Current Electricity PDF

JEEMAIN.
GURU
Vidyamandir Classes DC
DCCircuits
Circuits
DC Circuits
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE Section - 1
Electric Current
If dq coulombs of charge flow across any cross-section of a conductor in time dt, then the magnitude of the
current I flowing through it is given by :
dq
I
dt
Thus an electric current may be defined as the rate of flow of electric charges across any cross-
section of a conductor.
The S.I. unit of current is ampere and is denoted as A.
One ampere current is said to flow through a conductor when a charge of 1 coulomb passes through
any crossection in 1 second.
1 A = 1 C/ 1 s
1 mA = 10–3 A, 1 µA = 10–6 A
 In metals, the carriers of electric current are negatively charged electrons.
 As a matter of convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction of flow of positive
charges.
 In electrolytes, the carriers of electric current are ions.
 The amount of charge flowing through a crossection of a conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by :
tf
q I dt
ti
Specific Resistance or Resistivity :

 R of a conductor is directly proportional to its length ().
 R of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).

R & R
A

 R  is called as specific resistance or resistivity.
A
 (resistivity) depends only upon the material of which the conductor is made. It is defined as the resistance
of the conductor made of a given material having length of 1 meter and area of cross-section 1 m2
OR
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DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes
It can be defined as the resistance of a cube of material of side 1 m when current flows
perpendicular to opposite faces.
The unit of resistivity in S.I. system is ohm-m.
Effect of temperature on Resistance and Resistivity:

The resistance and resistivity of all materials change with temperature.
In general :
 the resistance increases with the rise in temperature in case of metals (conductors) &
 the resistance decreases with temperature in case of insulators and semiconductors
(i.e. carbon, silicon & germanium).
Temperature coefficient of resistivity :

If 1 and 2 are resistivities of a material at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, then :
2 = 1 (1    )
where  = T2  T1 is the temperature difference and  is known as temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Temperature coefficient of resistance :

If R1 and R2 are resistances of a material at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, then :
R2 = R1 (1 + R )
where  = T2 – T1 is the temperature difference and R is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.

R =    ( : coefficient of linear expansion)
 R =  (as  <<  )
Notable exception to the above relation is the material manganin for which  <  and hence R is
negative. i.e., resistance decreases with temperature.
Ohm’s Law :
It states that the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the
temperature and the other physical conditions remain unchanged.
If I is the current flowing across a conductor and V is the potential
V
difference across its ends, then 0
V I
or V = IR where R is constant
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Vidyamandir Classes DC Circuits
The constant R is called as the resistance of the conductor and it can be defined as the opposition or
obstruction to the flow of electrons which results on account of their collisions with the stationary
ions of conductor. The S.I unit of resistance is ohm and is denoted by . 1 = 1 volt/1A. One ohm is
defined as the resistance of conductor which allows a passage of current of 1A through it, when a potential
difference of 1V is maintained across its ends.
Ohm’s Law in Microscopic Form :

We can express Ohm’s Law in microscopic form, that is, in terms of the driving electric field E and the
current density j (current per unit cross-sectional area) at any point within a conductor.
For uniform field in a conductor, we have V = E  and from Ohm’s Law, V = iR
 E  = iR  E  = i /A
Since j = i/A, we get : E=j
In terms of conductivity  = 1/, Ohm’s Law is j =  E.
Heating Effect of current :

We know that when current passes through a conductor, the electrons inside it move from one end to
another. These moving electrons are continuously obstructed by the fixed atoms (ions) inside the conductor.
The repeated collisions of moving electrons with fixed atoms result in dissipation of kinetic energy in form of
heat. Hence whenever current passes through a conductor, it gets heated up. This is known as heating effect
of current.
When current flows through a conductor, positive charges fall from high potential to low potential and hence
lose energy. This energy is dissipated in form of heat.
Heat dissipated = Energy lost by charge q in falling through a potential difference V in time t sec.
Heat dissipated = q V = (i t) V = V i t = i2 Rt
In case of heaters, electric irons, radiators etc, electrical energy is mostly converted into heat. In case of
electric lamps, about 5% of the total electric energy is converted into visible light. The amount of heat
generated is generally given in calories as :
V it i2 R t
H calories  calories
4.18 4.18
Electric Power :
The rate at which the energy is dissipated is called as Electric Power (P). It is given as :
heat disspated
P  I2 R
t
V2
Also P V I 
R
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Its S.I. units are Watts (W). 1 W = 1 J/s.

