizes the received signal to
interference ratio (SINR). In general, ZF precoders perform well under high SNR
conditions. System based on ZF precoding scheme has a poor performance in low
power regime since ZF scheme does not take noise into consideration.
III. Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)
MMSE scheme seeks to eliminate inter-user interference as well as noise. System
complexity of MMSE is relatively higher compared to MRC and ZF. From mathematical
perspective, MRC has the lowest complexity among these three precoding schemes.
MMSE requires perfect channel state information (CSI). When MMSE detection is
employed, the BS attempts to maximize the received signal to interference plus noise
ratio (SINR). This can be achieved by minimizing the minimum mean squared error
between the signal estimate ^y and the transmitted symbol vector s. Since MMSE

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detection maximizes the received SINR, it performs better than MRC and ZF detection
techniques. However, it experiences higher computational complexity than the other two
methods because it requires an increased number of matrix manipulations. In addition,
similar to the case with ZF detection, MMSE may perform poorly for ill-conditioned
channels because matrix inversion significantly amplifies the noise in the system.
Advantages of MMSE are:-Its combining receiver creates one scalar channel per
terminal, thus balancing between amplifying the signals and suppressing the
interference, the remaining interference is treated as extra additive noise; thus,
conventional single user detection algorithms can be applied, Performance improves by
adding more BS antennas, Small-scale fading averages out over the array.
Table 3.2 Input and Output Parameters of MMSE
PARAMETERS Their use

SINR Scalar SINR value that all UEs

should achieve (equal to 2^ (R
bar/B)-1)

H channel Channel realizations for the

Monte Carlo realizations

Circuit power Circuit power (i.e., excluding RF

power) with MMSE processing
and fixed number of
antennas/UEs

A Parameter A in the power

consumption model

Prelog Factor Factor in front of the logarithm in

the rate expression

Prefix Power Factor in front of the total RF

power.

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sigma2B Total noise power (B*sigma2 in

W)

lx Average path losses for the UEs

in the Monte
Carlo realizations

Q Number of iterations in power

allocation computation

EE value Energy efficiency achieved for

MMSE processing and given
SINRs

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
By considering both conventional linear processing schemes such as maximum ratio (MR)
combining/transmission and zero-forcing (ZF), and a new full pilot zero-forcing (P-
ZF)scheme that actively suppresses inter-cell interference in a fully distributed coordinated
beam forming fashion. Simulate the sum of these SEs and note that it can be divided arbitrary
between UL and DL the some linear processing schemes are used in both directions. The
simulations consider MR, ZF and P-ZF precoding/combining and all results are obtained by
computing the closed form expressions. The simulations were performed using Mat-lab and
the code is available.

4.1 Spectral Efficiency and Receive Combining

The achievable SE of the UL payload data transmission with different receive combining
schemes. Each BS detects the desired signals by using linear receive combining. In this
simulation, we consider K = 10 UEs per cell and a varying number of BS antennas. There are
𝑓 pilots in each coherence block and the remaining 𝜏 − 𝑓 samples are used for UL data
transmission. We use Gaussian local scattering with 𝜙 = 10° as channel model.

(a) Optimized SE per cell. (b) corresponding optimal number of UEs K⋆

Figure 4.1:-Simulation of optimized SE as function of M, with average inter-cell interference

There are K = 10 UEs per cell and the same K pilots are reused in every cell. It shows the
average UL sum SE as a function of the number of BS antennas for universal pilot reuse with
f = 1. P-ZF gives the largest SE. The SE reduces a little with every approximation that is
made to obtain a scheme with lower complexity than MR. The P-ZF scheme provides lower
SE than MR, but 5%–10% higher SE than P-ZF and ZF. Note that RZF and ZF give
essentially the same SE in the range M ≥ 20 that is of main interest in Massive MIMO, but

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the SE with ZF deteriorates quickly for M < 20 since the BS does not have enough degrees of
freedom to cancel the interference without also cancelling a large part of the desired signal.
Figure 4.2 shows the average sum SE with a non-universal pilot reuse f. In particular, we
consider cases where each pilot is reused in every second or fourth cells, this is referred to as
having a pilot reuse factor of f = 2 and f = 4, respectively.

