Paleontological Society

Ichnofacies and Bathymetry: A Passive Relationship

Author(s): Robert W. Frey, S. George Pemberton and Thomas D. A. Saunders
Source: Journal of Paleontology, Vol. 64, No. 1 (Jan., 1990), pp. 155-158
Published by: Paleontological Society
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J. Paleont., 64(1), 1990, pp. 155-158
Copyright ? 1990, The Paleontological Society
0022-3360/90/0064-0155$03.00

PALEONTOLOGICALNOTES

ICHNOFACIESAND BATHYMETRY: A PASSIVE RELATIONSHIP

ROBERTW. FREY,' S. GEORGEPEMBERTON,2ANDTHOMAS D. A. SAUNDERS2
'Departmentof Geology,Universityof Georgia,Athens30602and
of Geology,Universityof Alberta,Edmonton,
2Department T6G2E3,Canada

STANDtoday as one of the more elegantbut widely biological-should be integratedand utilized in interpretations.
ICHNOFACIES
misunderstoodconcepts in ichnology, especially where paleo-
bathymetryis concerned.Marine ichnofacies are not intended
to be paleobathometers,as some workerscontinueto imply (e.g.,
Lockleyet al., 1987;Ekdale,1988);rather,they are archetypical
facies models based upon recurringichnocoenoses (Frey and
Pemberton, 1984, 1985, 1987). If a particularichnocoenose
tends to occurrepeatedlywithin a given bathymetricsetting,so
much the better; but water depth per se is rarely, if ever, a
governingfactor.Ichnocoenosesand ichnofacies,therefore,are
best viewed in the context of actual depositionalconditions or
environmentalgradients,whereverthey occur (Figure 1).
The originalichnofaciesconceptwas, of course,pioneeredby
Adolf Seilacher. Developed through studies of various trace
fossil associations in flysch-molasse basins (Seilacher, 1954,
1955, 1958), he first proposed the Skolithos -, Cruziana --
Zoophycos-- Nereitesfacies successionas an aid in reconstruc-
tion of shallow-to deep-watersedimentarysequences(Seilacher,
1963, 1964;Seilacherand Meischner,1964). Laterhe addedthe
Scoyenia and Glossifungitesfacies, both being independentof
specificbathymetricprofiles,and also refinedsome of his pre-
vious facies concepts (Seilacher,1967, 1978).
The Glossifungitesichnofacies,basedupon tracefossil assem-
blages at omission surfaces,originallywas envisioned for both
marineand nonmarinefirmgrounds(Seilacher,1967, fig. 1; cf.
Fiirsich and Mayr, 1981). Subsequently,it was restricted to
marinefirmgrounds,and the Trypanitesichnofacieswas intro-
duced to characterizeichnocoenoses such as those found in
hardgroundsor organicreefs(Freyand Seilacher,1980). Wood-
groundsoriginallywere permittedwithin the overall Trypanites
conceptbut laterwere removed as a separateentity, typifiedby
the Teredolitesichnofacies (Bromley et al., 1984). The non-
marineScoyeniaichnofaciesand the firmgroundGlossifungites
ichnofaciesalso were reevaluated(Freyet al., 1984; Pemberton
and Frey, 1985). Thus, contraryto the statementsby Lockley
et al. (1987, p. 255), none of these concepts or refinements
involved the originalbathymetricparadigm.
Similarly,variousworkerscontinueto identifyweaknessesin
the marine bathymetricparadigmas if these were new revela-
tions (e.g., Byers, 1982; Ekdale, 1988). In fact, such problems
were well known two to three decadesago (e.g., Henbest, 1960;
Hantzschel,1964;Osgood, 1970;Crimes, 1970;Frey, 1971;and
others)and have been restatedmany times since (e.g., Fiirsich,
1975; Hayward, 1976; Crimes, 1977; Corbo, 1979; Crimes et
al., 1981; Frey and Howard, 1982; Wetzel, 1984; Pembertonin
Ekdale et al., 1984; Ineson, 1987; Colella and D'Alessandro,
1988; and others). Instead of continuing to debate long-anti-