Another unit of power is kilo watt hour (KWH). It is defined as the energy dissipated by a current at the rate
of 1000 Watts for 1 hour.
1 KWH = 3.6 × 106 J
Heat exchange for a temperature rise of C is given by :
I2 Rt
 m s m : mass ; s : specific heat ;  = difference in temperature
4.18
Drift Velocity
Thermal Motion of Electrons :
In a metal in a solid state, atoms occupy places in a fixed and regular arrangement. In this state some
electrons are free to move. They possess thermal energy. They are in a state of continuous random motion
(like the gaseous molecules). They are constantly colliding with atoms. Their velocities are randomly distributed
in all directions. Hence the average velocity
u  u  u  . . . .  uN
u 1 2 3 0 . . . .(i)
N
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . . are the velocities of individual electrons. Because there is no net flow of charge in any
direction, the current is zero.
Application of Potential difference :

When a potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, an electric field E is established
inside it. Due to electric field, each electron experiences an electric force F =  e E.
eE
Acceleration due to force F is  .
m
Between two successive collisions, electron gains some speed which is soon lost in next collision (causing
heating of conductor). If we observe all electrons at any arbitrary instant, they will have velocities equal to
the thermal velocity plus velocity gained after last collision.
  eE 
vi  ui    ti where ti is the time spent after last collision.
 m 
Taking the average of all such instantaneous velocities,
 vi  ui eE  ti
 
N N m N

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The average velocity is called the drift velocity vd, and the average time spent between successive collisions
is called relaxation time .
eE
vd  0  
m
Considering the magnitudes,
eE
vd  
m
Drift Velocity (Vd)

It is the average velocity of the free electrons with which they get drifted E
towards the positive terminal under the influence of external field.
Consider a conductor of length  and of uniform cross-section A. A
potential difference of V volts is applied across its ends. The electrons
start drifting towards the high potential terminal with drift velocity Vd. e
 Vd
Time taken by electrons to cover length (), t  V
d
Amount of charge that flows during this time q = no. of free electrons
per unit volume  volume  charge on 1 e
q = n (A ) e and I=q/t
 I = nAe(/t) = nAe vd and j = nevd
Combining E = j and j = nevd
m
and vd 
eE
 , we get :
 .
m ne2 
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Illustration - 1 A certain electric conductor has a square cross-section, 2.0 mm on a side, and is 12 m
long. The resistance between its ends is 0.072 .
(a) What is the resistivity of the material ?
(b) If the electric field magnitude in the conductor is 0.12 V/m, what is the total current ?
(c) If the material has 8 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter, find the average drift velocity under the
conditions of part (b).
SOLUTION :
(a) A = (2 × 10–3)2 = 4 × 10–6 m2 (c) Let drift velocity = Vd
 = 12 m, R = 0.072 
n = 8 × 1028 electrons/m3
6
RA 0.072  4 10
   2.4 108  m. current = i = e n A Vd
 12
i 20
(b) Electric field in the conductor = V/ = 0.12 Vd  
enA 1.6 1019  8 1028  4  106
V = 0.12 × 12 = 1.44 Volts.
= 3.9  10–4 m/s.
i = V/R = 1.44 /0.072 = 20 A
Illustration - 2 The current in a wire varies with time according to the relation :
i = 4 A + (2t2) A/s2
(a) How many coulombs pass a cross-section of the wire in the time interval between t = 5 s and
t = 10 s ?
(b) What constant current could transport the same charge in same time interval ?
SOLUTION :
i (t) = 4 + 2t2
10 10
(a) q  
5
i dt  
5  4  2t 2  dt  603.33 C
q 603.33
(b) ic    120.67 A.
t 10  5

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Illustration - 3 The region between two concentric conducting spheres of radius ra and rb is filled with a
conducting material of resistivity  .
(a) Show that the resistance between the spheres is given by :
 1 1
R   
4  ra rb 
(b) Drive an expression for current density as a function of radius, if the p.d. between the spheres is Vab.
SOLUTION :
All the shells are in the series.

rb
r  total resistance = R =  d R
ra
rb
 dr  1 1
dr  R     
2 4
r a 4 r  ra rb 
(b) The current density = j = i / A

(a) Let us divide the region between the conducting
at a radius r , A = 4  r2
spheres into infinite concentric spherical shells.
Consider one such shell of inside radius r and Using Vab = I R
thickness dr. Vab 4  ra rb 
 j (r )   
 dr 4r 2   rb  ra 
Its resistance = dR =
4r 2
Illustration - 4 A toaster using a Nichrome heating element operates on 120 V . When it switched on at
0°C, it carries an initial current of 1.5 A. A few seconds later, the current reaches the steady value of 1.33
A. What is the final temperature of the element ? The average value of the temperature coefficient of the
Nichrome over the temperature range is 0.00045/°C.
SOLUTION :
Let R0 and Rt be the resistances at 0C and 120 120
final temperature tC.  
1.33 1.5

1 R t 
 Rt = R0 (1 + R t)
1  1.5  1.7
120 120  t    1.33 1  0.00045 1.33  284C
 1.5  & 1.33  R 
R0 Rt

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Illustration - 5 A conductor of length  has a resistance R. What will be the resistance if it is stretched so
that its length becomes n times ?
SOLUTION :
n
When length becomes n times, the area of cross-  R =  n2 R
section becomes 1/n times so that the volume A
(and mass) remains same. n
Hence the resistance becomes n2 times the
original value.
Illustration - 6 A bulb has voltage rating of 220 V and power rating of 40 W.

