Chapter 1:

Ch 1 Introduction
I d i and d
Basic Concepts

Dr Ali Jawarneh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hashemite University

1
 Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems
that will be used throughout the text.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review
R i concepts
t off temperature,
t t t
temperature
t
scales, pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.

2
3
1–1 THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of
energy.
• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
changes
• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).
(power)
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the
conservation of energy principle. It simply states
that during an interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount of energy
remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created
or destroyed.

4
• The change in the energy content of a body or any
other
h system iis equall to the
h difference
diff between
b the
h
energy input and the energy output, and the energy
balance is expressed as:
Ein - Eout = E

5
• The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that
energy is a thermodynamic property.
• The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy
has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing g quality
q y of energy.
gy
Example: a cup of hot coffee left on a table eventually
cools, but a cup of cool coffee in the same room never
gets hot by itself

6
• A substance consists of a large number of particles
called molecules.
molecules The properties of the substance
naturally depend on the behavior of these particles.
For example: the pressure of a gas in a container is
the result of momentum transfer between the
molecules and the walls of the container. It would be
sufficient to attach a pressure gage to the container.
• Classical thermodynamics:
y Macroscopic
p approach
pp
Does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles
• Statistical thermodynamics: Microscopic approach
Requires a knowledge of the behavior of individual particles

7
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

8
 1–2 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

• SI (International system):
Length (m), time (s), temperature (K), work & energy (J)
or (N.m), Power (W) or (J/s).
• English system:
Mass: 1slug=14.59 kg, or Ibm=0.4536 kg, or 1 slug=32.2
Ibm
Length: foot (ft)=30
(ft)=30.48
48 cm
Force: pound force {Ibf}=4.448 N
Temperature:
p Rankine{{oR}=460+
} oF

T(oF)=1.8 T(oC)+32
Work &energy: Btu (British thermal unit)
1 Btu=1.0551 kJ
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10
11
12
1–3 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system
is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings is called the
boundary. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both
the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the
boundary has zero thickness,
thickness and thus it can neither contain
any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

13
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending
on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen
for study.
• A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a
fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the
boundary;
y; and the volume of a closed system
y does not have to
be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to
cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.

14
• An open system, or a control volume, is a properly
selected region
g in space.
p It usually
y encloses a device that
involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
volume
• The boundaries of a control volume are called a control
surface and they can be real or imaginary.
surface, imaginary

15
 1–4 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
• Intensive pproperties
p are those that are
independent of the mass of a system, such
as Temperature T, Pressure P, and density ρ
• Extensive
E tensi e properties are those whosehose
values depend on the size—or extent—of
the system. Total mass, total volume, and
total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties.
• Extensive properties per unit mass are
called specific properties. Some examples
of specific properties are specific volume
(v =V/m)
V/ ) andd specific
ifi totall energy (e
=E/m). 16
 Continuum
• Matter is made up p of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is
very convenient to disregard the atomic
nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous homogeneous matter with no
continuous,
holes, that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and to
assume the properties vary continually in
space with no jump discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as longg as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the Despite the large gaps between
molecules. molecules, a substance can be
treated as a continuum because of
• Thi is
This i the
th case in
i practically
ti ll allll
the very large number of molecules
problems.
even in an extremely small volume.
• In this text we will limit our consideration
to substances that can be modeled as a
continuum.
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 1–5 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
• Density ρ is defined as mass per unit volume
• The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and
inverselyy pproportional
p to temperature.
p Liquids
q and solids, on
the other hand, are essentially incompressible substances, and
the variation of their density with pressure is usually
negligible The density of liquids and solids depends more
negligible.
strongly on temperature than it does on pressure
m
ρ= k / m3 )
( kg (1 4)
(1-4)
V
• specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit mass

V 1
v= = (1-5)
m ρ
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• specific gravity SG is defined as the ratio of the density
of a substance to the density of some standard substance
at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for
which ρ H2O = 1000 kg/m3).