quatedaspectsof the paradigm,therefore,we shouldbe adapting
new methods for its improvement.Indeed, the environmental
parameterslisted by Ekdale (1988) should be viewed not as
separate entities, but rather, as integral parts of the moder
ichnofaciesconcept (Table 1).
One of the most fundamentaltenets of moder ichnofacies
analysis is that all available evidence-physical, chemical, or
155
For bathymetricassessments, these collective observations at
very least shouldbe placedin the contextof proximalitytrends,
whetheremphasizedfrom a sedimentologicalviewpoint (How-
ard and Reineck, 1981; Nittroueret al., 1984; Clifton, 1988) or
an ichnologicalone (Crimes, 1973; Wetzel, 1981; Howardand
Frey, 1984). Associationsbetween, and configurationsof, bio-
genicand physiogenicsedimentarystructuresarepowerfulcom-
binations in the reconstruction of environmental gradients
(Bourgeois, 1984; Moslow and Pemberton, 1988; Frey and
Wheatcroft,1989); they are especially useful where otherwise
prevalenttrendshave been modifiedby episodicevents or other
environmentalfluctuations(Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Aigner
and Reineck, 1982; Pembertonand Frey, 1984; Heinbergand
Birkelund,1984; Easthouseand Driese, 1988; Leithold, 1989;
and many others). Increasedquantificationand tests for asso-
ciations renderthe resultsall the more credible(e.g., Bjerstedt,
1988; Jones and Pemberton, 1989).
Eventhese integrated,quantitativeapproachescannotreplace
common-sense evaluations,however. Numerous authorshave
notedoccurrencesof the Cruzianaichnofaciesin settingsoutside
the zone specified in the original paradigm,for example, and
have used this discrepancyas an argumentagainstthe validity
or usefulness of the overall ichncfacies concept. If each shelf
sequence involved only a "normal" beach-to-offshoretrend,
then the classiconshoreSkolithosichnofacieswouldindeedgive
way to the offshoreCruzianaichnofacies (Seilacher,1963, fig.
2), virtuallywithout exception. But in many settingsthe near-
shore zone includes bays, lagoons, estuaries, deltas, and tidal
flats or salt marshes and the offshorezone includes bars and
shoals, fringingor barrierreefs, submarinecanyons or ridges,
or other featuresthat disruptthe "normal"trend. In a bay- or
estuary-to-offshoresequence,therefore,one might find that the
high-energySkolithos ichnofacies is partiallyto totally absent
(Pickerillet al., 1984; Pembertonin Ekdaleet al., 1984; Wight-
man et al., 1987)and thatthe low- to moderate-energyCruziana
ichnofacies reaches all the way to the intertidalzone or even
the shoreline(Frey et al., 1987). For similar reasons, the Sko-
lithosor Cruzianaichnofaciesmay appearon proximalpartsof
deep-seafans (Aceiiolazaand Durand, 1973; Crimes, 1977) or
the Zoophycosichnofacies may appear in silled basins or re-
strictedlagoons(Osgoodand Szmuc, 1972) (Figure1, Table 1).
In short, the idealized ichnofacies succession works well in
most "normal"situations (Frey and Pemberton, 1984, fig. 5);
yet one should not be surprisedto find nearshoreassemblages
in offshoresediments,andvice versa,if these accumulatedunder
conditions otherwise like those preferredby the tracemaking
organisms(Frey, 1971). The basic considerationrests not with
suchinanimatebackdropsas waterdepthor distancefromshore,
or some particulartectonic or physiographicsetting,but rather
with such innate, dynamic controllingfactorsas substratecon-
sistency,hydraulicenergy,ratesof deposition,turbidity,oxygen
and salinitylevels, toxic substances,the qualityand quantityof
availablefood, and the ecologic or ichnologicprowessof trace-