(a) Optimized SE per cell (b) corresponding optimal number of UEs K⋆

Figure 4.2:-Simulation of optimized SE as function of M, with best case inter-cell
interference.
Table 4.1 Average sum SE [bit/s/Hz/cell]
scheme f=1 f=2 f=4
Asymptotic limit 50.32 55.10 55.41
P-ZF 42.83 45.83 42.41
ZF 42.80 43.34 39.97
MR 25.25 24.41 21.95

For M = 100 and K = 10 for different pilot reuse factors f. The largest value for each scheme
is in bold face. The results are summarized from Figures 4.1 and 4.2. Asymptotic limits
benefits particularly much from having f > 1, because it can better suppress the interference
from UEs in the surrounding cells when these UEs use other pilots. A reuse factor of 4 gives
the highest SE with P-ZF. MR, P-ZF, and ZF give comparable SE to each other for all f, and
achieve the highest SE with f = 2. The SE of MR reduces when f is increased since the
improved estimation quality does not outweigh the reduced pre-log factor when the estimate
is only used to coherently combine the desired signal and not to cancel interference. These
properties are quantified in Table 4.3, which summarizes the sum SE of all schemes with M =
100 and different f. The numbers can be compared with the SE 2.8 bit/s/Hz/cell achieved by a

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contemporary LTE system. With all pilot reuse factors, MR and ZF provide more than an
order-of-magnitude higher SE per cell.

4.2 Spectral Efficiency and Transmit Precoding

The UL and DL channels are reciprocal within a coherence block, which enables the BS to
use the UL channel estimates also for the computation/selection of precoding vectors. The
desired signal to UE k in cell j propagates over the precoded channel.

(a) Optimized SE per cell. (b) corresponding optimal number of UEs K⋆

Figure 4.3:- Simulation of optimized SE as function of M, with worst-case inter-cell

interference.
There are K = 10 UEs per cell and the same K pilots are reused in every cell.
Asymptotic limits, P-ZF, ZF, and MR precoding. These precoding schemes behave in a
similar way as their UL counterparts. P-ZF provides the highest SE for any number of
antennas. MR, P-ZF, and ZF provide almost the same SE, except that ZF has robustness
issues for M < 20 antennas. Finally, MR provides the lowest SE among all schemes and it is
also the only scheme that prefers the hardening bound over the estimation bound. MR
achieves only 40%–50% of the SE provided by MR and 50%–60% of the SE provided by
RZF.
Figure 4.4 shows the corresponding sum SE with f = 2 and f = 4 as pilot reuse factors. The
results are once again similar to the UL, both in terms of the SE values and the fact that P-ZF
gives its highest performance with f = 4 Asymptotic limits, P-ZF , MR, and ZF prefer f = 2,
and MR gives its highest SE with f = 1. This observation is emphasized in Table 4.5, which
lists the sum SEs with M = 100 for the different pre-coding schemes. As in the UL, the
computational complexity is higher for the pre-coding/combining schemes that provide
higher SEs, and we can appoint P-ZF, ZF, and MR as three distinct trades-offs between high

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SE and low complexity. These are the schemes to choose between in a practical
implementation.