ρ
SG = (1-6)
ρH O
2

• specific weight γ s : The weight of

a unit volume of a substance

γs = ρ g (N / m3 ) ( )
(1-7)

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 1–6 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• At a given state,
state all the properties of a system have fixed
values. If the value of even one property changes, the
state will change
g to a different one.
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word
equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium
state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces)
within
i hi the
h system. A system in i
equilibrium experiences no changes
when
h it isi isolated
i l t d from
f its
it
surroundings.

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• There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not
in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all
the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
o Thermal equilibrium
q if the temperature
p is the same
throughout the entire system

o Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a

system is
i in
i mechanical
h i l equilibrium
ilib i if there
h is i no change
h
in pressure at any point of the system with time.
However, the pressure may vary within the system with
elevation as a result of gravitational effects.
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o Phase equilibrium If a system involves two phases,
it is in when the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
o Chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition
does not change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.
The State Postulate: The number of properties
required to fix the state of a system is given by the state
postulate:
“The
The state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive
p p
properties”
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• A system is called a simple compressible system in the
absence of electrical
electrical, magnetic,
magnetic gravitational,
gravitational motion,
motion and
surface tension effects.
• Two p properties
p are independent
p if one p
property
p y can be
varied while the other one is held constant. Temperature
and specific volume, for example, are always independent
properties,
ti andd together
t th they th can fix
fi the
th state
t t off a simple
i l
compressible system .
Temperature and pressure,
pressure however,
however
are independent properties for single-phase
systems but are dependent properties
systems,
for multiphase systems, T = f(P),
during a phase
phase-change
change process
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 1–7 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
ƒ Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another
i called
is ll d a process, andd the
th series
i off
states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of
the process.
ƒ A quasi-equilibrium process When a
process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times. It can be
viewed
i d as a sufficiently
ffi i l slowl process that h
allows the system to adjust itself internally
so that pproperties
p in one ppart of the system
y
do not change any faster than those at
other parts. 24
ƒ Process diagrams plotted by employing
thermodynamic
h d i properties
i as coordinates
di are very
useful in visualizing the processes. Some common
properties that are used as coordinates are
temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific
volume v).
)

25
• Isothermal process is a process during which the
temperature T remains constant
• Isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P
remains constant
• Isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during
which the specific volume v remains constant.
‰ A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns
to its initial state at the end of the process. That is, for
a cycle
l the
th initial
i iti l andd final
fi l states
t t are identical.
id ti l

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 The Steady-Flow Process
• Th
The term
t t d implies
steady i li no change
h
with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady,y, or transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies
no change with location over a
specified region.
• steady-flow process, which can be
d fi d as a process during
defined d i whichhi h a
fluid flows through a control volume
steadily
y .That is,, the fluid properties
p p
can change from point to point within
the control volume, but at any fixed
point
i they
h remain i the
h same during
d i the h
entire process. 27
 1–8 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics
states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
other
• It serves as a basis for the validity of
temperature
p measurement byy replacing
p g
the third body with a thermometer, the
zeroth law can be restated as two
bodies
b di are iin thermal
th l equilibrium
ilib i if
both have the same temperature
readingg even if theyy are not in
contact.
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 Temperature Scales
• The temperature scales used in the SI and the English
system today are the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit
scale respectively.
scale, respectively
• The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T ( K ) = T ( C ) + 273.15
o
(1-9)
(1 9)
• The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T ( R ) = T ( oF ) + 459.67 ((1-10))
• The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related
by T ( R ) = 1.8 T ( K ) ((1-11))
T ( oF ) = 1.8 T ( oC ) + 32 (1-12)
ΔT ( K ) = Δ T ( oC ) (1-13)
(1 13)
ΔT ( R ) = Δ T ( oF ) (1-14) 29
 l Consider
Example:
E C id a system whose h temperature is
i
18°C. Express this temperature in R, K, and °F.