(a) Calculate the resistance of the bulb.
(b) What will happen if a voltage source of 200 V is connected across the bulb ?
(c) How can the bulb be made to glow with normal brightness if a voltage source of emf 330 V is
available ?
SOLUTION :
220 V / 40 W rating mean that the bulb will S
dissipate power equal to 40 W when the voltage
of 220 V is applied across it. The brightness of (c) 330 V R bulb
a bulb is proportional to the power dissipated
across it. A power dissipation of 40 W for this If a voltage greater than the voltage rating (=
bulb will make it glow with normal brightness. 220 V) is applied, the bulb will glow more
brightly, but it can be damaged. Hence for a
(voltage rating )2
(a) Resistance of bulb = R = voltage supply of 330V, we will have to divert
power rating
the voltage across a resistance S connected in
220  220 series with the bulb.
 R = 1210 
40 S should be selected so that p.d. across the bulb
(b) If the voltage across bulb is 200 V, is 220 V.
200  200  R 
Power dissipated =  33.05 W  220  330  
1210 R  S
As the power dissipated is less than 40 W, the
 1210 
bulb will glow less than the normal brightness.  220  330  
 1210  S 
 S = 605 

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Illustration - 7 Two bulbs A (40 W/ 220 V) and B (60 W /220 V) are connected in parallel across a supply
of 220 V. Which one of them will glow more brightly ? What will happen when they are connected in series ?
SOLUTION:
The brightness is proportional to the power The bulb having greater resistance will glow more
dissipation. brightly.
When the bulbs are connected in parallel with
each other, the voltage across them are equal. VA2 220  220
Here : RA   = 1210 .
PA 40
V2 1
P   Brightness 
R R VB 2 220  220
The bulb having lesser resistance will glow more RB   =806.67 .
PB 60
brightly.
RA > RB
When the bulbs are in series, the current through
each bulb is same. B will glow brighter when they are in parallel
and A will be brighter when they are in series.
P  I 2R  brightness  R
Illustration - 8 An electric tea kettle has two heating coils. When one of coils is switched on, the kettle
begins to boil in 6 minutes. When the other is switched on, the boiling begins in 8 minutes. In what time will
the boiling begin if both coils are switched simultaneously: (i) in series (ii) in parallel ?
Assume only one battery is used in all three cases.
SOLUTION :
Heat required to begin boiling is same for every V 2 t1 V 2 t2
 R1  and R2 
case. Let this be H. H H
Let R1 and R2 be resistances of the coils and V V 2t s V 2ts
be the supply voltage. Substituting in H   H
R1  R2 V 2 (t1  t2 )
t1 = 6 min, t2 = 8 min.
 ts = t1 + t2 = 14 min.
Let ts be the time when they are in series and tp
be the time when they are parallel.
V2
H = power × time Substituting in H  ( R1  R2 ) t p
R1R2
V2 V2 V2  H
H t1  t2  ts H 
R1 R2 R1  R2  H  V 2t p   
 V 2 t V 2t 
 1 2
V2 t1 t2 68 24
 ( R1  R2 ) t p  
R1R2  tp = minutes.
t1  t2 68 7

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Illustration - 9 A fuse made of lead wire has area of cross-section 0.2 mm2. On short circuiting, the current
in the fuse reaches 30 A. How long after the short circuiting will the fuse begin to melt? Density = 11.34 g/cc
; specific heat of lead = 0.032 cal/g/ C ; melting point = 327 C ;  = 22 × 10–6 –cm ; initial temperaturee
= 20C.
SOLUTION :
The fuse begins to melt when its temperature rises to 327 C from 20 C.
 heat required = m s  = (A  d) s 
where  = length of the wire
If t is the time, then heat dissipation in cal/s is :
  
i 2 Rt i2   t
2
H  (A  d) s  = i Rt   A 
4.18 4.18 4.18
4.18 A2 d s 
 t =
i2 
= 0.094 s
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES Section - 2
The resistances of resistors can be grouped together in the following two manners :
(i) Series Combination (ii) Parallel Combination
Equivalent Resistance :
If a single resistor can replace the combination of resistances in such a manner that the current in the circuit
remains unaltered, then that single resistance is called as equivalent Resistance.
Series Combination :
Two or more than two resistances say R1 and R2 are said to be joined in series if they are connected end to
end so that the same current flows through each resistor.
i R1 i R2 i
V1 V2

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Let Req be the equivalent resistance of two resistors R1 and R2 joined in series. Let V be the total potential
difference across the combination and I be the current passing through each resistor. The equivalent resistance
Req is given as :
Req = R1 + R2
(i) The current through each resistance is same.
(ii) The total voltage V is divided into two parts :
R1 R2
across R1 : V1  V across R2 : V2  V
R1  R2 R1  R2
Parallel Combination :
Two or more than two resistors say R1, R2 are said to be joined in parallel if the ends of one resistor are
connected across the ends of the other as shown. Let Req be the equivalent resistor of two resistances
joined in parallel. Let I be the current flowing across the combination and V be the potential difference. Then
Req is given as :
1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2
(i) The voltage across each resistance is same. R1

I1
I I
(ii) The total current I is divided into two parts : R2
I2
R2
Current through R1 : I1  I
R1  R2
R1
R1  R2
Electromotive Force :
When a steady current is to be passed through a resistance, a constant Cell
+ + + +
potential difference must be maintained across its ends. heat
+ +
An electric cell is a device which can maintain a constant potential
Resistance
difference across its ends. The cell converts its chemical energy into + +
high low
electrical energy and transfer this energy to the resistance connected potential heat potential
across its terminals. This energy is dissipated as heat in the resistance.
The positive charge carriers in the circuit fall from high potential to low
potential across resistance. The cell lifts these charges from low potential Cell
and puts them again at higher potential. This influence of the cell that
makes the charge move from low potential to higher potential is known
as electromotive force (EMF).