Figure 4.4:-optimized per cell SE with or without hard ware impairment

Table 4.2 Average UL sum SE [bit/s/Hz/cell]
scheme f=1 F=2 F=4
Asymptotic 45.39 45.83 42.41
limit
P-ZF 40.44 41.63 36
ZF 40.40 41.60 38.89
MR 24.24 23.83 21.93

Using the tractable SE expression for simulation, figure 4 shows the per-cell SE in the
average inter-cell interference. this figure shows results for ideal hardware with e=0,(as in fig
4 (a) and for hard impairments with e=0.1 which is a large EVM number in this context.
interestingly. there is only a tiny difference in SE for M <5000,mainly because SE per UE is
relatively small at the optimized operating points and thus the distortion noise is only minor
limiting factor.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
Massive MIMO is an innovative technology which helps in the achievement of higher
system throughput and reliable transmission for 5G and beyond wireless networks. This
system introduces the opportunity of increasing attainable data rate by optimizing the
spectrum efficiency. It is also able to use linear pre-coding such as MRC, ZF and MMSE at
the base station.
The BSs should use the same vectors for UL receive combining and DL transmits precoding,
motivated by the UL-DL duality. The Asymptotic limits scheme provides the highest SE and
requires the highest computational complexity, while the MR scheme has the lowest
complexity and SE.
The P-ZF scheme provides a good SE-complexity trade-off. The channel estimates provided
by the low-complexity EW-MMSE estimator are sufficient for these schemes to work well,
thus high-complexity channel estimators are not needed. The average case interference
simulation is done which is mostly used for practical scenario evaluation. As the number of
user equipment‟s increases there will be chance of interference than small number of UEs.
The simulations and numerical results show that using linear pre-coding technique, and
increasing number of base station antennas we can enhance achievable spectral efficiency.

5.2. Recommendation and Future Work

More research is needed to introduce new beam forming techniques to achieve high spectral
efficiency and less multipath fading. When the number of BS antennas increases detection
becomes harder, so that more advanced pre-coding techniques are required. Massive MIMO
is a new technology that comes with many challenges and issues that must be investigated.
Therefore, there are plenty of possible research directions.
The following list is providing some of the potential research directions in massive MIMO:
Extend the Investigation to include issues such as higher numbers of BS antennas and
different estimation method and compare their effects. Investigating the performance of
massive MIMO in multi-cells scenario and compare it to the performance of the current small
cells. Pilot contaminations: this is one of the things that significantly can limit the
performance of massive MIMO. Dealing with this issue that happens during the training
period because of interference from other cells is very important research directions.

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The effect of pilot contamination can be reduced using larger frequency reuse factors.
However, this will decrease the spectral efficiency because it reduces the pre-log factor.
Increasing the cell size can also reduce the effect of pilot contamination because the power of
the signal inside the cell is going to be much stronger than interference from other cells. The
problem is that the users at the edge of the cell might not be able to receive a decent quality
of service. Therefore, an appropriate design to reduce the effect of pilot contamination that
considers the size of the cell and pilot reuse factor should be investigated.

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REFERENCES
[1] H.Q.Ngo, A. Ashikhmin, H.Yang, E.G. Larsson, and T.L. Marzetta, Cell-Free Mssive
MIMO Versus Small Cells, vol. 16, 2014, pp. 1-30.
[2] T. Marzetta, Noncooperative Cellular Wireless With Unlimited Numbers of Base Station
Antennas, vol. 9, 2010, pp. 3590-3600.
[3] A. J. Paulraj, D. A. Gore, R. U. Nabar, and H. Bolcskei, AN Overview of MIMO
Communications, A key to Gigabit Wireless, vol. 92, 2004.
[4] A. Goldsmith, S. A. Jafar, N. Jindal, and S. Vishwanath, Capacity limits of MIMO
Channels, vol. 21, 2003, pp. 684-702.
[5] A.Nosratinia,T.Hunter, and A.Hedayat,, Cooperative Communication in Wireless
nerwork, vol. 42, pp. 74-80.
[6] E.Telater, Capacity of multi-antenna Gausian channels, vol. 10, 2014, pp. 585-595.

[7] P. Viswanath and D.N.C. Tse, Duality, achievable rates and sum rate capacity of Gaussian
{MIMO} Broadcast Channel, vol. 49, 2003, pp. 2658-2668.
[8] D. Gesbert, M. Shafi and D. Shiu, An Overview of MIMO Space Time Code Wireless
Systems, vol. 21, 2003, pp. 281-302.