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PARADIG
ICHNOFACIES
ROURE I -Diagramatic distribution of archetypical ichnofacies. Marine ichnocoenoses are related to dynamic environmental factors rather than to
distance from shore. Compare with Table 1.

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 PALEONTOLOGICAL NOTES
TABLE 1-General environmental implications of archetypic ichnocoe-
noses defined to date. (Adopted from Bromley et al., 1984; Frey and
Pemberton, 1984, 1985, 1987.)
Scoyenia Ichnocoenose: Moist to wet, pliable, argillaceous to sandy
sediments at low-energy sites; either very shallowly submersed lacus-
trine or fluviatile deposits periodically becoming emergent or waterside
subaerial deposits periodically becoming submergent. Semiaquatic
vegetation may be present. Physical sedimentary structures may include
desiccation cracks and allied features. Intermediate between fully aquat-
ic and nonaquatic, nonmarine environments.
Teredolites Ichnocoenose: Resistant substrates consisting of driftwood
pavements, peat deposits, or related xylic substances, many of which
appear as lignite or coal in the rock record. May represent omission
surfaces developed on matted wood clasts, log jams, or other xylic
materials, or slow deposition in marshy or swampy areas of peat ac-
cumulation. Most common in estuarine, deltaic, or various backbarrier
environments. Woodgrounds may appear in freshwater settings but wood-
boring bivalves do not; freshwater ichnocoenoses consist principally of
isopod borings.
Trypanites Ichnocoenose: Consolidated marine littoral and sublittoral
omission surfaces developed on rocky coasts, beachrock, or carbonate
hardgrounds, or in organic substrates such as reefs or shell beds. Bioero-
sion is as important as, and indeed accelerates, physicochemical erosion
of the substrate,therebyunderminingit but producinglargequantities
of new sediment.In sequentialhardgrounddevelopment,the Trypanites
suite may crosscuta formerGlossifungitessuite or even an earlierCru-
ziana suite of traces.
GlossifungitesIchnocoenose:Firm but unlithifiedmarinelittoraland
sublittoralomission surfaces, especially semiconsolidatedcarbonate
firmgroundsor stable, coherent,partiallydewateredmuddy sediments
either in protected,moderate-energysettings or in areas of somewhat
higherenergywheresemiconsolidatedmicriticor siliciclasticsubstrates
offerresistanceto erosion. Final sedimentaryrecordtypicallyconsists
of mixtures of relict and palimpsest features,includingboth burrows
and borings.
PsilonichnusIchnocoenose:Supralittoralto upperlittoral,moderate-
orlow-energymarineand (or)aeolianconditionssubjectto modification
by torrentialrainsor stormsurges;associatedwith well-sorted,variably
laminatedto cross-stratifiedsands,to root- and burrow-mottled,poorly
sortedsands or muddy sands.A common coastalsetting,typicallyrep-
resentedby the beach backshoreand dunes but also by washoverfans
and supratidalflats;intergradational with the maritimeterrestrialzone.
SkolithosIchnocoenose:Lower littoral to infralittoral,moderate-to
relativelyhigh-energyconditions most typical;associatedwith muddy
to clean, well-sorted,shifting sediments subject to abrupterosion or
deposition.(Higherenergyincreasesphysicalreworkingand obliterates
traces,leaving a preservedrecordof physical stratification.)Generally
correspondsto the beach foreshoreand shoreface;but numerousother
settingsof comparableenergylevels may be represented,includinges-
tuarinepoint bars, tidal deltas, and deep-seasand fans.
CruzianaIchnocoenose:In shelf sequences, infralittoralto shallow
circalittoralsubstratesbelow daily wave base but not stormwave base,
to somewhat quieter conditions offshore;moderate to relatively low
energy;well-sorted silts and sands to interbeddedmuddy and clean
sands, moderatelyto intensely bioturbated;negligibleto appreciable,
thoughnot necessarilyrapid, sedimentation.A very common type of
depositionalenvironment,includingnot only shelvesand epeiricslopes
but also littoralto sublittoralpartsof some estuaries,lagoons,bays, and
tidal flats.
ZoophycosIchnocoenose:Circalittoralto bathyal, quiet-watercon-
ditions, or protectedintracoastalto epeiric sites with poor water cir-
culation;typifiedby muds or muddy sands rich in organicmatterbut
somewhatdeficientin oxygen.Offshoresites arebelow stormwave base
to deep water, in areas free of turbidity flows or significantbottom
currents.Wherebottom slopesaresweptby shelf-edgeor deepercontour
currents,this ichnocoenosemay be omitted in the transitionfrom in-
fralittoralto abyssalenvironments.Intracoastalto epeiricsites include
such featuresas silled basins and restrictedlagoons.
NereitesIchnocoenose:Bathyalto abyssal,mostly quiet but oxygen-
ated waters,in places interruptedby down-canyonbottom currentsor
turbidityflows (flysch-typedeposits);or, highly stable, very slowly ac-
cretingsubstratesin the distalabyss.In flysch-likesettings,pelagicmuds
typicallyare bounded above and below by turbidites;ichnocoenoses
consist of pre- and post-turbiditecomponents.In more distal regions,
therecordis mainlyone of continuousslow depositionandbioturbation,
yieldingcomplex bioturbatetextures.
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157
makers themselves (e.g., Vossler and Pemberton, 1988). Re-
sulting ichnocoenoses are related to bathymetry only where par-
ticular combinations of environmental parameters are related
to bathymetry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For their valuable reviews of the preliminary typescript we
thank T. Peter Crimes, University of Liverpool, and Robert A.
Wheatcroft, University of Washington.
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