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Quantitatively EMF is the potential difference across the terminals of a Cell

cell when the cell is in open circuit i.e., when it is not delivering any
current. R
When there is an external conducting path between the cell-terminals,

current flows through the closed circuit.
The potential difference across the cell-terminals in that case is the

combination of emf (E) of the cell and the potential drop across the
internal resistance (r) of the cell itself. The internal resistance (r) is
the resistance offered by its electrodes and electrolyte etc.
Single Loop Circuit :

If any circuit can be easily simplified to a combination of one cell and
one resistance across it, then we will call it a single loop circuit.
For a single loop circuit,

E
i
R
net emf
 current supplied by cell = net resis tan ce
We already know the rules for combining resistances in series or parallel. For combining cells connected in
series, note the following very carefully.
E1 E2 E1 + E2
(i)
cells in same direction combined cell
E1 E2 E1 – E2 E2 – E1
(ii)
(E1 > E2) (E 2 > E 1)
cell in opposite direction combined cell
(iii)

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1 1 1 1
  
r r1 r2 r3
(iv) E1 E2 E
  3
r1 r2 r3
E
1 1 1
 
r1 r2 r3
Illustration - 10 Calculate the current through the 5  resistance. The

cell has negligible internal resistance.
SOLUTION :
current through the cell will be

em f
= i = net resis tan ce
50 25
i=  A.
20  5 7
10 
Net resistance across the cell 20  5
20  5 For || combination of 5  and 20  ,

= 10 + 20  5
i R1 25 20 20
I2 =    A.
R1  R2 7 20  5 7
Illustration - 11 In the circuit shown, the EMF’S of the cell are : E = 10 V ;

1
E2 = 40 V ; R = 15  ; internal resistances are r1 = 1  ; r2 = 2 
Calculate the current through R and the potential difference across the terminals of each cell.
SOLUTION :

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The two cells are equivalent to a single cell of emf p.d. across cells :
E = E2  E1 = 40 V  10 V = 30 V p.d. across the terminals of cell E1 is
As E2 > E1, the net emf follows the direction of E2 = VA – VB = E1 + ir1 = 10 + 5/3 × 1
Current through each resistance (all are in series) is = 35/3 V.
i = 30/18 = 5/3 A. p.d. across the terminals of cell E2 is
= VC – VB = E2  ir2 = 40  5/3 × 2
= 110/3 V
Note : (i) Current is flowing out of the positive terminals of a cell E2. Hence this cell is supplying energy to the
circuit and p.d. across its terminals is V = E2  ir2
(ii) Current is flowing into the positive terminals of the cell E1. Hence this cell is receiving energy
from the circuit. We usually say that the cell is being charged. The p.d. across terminals of the cell
getting charged is V = E1 + ir1
Illustration - 12 ‘mn’ identical cells of emf E and internal resistance r each are connected in n parallel rows
where each row contains m cells in series. This combination of cells is connected across an external resistance
R. What is the current through R ? What should be the arrangement of cells for getting maximum current
through R if the total number of cells is fixed ?
SOLUTION :
If total number of cells is fixed then mn is fixed

and we have to calculate m and n so that current
is maximum. We can write i as :
mnE
i
2
The simplified circuit is shown :

 mr  nR   2 mnr R
As mn is fixed, I is maximum if denominator is
minimum.
2
 mr  nR   0
m R
 
mE n r
i mnE
mr  i No. of cells in a row external resistance
R mr  nR 
n No.of rows internal resistance of each cell
This is the current through R.

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This is the condition for getting maximum For maximum current :

current through R. RN
Number of cells in a row =
If N is the total number of cells, then : r
m R
On solving : mn = N and  we get : Nr
n r and Number of rows =
R
Illustration - 13 The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.5 V when there is a current of
3 A in the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 2 A in the reverse direction,
the p.d. becomes 11 V.
(a) What is the internal resistance of the battery ? (b) What is the emf of the battery ?
SOLUTION :
VAB = E  i r
8.5 = E  3 r . . . . (i)
VAB = E + i r
11 = E + 2 r . . . . (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get :
10 V and r = 0.5 
Let A, B represent the terminals of the cell.
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS Section - 3
Kirchoff’s voltage law

The algebraic sum of the potentials in a closed path is zero.
In algebraic sum, we take a rise in potential as positive and a fall in potential as negative. This implies that :
(i) If we pass through a resistor in the direction of current, the change in potential is  i R. If we pass
through a resistor opposite to the current, the change in potential is + i R.
(ii) If we pass through a cell in the direction of emf (i.e., from negative terminal to positive terminal),
the change in potential is + E. The change in potential is E, if we go from the positive potential
to the negative potential (i.e., opposite to emf).
Kirchoff’s Current Law

The sum of currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of currents going away from the junction.