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APPENDIX
%This Matlab script can be used to generate Figures 4-6 and 8-14 in
%the article:
%
%Emil Bjornson, Erik G. Larsson, Merouane Debbah, "Massive MIMO for Maximal
%Spectral Efficiency: How Many Users and Pilots Should Be Allocated?,"
%to appear in IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications.
%
%Download article: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1412.7102
%
%This is version 1.0 (Last edited: 2015-10-06)
%
%License: This code is licensed under the GPLv2 license. If you in any way
%use this code for research that results in publications, please cite our
%original article listed above.
%
%Please note that the channels are generated randomly, thus the results
%will not be exactly the same as in the paper.

%Initialization
close all;
clearall;

%%Select simulation case:

%
%simulationCase = 1: Figures 1-3 and 4
%simulationCase = 2: Figures 2-3
%simulationCase = 3: Figures 1
%simulationCase = 4: Figures 3
simulationCase = 1;

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%%Simulation parameters

rng('shuffle'); %Initiate the random number generators with a random seed

%%If rng('shuffle'); is not supported by your Matlab version, you can use
%%the following commands instead:
%randn('state',sum(100*clock));

%Pathloss exponent
kappa = 3.7;

%Number of directions to look for interfering cells (for hexagonal cells)

directions = 6;

%Percentage of the radius inside the cell where no UEs are allowed
forbiddenRegion = 0.14;

%Parameters for the Monte Carlo simulations

monteCarloUEs = 1000000; %Number of random UE locations per cell

%Compute various combinations of the mu-parameters Eq. (18), using

%Monte Carlo simulations
[muValues1Mean,muValues2Mean,reuseMu1Mean,reuseMu1Mean2,reuseMu1MeanNext,re
useMu1Mean2Next,reuseMu2Mean,reuseMuMeanVariance,muValues1Worst,muValues2Wo
rst,reuseMu1Worst,reuseMu1Worst2,reuseMu1WorstNext,reuseMu1Worst2Next,reuseMu2
Worst,reuseMuWorstVariance,muValues1Best,muValues2Best,reuseMu1Best,reuseMu1Best
2,reuseMu1BestNext,reuseMu1Best2Next,reuseMu2Best,reuseMuBestVariance,reuseFactor]
= computeEnvironment(kappa,forbiddenRegion,monteCarloUEs);

if simulationCase == 1 %Simulations from Section IV.A and Section V (Figures 4-6 and 14)

%Select range of BS antennas

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nbrOfMvalues = 1000; %Number of different cases

Mvalues = round(logspace(1,5,nbrOfMvalues)); %Spread out antenna numbers equally in
log-scale

%Coherence block length

S = 400 * ones(1,2);

%Inverse SNR value

sigma2rho = 1/10^(5/10) * ones(1,2); %5 dB

%EVM value
epsilon2 = [0 0.1^2];

elseif simulationCase == 2 %Some simulations from Section IV.B (Figures 8-11)

%Select range of BS antennas

Mvalues = 1:1000; %All antenna numbers from 1 to 1000

%Coherence block length

S = 400;

%Inverse SNR value

sigma2rho = 1/10^(5/10); %5 dB

%EVM value
epsilon2 = 0;

elseif simulationCase == 3 %One simulation from Section IV.B (Figure 12)

%Select range of BS antennas

Mvalues = [100 500];

%Range of SNR values in dB

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SNRvaluesdB = -10:0.1:20;

%Inverse SNR values in linear scale

sigma2rho = 1./10.^(SNRvaluesdB/10);

%Coherence block length

S = 400 * ones(size(sigma2rho));

%EVM value
epsilon2 = zeros(size(sigma2rho));

elseif simulationCase == 4 %One simulation from Section IV.B (Figure 13)