Solution:

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 1–9 PRESSURE
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area.
• it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which
is called a pascal (Pa). In British unit (lbf/in2, or psi),
1 bar =105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa

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• Absolute pressure ( Pabs ):
The actual pressure at a given position and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure (Pgage):
The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure (Patm).
• vacuum pressure (Pvac): )
The difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure or the Pressure below atmospheric pressure

Pgage = Pabs − Patm (1-15)

Pvac = Patm − Pabs (1-16)

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 Variation of Pressure with Depth
• P
Pressure iin a fluid
fl id at rest does
d not change
h in
i the
h
horizontal direction.
• Pressure
P iin a fluid
fl id att restt changes
h in
i the
th vertical
ti l
direction
P = Patm + ρ g h or Pgage = ρ g h (1-19)
where h is the height of the liquid column.

33
 dP The pressure changes
= − ρ g = −γ s inverselyy with elevation. If
dz one travels upward in the
(1-20) fluid, the pressure decreases
• For a fluid with uniform density, integrating the basic
equation results the following:
p + γ z = constant
• Therefore, the pressure and elevation at one point can be
related to the pressure and elevation at another point
according to the following: P1 + γ s z1 = P2 + γ s z 2
• When the variation of density y with elevation is known:
2
ΔP = P2 − P1 = − ∫ ρ g dz (1-21)
1

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• It is easy to deal with gage pressure than absolute
• Two Examples:

0 + γ 1 h1 + γ 2 h2 + γ 3 h3 = P1 ( gage )

P1 + γ f (a + h) − γ M h − γ f a = P2 ( gage )
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• Pascal’s principle states that the pressure applied to
a confined
fi d fluid
fl id increases
i the
h pressure throughout
h h by
b
the same amount.

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1 = P2 → = → = (1-22)
A1 A2 F1 A1
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 1–10 THE MANOMETER
‰ The manometer is a device to measure pressure
differences and used to measure small and moderate pressure
differences.
γf

γm
⇒ γf Δp = (γ m − γ f ) Δh

g =γ h
Pggage

P4 gage = γ m Δh − γ f L
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 Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon-Tube Gage: is a very common device that utilises
the deflection in a spring tube to measure the pressure.

• Pressure Transducers:
utilise the deflection of
a diaphragm to produce
an electrical signal that can
be related to the pressure.
p
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 1–11 THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer;; thus,, the atmospheric
p pressure
p is often referred
to as the barometric pressure.
• The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure,
and the pressure at C can be taken to be zero since there is
only mercury vapor above point C
and the pressure is very low relative
to Patm.

Patm = ρ g h (1-26)

39
Example: Freshwater and seawater flowing in parallel
horizontal pipelines are connected to each other by a
double U-tube manometer. Determine the pressure
difference between the two ppipelines.
p The densityy of
seawater is ρsea = 1035and the density of fresh water
is ρfresh =1000 kg/m3. The specific gravity of mercury
is 13.6.

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Solution:
Pleft + γ f h f − γ Hg h Hg − γ air h air + γ s h s = Pright (gage)

γ f = ρ f g = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N / m 3

γ Hg = ρ Hg g = SG ρ H 20 g = 13.6x1000x 9.81 = 133,416 N / m 3

γ air h air ≈ 0
γ s = ρ s g = 1035x9.81 = 10153 N / m 3

Pleft + 98 0x 0.6 − 133416

9810 33 6x 0.1 − 0 + 10153
0 53x 0.4 = Pright

Pleft − Pright = 3.39 kPa

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 Summary
• Thermodynamics and energy
– Application areas of thermodynamics
• Importance of dimensions and units
– Some SI and English units,
units Dimensional homogeneity
homogeneity, Unity
conversion ratios
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
– The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
– The steady-flow
y process
p
• Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
– Temperature scales
• Pressure
– Variation of pressure with depth
42
• The manometer and the atmospheric pressure