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Illustration - 14 Calculate the current through each resistance in the given circuit. Also calculate the potential
difference between the points a and b.
Given that :
E1 = 6 V, E2 = 8 V, E3 = 10 V
R1 = 5 R2 = 10 , R3 = 4 
Assume that all the cells have no internal resistance.
SOLUTION :
Usually, the process of solving a circuit involves (x  y) R2  E2 + y R3 + E3 = 0
three steps :
 5x  7y = 1 . . . . (ii)
(i) Assume unknowns (x, y, . . . . ) for currents in
(iii) Solve the equations formed in step (ii). Some
different branches of the circuit. Use the
currents may come out to be negative. This
Kirchoff ’s current law at the junctions so that
simply means that their direction was incorrectly
the number of unknowns introduced is minimum.
assumed. So the signs of the currents will give
Let x be the current through R1 and y be the us the correct direction of each current.
current through R3 as shown. Kirchoff’s current
Solving (i) and (ii), we get :
law at the junction a gives a current (x  y)
through R2. 24 5
 x A and y A
55 11
1
 xy= A
55
The signs indicate that the direction of x and y
was assumed incorrectly while the direction of
(x – y) was correct.
(ii) Select as many loops as the number of unknowns
24
introduced for currents. Apply Kirchoff’s voltage i (through R1) = A towards left
law through every loop. 55
1
i (thorugh R2) = A towards right
55
5
i (thorugh R3) = A towards right
11
The current directions are shown below :
Going anticlockwise through the loop containing

R1 and R3 (starting from junction a)
+ x R1  E1 + y R3 + E3 = 0
 5x + 4y =  4 . . . . (i)
Going clockwise through the loop containing R2
and R3 (starting from junction a)

JEEMAIN.GURU
Potential difference between a and b : Here let us go from b to a through R3.

The p.d. between any two points in a circuit is  Va  Vb = + y R3 + E3
calculated by adding changes in potential while
going through any path from one point to the   5 90
=   4  10  volts.
other point.  11  11
Note carefully that we get (Va – Vb) if we
go from b to a.
Illustration - 15 Find the current in each branch of the given circuit. What is the energy supplied by the
battery to the circuit in one minute ?
SOLUTION :
Solving these equations, we get

x = 10 A ; y=4A; z=2A
 the currents in the resistances are :
i (in upper 1 ) = x  y = 6 A
i (in upper 2 ) = y = 4 A
Let x, y, z be the currents in the circuit as shown. i (in middle 1 ) = 2 A (from left to right)
In the left loop containing cell, i (in lower 2 ) = x  y + z = 4 A
+ 14  1 (x – y)  2 (x  y + z) = 0
i (in lower 1 ) = y  z = 6 A
In the top right loop (clockwise),
Current in the middle 1  resistance is 2 A from
 2y  1z + 1 (x  y) = 0 left to right.
In the bottom right loop (clockwise), All the other currents are from top to the bottom.
1z  1 (y  z) + 2 (x  y + z) = 0 Total current supplied by the battery = x = 10 A
Simplifying these equations we get : Energy supplied by the battery in one minute
3x  3y + 2z = 14 = (Emf) × (current) × (60 s)
x  3y  z = 0 Energy = 14 × 10 × 60 = 8400 J
2x  3y + 4z = 0

JEEMAIN.GURU
Illustration - 16 In the given circuit, determine the value of current i and i

1 2
in the zero resistances branches.
SOLUTION :
Applying
KVL along APDA,
– 10x + 60 = 0  x = 6A
Similarly the junctions B and P can also be joined
KVL along ACQBDA, together.
– 30z + 60 = 0  z = 2A
KVL along ACQPDA
– 20y + 60 = 0  y = 3A
KCL at junction P gives : i2 = x + y = 9A
KCL at junction Q gives : i1 = y + z = 5A
Alternate method : As all the resistances are connected across the

As the junctions A and Q are at same potential groups (A, Q) and (B, P), they are effectively in
(VA – VQ = i1 (0) = 0) we can join A and Q parallel.
together. 60 60 60
x  6A ; y   3A ; z   2A
10 20 30
KCL at junction P gives : i2 = x + y = 9A
KCL at junction Q gives : i1 = y + z = 5A
NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Section - 4
Ammeter and Voltmeter

Ammeter is an instrument which reads the current passing through it. It is used to measure the current in a
branch of a circuit. The ammeter must be inserted into the branch so that the current to be measured passes
through it. The resistance of an ammeter should be very small (ideally zero) so that it does not appreciably
change the current which is to be measured.
Voltmeter is an instrument which reads the potential difference across its terminals. To measure the potential
difference between any two points A and B in the circuit, the voltmeter terminals are connected to A and B
without breaking the circuit. The resistance of the voltmeter should be very large (ideally infinite) so that it
does not alter the currents in the circuit and the potential difference to be measured.