%Select range of BS antennas

Mvalues = [100 500];

%Coherence block length

S = 10:10:2000;

%Inverse SNR values in linear scale

sigma2rho = 1/10^(5/10)*ones(size(S)); %SNR is 5 dB

%EVM value
epsilon2 = zeros(size(sigma2rho));

end

%Define the range of UEs to consider

Kvalues = 1:max(S);

%Compute the sum of all mu values in Eq. (18)

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mu1all_mean = 1+directions*(sum(muValues1Mean(:))-1);
mu1all_worst = 1+directions*(sum(muValues1Worst(:))-1);
mu1all_best = 1+directions*(sum(muValues1Best(:))-1);

%Extract only reuse factors smaller or equal to 7

reuseIndices = find(reuseFactor>0 & reuseFactor<=directions+1);
for j = 1:length(reuseIndices);
if sum(reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j))==reuseFactor(reuseIndices(1:j-1)))>0
reuseIndices(j)=1;
end
end
reuseIndices = reuseIndices(reuseIndices>1);

%%Compute spectral efficiencies according to Theorem 1 and 2.

%Placeholders for storing spectral efficiencies

SE_MR_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_ZF_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_PZF_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));

SE_MR_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_ZF_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_PZF_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));

SE_MR_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_ZF_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_PZF_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));

SE_asymptotic_mean = zeros(max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_asymptotic_worst = zeros(max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));
SE_asymptotic_best = zeros(max(S),length(reuseIndices),length(S));

%Go through the different reuse factors

for j = 1:length(reuseIndices);

%Extract the reuse factor

currentReuseFactor = reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j));

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%Extract sum of mu-values for current reuse factor for mean interference
mu1reuse_mean = directions*reuseMu1Mean(reuseIndices(j));
mu2reuse_mean = directions*reuseMu2Mean(reuseIndices(j));
variance_mean = directions*reuseMuMeanVariance(reuseIndices(j));

%Extract sum of mu-values for current reuse factor for worst interference
mu1reuse_worst = directions*reuseMu1Worst(reuseIndices(j));
mu2reuse_worst = directions*reuseMu2Worst(reuseIndices(j));
variance_worst = directions*reuseMuWorstVariance(reuseIndices(j));

%Extract sum of mu-values for current reuse factor for best interference
mu1reuse_best = directions*reuseMu1Best(reuseIndices(j));
mu2reuse_best = directions*reuseMu2Best(reuseIndices(j));
variance_best = directions*reuseMuBestVariance(reuseIndices(j));

%Number of neighbors that use each of the other sets of pilots

neighborsPerOtherPilot = directions/(currentReuseFactor-1);

%Go through different number of antennas

for n = 1:length(Mvalues)

%Go through different other cases (varying SNR, coherence block, etc.)
for m = 1:length(S)

%Go through different number of UEs (limited by coherence block length)

for K = 1:S(m)

%Compute length of pilot signal

B = currentReuseFactor*K;

if B < S(m)

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%Compute asymptotic limits according to Corollary 2

if n == 1
SE_asymptotic_mean(K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+(1-
epsilon2(m))/(mu2reuse_mean+epsilon2(m)));
SE_asymptotic_worst(K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+(1-
epsilon2(m))/(mu2reuse_worst+epsilon2(m)));
SE_asymptotic_best(K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+(1-
epsilon2(m))/(mu2reuse_best+epsilon2(m)));
end

%Maximum ratio (MR) combining/precoding

%
%Achievable spectral efficiency using the formula in
%Theorem 1, for mean, worst, and best case interference
SINR_MR_mean = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + (mu1all_mean*K +
sigma2rho(m))*(B*(mu1reuse_mean+1)+sigma2rho(m))/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n)) +
mu2reuse_mean*B + B*variance_mean*(1/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n))));
SE_MR_mean(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_MR_mean);

SINR_MR_worst = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + (mu1all_worst*K +

sigma2rho(m))*(B*(mu1reuse_worst+1)+sigma2rho(m))/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n)) +
mu2reuse_worst*B + B*variance_worst*(1/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n))));
SE_MR_worst(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_MR_worst);

SINR_MR_best = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + (mu1all_best*K +

sigma2rho(m))*(B*(mu1reuse_best+1)+sigma2rho(m))/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n)) +
mu2reuse_best*B + B*variance_best*(1/((1-epsilon2(m))*Mvalues(n))));
SE_MR_best(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_MR_best);

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%Zero-forcing (ZF) combining/precoding

%
%Achievable spectral efficiency using the formula in
%Theorem 1, for mean, worst, and best case interference
if Mvalues(n)-K>0

%Compute one of the terms in Theorem 1

term2_ZF_mean =
(directions*reuseMu1Mean2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_mean+1)+sigma2rho(m));
term2_ZF_worst =
(directions*reuseMu1Worst2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_worst+1)+sigma2rho(m))
;
term2_ZF_best =
(directions*reuseMu1Best2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_best+1)+sigma2rho(m));

SINR_ZF_mean = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_mean*B +

B*variance_mean/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_mean - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_ZF_mean) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_mean+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );
SE_ZF_mean(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_ZF_mean);

SINR_ZF_worst = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_worst*B +

B*variance_worst/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_worst - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_ZF_worst) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_worst+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );
SE_ZF_worst(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_ZF_worst);

SINR_ZF_best = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_best*B +

B*variance_best/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_best - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_ZF_best) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_best+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-K)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );
SE_ZF_best(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_ZF_best);

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end

%Full-pilot zero-forcing (P-ZF) combining/precoding

%
%Achievable spectral efficiency using the formula in
%Theorem 2, for mean, worst, and best case interference
if Mvalues(n)-B>0

%Compute one of the terms in Theorem 2

term2_PZF_mean =
(directions*reuseMu1Mean2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_mean+1)+sigma2rho(m))
+ directions*reuseMu1Mean2Next(reuseIndices(j))
/(B*(neighborsPerOtherPilot*reuseMu1MeanNext(reuseIndices(j)))+sigma2rho(m));
term2_PZF_worst =
(directions*reuseMu1Worst2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_worst+1)+sigma2rho(m))
+ directions*reuseMu1Worst2Next(reuseIndices(j))
/(B*(neighborsPerOtherPilot*reuseMu1WorstNext(reuseIndices(j)))+sigma2rho(m));
term2_PZF_best =
(directions*reuseMu1Best2(reuseIndices(j))+1^2)/(B*(mu1reuse_best+1)+sigma2rho(m)) +
directions*reuseMu1Best2Next(reuseIndices(j))
/(B*(neighborsPerOtherPilot*reuseMu1BestNext(reuseIndices(j)))+sigma2rho(m));

SINR_PZF_mean = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_mean*B

+ B*variance_mean/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_mean - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_PZF_mean) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_mean+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );
SE_PZF_mean(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_PZF_mean);

SINR_PZF_worst = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_worst*B

+ B*variance_worst/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_worst - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_PZF_worst) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_worst+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );

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SE_PZF_worst(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_PZF_worst);

SINR_PZF_best = B*(1-epsilon2(m))/(epsilon2(m)*B + mu2reuse_best*B +

B*variance_best/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) + (K*(mu1all_best - (1-
epsilon2(m))*B*term2_PZF_best) + sigma2rho(m)
)*(B*(mu1reuse_best+1)+sigma2rho(m))/(Mvalues(n)-B)/(1-epsilon2(m)) );
SE_PZF_best(n,K,j,m) = K*(1-
B/S(m))*log2(1+SINR_PZF_best);

end

end

end

end

end

end

%%Compute optimal number of UEs, K, for different system parameters

%Placeholders for storing simulation results for optimal number of UEs

optimalK_MR_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_ZF_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_PZF_mean = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));

optimalK_MR_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_ZF_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_PZF_worst = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));