JEEMAIN.GURU
Illustration - 17 A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2  is connected to a resistor of 100 
resistance. In order to measure the current through the resistance and the potential difference across its ends,
an ammeter is connected in series with it and a voltmeter is connected across its ends. The resistance of the
ammeter is 4/3 and that of voltmeter is 200 . What are the readings of the two instruments ? What would
be their reading if they were ideal instrument ?
SOLUTION :
 The current through the ammeter is 0.02 A
 Reading of ammeter = 0.02 A
Reading of voltmeter = p.d. across its terminals
 R Rv   100  200  4
i   0.02    Volts
 R  Rv   100  200  3
The total resistance across the emf E is : If ammeter and voltmeter would have been ideal,
R Rv RA = 0 and Rv = 
 RA  r
R  Rv E 1. 4 1. 4
The reading of ammeter =   A
and the current (I) is : r  R 2  100 102
E 1.4 = 0.013 A

R Rv 100  200 4 1. 4
 RA  r  2 The reading of voltmeter = I R =  100  1.37 V
R  Rv 100  200 3 102
= 0.02 A These readings are exactly equal to the current and
voltage which was to be measured.
Galvanometer :
Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of small currents
in any branch of the circuit. If there is no current passing through the
galvanometer, its needle remains un-deflected i.e. it remains on the middle of
the scale. When a current passes through it, the needle deviates as shown.
The angular deflection of the needle is proportional to the magnitude of the
current through the galvanometer.
The maximum current that can be passed through the galvanometer and
causes maximum deflection of the needle is called the full scale deflection
current (If).
A current greater than this value can damage the instrument.
[If is small and is usually measured in milli-amperes (mA).]

JEEMAIN.GURU
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :

We can use a galvanometer of resistance G and full scale current If to measure currents in amperes. Let I be
the maximum current that we want to measure i.e., the range of the ammeter.
As the current through the galvanometer can not exceed If , we divert the
current (I  If ) into a small resistance R connected in parallel across the
galvanometer.
The combination of galvanometer and the small resistance R is now an
ammeter whose range is zero to I. Let us now calculate the resistance R
required for the given range I.
If G = (I  If ) R
If G
R
IIf
As the current If is very small as compared to I, the resistance R is a small resistance. The resistance R is also
known as shunt.
Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

A galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter (of range 0 to V) if the
deflection of the needle is proportional to the voltage across it and the
current through the galvanometer does not exceed If. In other words, the
potential difference across the galvanometer should not exceed If G. To
divert the remaining potential difference (V  If G), a high resistance R is
connected in series with the galvanometer.
V = If (G + R )
V
 R G
If
As If is very small, a high resistance R is required in series to convert a galvanometer to voltmeter.
Illustration - 18 A galvanometer of 100  has a full-scale deflection current equal to 5 mA. What is the
resistance that must be connected to convert this galvanometer into:
(a) an ammeter of range 0 – 10 A. (b) a voltmeter of range 0 – 5 V.
SOLUTION :
(a) Let R1 be the resistance to be connected in
parallel across galvanometer for the conversion.
When I (=10 A) flows through the ammeter, If
should flow through G and I  If should be
bypassed.

JEEMAIN.GURU
If G = (I  If) R1 (b) Let R2 be the resistance connected in series with

G to convert it into a voltmeter. When the
If 5  103 maximum voltage V (= 5 volts) occurs across
R1  G  100
IIf 10  5  103 the meter, the current through G must be If .
 0.050025 
If (G + R2) = V
V 5
R2 = G   100 = 900 .
If 5  10 3
Illustration - 19 The resistance of the galvanometer G in the circuit is

25 . The meter deflects full scale for a current of 10 mA. The meter
behaves as an ammeter of three different ranges. The range is 0 – 10 A,
if the terminals O and P are taken; range is 0  1 A between O and Q ;
range is 0  0.1 A between O and R. Calculate the resistance R1, R2, and
R3.
SOLUTION : Between O and Q :

Bet w een O and R :
Range = I = 1 A
Now (R1 + R2) is in parallel across (G + R3).
Range = I = 0.1 A
 current through G is 10 mA when  R1  R2 
 If I  
I = 0.1 A.  R1  R2  R3  G 
 R1  R2  R3   
 10  103
= 0.1  R  R  R  G   R  R 2
 1 2 3   10 103  1  1 
 25  25 
 R1 + R2 + R3 = 25/9  . . . . (i)  9 
 25  1 5
 R1  R2    25     . . . . (ii)
 9  100 18
From (i) and (ii), we have :
R3 = 25/9  5/18 = 2.5 

JEEMAIN.GURU
Between O and P :
 
 R1 
Range = I = 10 A 10 103  10   

 25  25 
 9 
1  25  1
   25    . . . .(iii)
1000  9  36
Range = I = 10 A
From (ii) and (iii)
 R1 
 If I  
 R1  R2  R3  G  R1 = 0.0278  ; R2 = 0.25  ; R3 = 2.5 
Potentiometer :
We already know that when a voltmeter is used to measure potential
difference, its finite resistance causes it to draw a current from the circuit.
Hence the potential difference which was to be measured is changed
due to the presence of the instrument itself. Potentiometer is an instrument
which allows the measurement of potential difference without drawing
current from the circuit being measured. Hence it acts as an infinite
resistance voltmeter.
The resistance between A and B is a uniform wire of length  , with a sliding contact C at a distance x from
B. The potential difference V is measured by sliding contact until the galvanometer G reads zero. The no
deflection condition of galvanometer ensures that there is no current through the branch containing G and
the potential difference to be measured. The length x for no deflection is called as the balancing length.
VCB = V = p.d to be measured.
If  is the resistance per unit length of AB,
R V x
V  VCB  CB AB  V AB
R AB 
V 
V   AB  x
  
The potential difference across a unit length of wire AB is called potential gradient.
The potential to be measured
= (potential gradient in wire AB)  (balancing length)
Note : For proper working of potentiometer the emf of the cell used in the potentiometer should be greater than
the potential difference to be measured.