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optimalK_MR_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_ZF_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));
optimalK_PZF_best = zeros(length(Mvalues),3,length(S));

%Go through different number of antennas

for n = 1:length(Mvalues)

%Go through different reuse factors

for j = 1:length(reuseIndices)

currentReuseFactor = reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j));

%Go through different other cases (varying SNR, coherence block, etc.)
for m = 1:length(S)

%Optimize for average interference case

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_MR_mean(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_MR_mean(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_MR_mean(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_ZF_mean(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_ZF_mean(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_ZF_mean(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_PZF_mean(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_PZF_mean(n,2,m)

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%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE

%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_PZF_mean(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

%Optimize for worst interference case

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_MR_worst(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_MR_worst(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_MR_worst(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_ZF_worst(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_ZF_worst(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_ZF_worst(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_PZF_worst(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_PZF_worst(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_PZF_worst(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

%Optimize for best interference case

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_MR_best(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_MR_best(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE

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%and the corresponding reuse factor

optimalK_MR_best(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_ZF_best(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_ZF_best(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_ZF_best(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

[maxValue,maxIndex] = max(SE_PZF_best(n,:,j,m));
if maxValue > optimalK_PZF_best(n,2,m)
%Store optimal number of UEs along with the optimized SE
%and the corresponding reuse factor
optimalK_PZF_best(n,:,m) = [maxIndex maxValue currentReuseFactor];
end

end

end

end

%%Plot simulation results

if simulationCase == 1 %Simulations from Section IV.A

%Plot Figure 1(a) and (b)

figure(1);

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subplot(2,1,1);
hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,max(max(SE_asymptotic_mean(:,:,1)))*ones(size(Mvalues)),'k:','LineWidth',1)
;
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_mean(:,2,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_mean(:,2,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_mean(:,2,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('Asymptotic limit','P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 400]);

subplot(2,1,2);
hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_mean(:,1,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_mean(:,1,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_mean(:,1,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,Mvalues,'k:','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Optimal Number of Scheduled UEs (K)');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 200]);

%Plot Figure 2(a) and (b)

figure(2);

subplot(2,1,1);
hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,max(max(SE_asymptotic_best(:,:,1)))*ones(size(Mvalues)),'k:','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_best(:,2,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);

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plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_best(:,2,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_best(:,2,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('Asymptotic limit','P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 2600]);

subplot(2,1,2);
hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_best(:,1,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_best(:,1,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_best(:,1,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,Mvalues,'k:','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Optimal Number of Scheduled UEs (K)');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 200]);

%Plot Figure 6(a) and (b)

figure(6);

subplot(2,1,1);
hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,max(max(SE_asymptotic_worst(:,:,1)))*ones(size(Mvalues)),'k:','LineWidth',1)
;

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plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_worst(:,2,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_worst(:,2,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_worst(:,2,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('Asymptotic limit','P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');

subplot(2,1,2);
hold on; box on;
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_worst(:,1,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_worst(:,1,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_worst(:,1,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,Mvalues,'k:','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Optimal Number of Scheduled UEs (K)');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','SouthEast');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 60]);

%Plot Figure 14
figure(14);
hold on; box on;

for m = 1:length(epsilon2)

plot(Mvalues,max(max(SE_asymptotic_mean(:,:,m)))*ones(size(Mvalues)),'k:','LineWidth',1
);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_mean(:,2,m),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_mean(:,2,m),'k--','LineWidth',1);

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plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_mean(:,2,m),'b-.','LineWidth',1);
end

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('Asymptotic limit','P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','SouthEast');
set(gca,'Xscale','log');
axis([10 1e5 0 400]);

elseif simulationCase == 2

%Plot Figure 8
figure(8); hold on; box on;

for j = [1 3];

optAreaRates = max(SE_PZF_mean(:,:,j),[],2);
plot(Mvalues,optAreaRates,'r','LineWidth',1);
text(200,optAreaRates(200)+5,num2str(reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j))));

optAreaRates = max(SE_ZF_mean(:,:,j),[],2);
plot(Mvalues,optAreaRates,'k--','LineWidth',1);
text(200,optAreaRates(200)+5,num2str(reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j))));

optAreaRates = max(SE_MR_mean(:,:,j),[],2);
plot(Mvalues,optAreaRates,'b-.','LineWidth',1);
text(400,optAreaRates(400)+3,num2str(reuseFactor(reuseIndices(j))));

end

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xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');

%Plot Figure 9
figure(9); hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,optimalK_PZF_mean(:,2)./optimalK_PZF_mean(:,1),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_ZF_mean(:,2)./optimalK_ZF_mean(:,1),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,optimalK_MR_mean(:,2)./optimalK_MR_mean(:,1),'b-.','LineWidth',1);

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('Per-UE Spectral Efficiency [bit/s/Hz/user]');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthEast');
axis([0 1000 0 3]);

%Plot Figure 10
figure(10); hold on; box on;

plot(Mvalues,Mvalues./optimalK_PZF_mean(:,1)','r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,Mvalues./optimalK_ZF_mean(:,1)','k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Mvalues,Mvalues./optimalK_MR_mean(:,1)','b-.','LineWidth',1);

plot([0 1000],[10 10],'k:');

xlabel('Number of BS Antennas (M)');

ylabel('BS Antennas per UE (M/K)');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthEast');
axis([0 1000 0 14]);

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%Plot Figure 11
figure(11); hold on; box on;

mValues = [100 500];

for m = 1:length(mValues)

plot(Kvalues,max(SE_PZF_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3),'r-','LineWidth',1);
plot(Kvalues,max(SE_ZF_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3),'k--','LineWidth',1);
plot(Kvalues,max(SE_MR_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3),'b-.','LineWidth',1);

[SEmax,kmax] = max(max(SE_PZF_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3));
plot(kmax,SEmax,'r*','LineWidth',1);

[SEmax,kmax] = max(max(SE_ZF_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3));
plot(kmax,SEmax,'k*','LineWidth',1);

[SEmax,kmax] = max(max(SE_MR_mean(mValues(m),:,:),[],3));
plot(kmax,SEmax,'b*','LineWidth',1);

end

xlabel('Number of UEs (K)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','Best');
axis([0 S(1)/2 0 140]);

elseif simulationCase == 3

%Plot Figure 2
figure(12); hold on; box on;

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for m = 1:length(Mvalues)

plot(SNRvaluesdB,reshape(max(max(SE_PZF_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(SNRvaluesdB
) 1]),'r-','LineWidth',1);

plot(SNRvaluesdB,reshape(max(max(SE_ZF_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(SNRvaluesdB)
1]),'k--','LineWidth',1);

plot(SNRvaluesdB,reshape(max(max(SE_MR_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(SNRvaluesdB
) 1]),'b-.','LineWidth',1);
end

xlabel('Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), \rho/\sigma^2 ');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','SouthEast');
axis([min(SNRvaluesdB) max(SNRvaluesdB) 0 150]);

elseif simulationCase == 4

%Plot Figure 3
figure(13); hold on; box on;

for m = 1:length(Mvalues)
plot(S,reshape(max(max(SE_PZF_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(S) 1]),'r-
','LineWidth',1);
plot(S,reshape(max(max(SE_ZF_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(S) 1]),'k--
','LineWidth',1);
plot(S,reshape(max(max(SE_MR_mean(m,:,:,:),[],3),[],2),[length(S) 1]),'b-
.','LineWidth',1);
end

xlabel('Coherence Block Length (S)');

ylabel('Spectral Efficiency (SE) [bit/s/Hz/cell]');
legend('P-ZF','ZF','MR','Location','NorthWest');

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axis([0 max(S) 0 300]);

end

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