JEEMAIN.GURU
Illustration - 20 A battery of emf 4 V is connected across a 10 m long potentiometer wire having a resistance
per unit length 1.6  m1. A cell of emf 2.4 V is connected so that its negative terminal is connected to the low
potential end of the potentiometer wire and the other end is connected through a galvanometer to a sliding
contact along the wire. It is found that the no-deflection point occurs against the balancing length of 8 m.
Calculate the internal resistance of the 4 V battery.
SOLUTION :
 VAB = 3 volts.
E
But V AB  R AB
r  R AB
 4 
 3   1.6  10 
 r  1.6  10 
 r = 16/3 .
The emf of the cell is the potential difference to Note that as there is no current through the
be measured. cell and galvanometer, Battery E, internal
emf of cell = (potential gradient) x resistance r and potentiometer wire AB are
in series.
V V
2.4  AB x  AB  8
 10
Measuring internal resistance of a cell using Potentiometer :
The potentiometer provides a way to measure the internal resistance of a cell by using the value of a given
external resistance R. The cell of emf E and internal resistance r is first connected in the potentiometer circuit
along with a galvanometer G. The balancing length 1 of of the potentiometer wire is measured by finding the
null point. As the current through the cell and galvanometer is zero at null point, the length 1, corresponds to
the emf E of the cell and its internal resistance does not play any role.
V 
E   AB  1 wher L = total length of wire AB . . . .(i)
 L 
The known external resistance R is now connected in parallel with the cell E and a new null point is obtained
at length 2. The potential difference across length 2 is now equal to the potential difference across the cell
which is not E but E – ir as a current i now circulates in the loop formed by the cell and external resistance R.

JEEMAIN.GURU
The potential difference across the cell is :

 E 
 E  ir  E   r
 Rr
ER

Rr
This potential difference balances the length 2.
ER V 
   AB  2 . . . . (ii)
Rr  L 
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get :
R  r 1  
  r  R  1  1
R 2  2 
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE NETWORK Section - 5
The circuit shown in the figure is called as wheatstone bridge network.

It can be shown by solving the circuit that the current through the
resistance R0 becomes zero if the following condition is satisfied.
R1 R3

R2 R4
In that situation, A and B are at same potential and hence a galvanometer

connected in series with R0 will not show any deflection. The network
is called a balanced network if the above condition is satisfied.
Meter Bridge :
The Wheatstone network is used to determine unknown resistances.
The meter bridge is an instrument based on the balancing condition
of the Wheatstone network.
The resistances R1, R2 are two parts of a long wire (usually 1 m long) PQ.
The portion PA of the wire offers resistance R1 and the portion QA offers resistance R2. The sliding contact at
A is adjusted so that galvanometer reads zero. (no deflection)

JEEMAIN.GURU
In the no deflection condition,

R1 X R 
  X R 1 
R2 R  R2 

X R 1
2
If R is a known resistance, then X can be measured by measuring the lengths 1 and 2.
Illustration - 21 Two unknown resistances X and Y are placed in the left and right gaps of a meter bridge.
The null-point in galvanometer is obtained at a distance of 80 cm from left. A resistance of 100  is now
connected in parallel across X. The null-point is then found by shifting the sliding contact towards left by 20
cm. Calculate X and Y.
SOLUTION :
From first null point : From (i) and (ii), we have

X 80
 . . . . (i) 500 125
Y 20 X  and Y 
3 3
From second null point :
 100 X 
 
 100  X   60 . . . . (ii)
Y 40
Illustration - 22 Find the equivalent resistance of the given circuit

between A and B .
SOLUTION :
The given circuit is a balanced Wheatstone

network. Hence there will be no current through
R0 and removing R0 does not affect the remaining
circuit in any way.

JEEMAIN.GURU
Req 
 2 R   2R   R Note : If current through a branch is zero, we can

2R  2R remove it without affecting the remaining circuit.
Illustration - 23 A voltmeter has a resistance of 20000 . When connected in series with a large
resistance R across 110 V line, the meter reads 5 V. Find the resistance R.
SOLUTION :
p.d. across voltmeter is 5 V.

Rv 20000
 5 110   110
R  Rv R  20000
 R = 420000 = 420 k.
NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

JEEMAIN.GURU
SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example - 1 A galvanometer having a coil of resistance 100  gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 1 mA is passed through it. What is the value of the resistance which can convert this galvanometer
into a meter giving full scale deflection for a current of 10 A ?
(a) A resistance of required value is available but it will get burnt, if the energy dissipated in it is greater
than 1 W. Can it be used for the above described conversion of the galvanometer?
(b) When this modified galvanometer is connected across the terminals of a battery, it reads a current of
4A.The current drops to 1.0A when a resistance of 1.5 is connected in series with the modified
galvanometer. Find the emf and the internal resistance of the battery.
SOLUTION :
As P = 0.9999 W is less than 1 W, the

(a) resistance will not get burnt.
Let R be the resistance connected in parallel. (b)

 If G = (I If) R
IfG 10  3  100
 R 
I  If 10  10  3
100
 R 
9999
Power dissipated across this resistance R is :
P = (I  If)2 R
E E
100 4 1
= (10  10 3)2  R G and RG
9999 r 1. 5  r 
RG RG
Substitute R = 100/9999  and G = 100 
 E = 2V and r = 0.49 
Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Subjective Solved Examples 27
JEEMAIN.GURU
Example - 2 A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 2 mA per division. A variable shunt is connected
across the galvanometer and the combination is connected to the terminals of the cell of internal resistance
5 through a resistance of 200 . The deflection of the meter is 20 divisions for a shunt of 10 and 50
division for a shunt of 30 . Find the resistance of the galvanometer and the emf of the cell.
SOLUTION :
10 E
40  10  3 = 205  G  10   10 G . . . . (i)
30 E
100  10  3 = . . . . (ii)
205(G  30)  30G
Current through galvanometer is : Dividing
S 2 1  205  G  30   30 G 
Ig = I   
GS 5 3  205  G  10   10 G 
E S 5 (205) 30  6 (205) 10
 Ig = G = 6 (205)  60  150  5 (205)
GS GS
200  r 
GS
205  90
G= = 160.43 
For S = 10  ; Ig = 20 × 2 = 40 mA 115
For S = 30  ; Ig = 50 × 2 = 100 mA E = 146.1 V
Example - 3 12 cells each having the same emf values are connected in series and are kept in a closed
box. Some of the cells are wrongly connected. This battery is connected in series with an ammeter and two
cells identical with the others. The current is 3 A when the cells and the battery aid each other and it is 2 A
when the cells and the battery oppose each other. How many cells are wrongly connected ?
SOLUTION :
Let x cells be wrongly connected and R be the

total resistance in the circuit. Let E be the emf of 3
12  x  E  2 E  xE

each cell. R
When the cells aid battery, i = 3 A When the cells oppose battery, i = 2 A
28 Subjective Solved Examples Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support
JEEMAIN.GURU
2
12  x  E  xE  2 E 3 14  2 x


R 2 10  2 x  x=1
On dividing the two equations : i.e. only one cell is wrongly connected.
Example - 4 In the figure, the point at the top is at 36 volts and the bottom
point is at 0 V. In other words, there is a battery of 36 V emf and negligible
internal resistance between these points.
(a) What is the potential difference between a and b when switch S is open ?
(b) What is the current through the switch S when it is closed ?
SOLUTION :
(a) When the switch S is open :
36 36
i1   4A i2   4A
63 36
While going from point a to the point b and adding
potential changes, we get :
Vb  Va = + 6 i1  3 i2
 Vb  Va = 24  12 = 12 V
 b is at a potential 12 V higher than a.
(b) Switch S is closed : 36  0

Let is be the current through the switch.  total current i = = 9A
4
Vb – Va = is (0) = 0 3
 Vb = Va and hence we can join a and b  i1  6  3 i  3 A .
together. 6
The 6  and 3  resistances are now in parallel.  i2  3  6 i  6 A .
At junction a :
Using Kirchoff’s current law :
i2 = i1 + is
 is = i2  i1 = 6  3 = 3 A
Hence 3 A current passes through the switch S

from b to a.
The net resistance between top and bottom is
Note :If two or more junctions are at same potential,
63 3 6
=   4 they can be joined together to form a single
63 36 junction.
JEEMAIN.GURU
Example - 5 In the circuit as shown in fig. Find :

(a) the current in resistor R
(b) the resistance R
(c) the unknown emf E.
(d) If the circuit is broken at point x what is the current in the 28 V battery ?
SOLUTION :
Let I be the current in R as shown. Adding, we get :

At junction A : R = 5 .
i+4=6  i = 2 A
From second equation :
Apply Kirchoff’s voltage laws in upper and
E = 42 V
lower loops.
 28 + i R  6 (4) + E = 0 If the circuit is broken at x, then the current in
and  E + 4 (6) + 3 (6) = 0 the outer loop and 28 V battery will be:
28
i  3.5 A (anti-clockwise)
R3
Example - 6 The given network is part of another larger circuit.

Calculate the potential of point D.
SOLUTION :
Let the potential of point O be x Volts.
going from D to O, we get :
VO – VD = 6 × 3 = 18  VD = x  18
Let us assume that the current goes away from
V V V V V V
point O to the points A, B, C and D through all  O C  O D  O D 0
5 6 1.2
branches.
x  33 x  42 x  53 18
 iOA + iOB + iOC + iOD = 0     3 0
3 4 5 1.2
VO  V A VO  VB  x = 18 V
 
3 4
 D is at a potential of 0 volts.
JEEMAIN.GURU
Example - 7 Find the resistance of the infinite network between A and B in the figure.
SOLUTION :
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the network 3R

between A and B. The circuit starts repeating  R=2+
R3
again to the right of first 3 resistances. Hence R
is also the resistance to the right of C and D.  R2  2 R  6 = 0
3R  R = (1 + 7) .
 RAB = 2 + R  3
Example - 8 AB is a part of another largeR circuit. The p. d. across Q and B is VQ  VB = 12 V.

Calculate the p. d. between A and B.
Let i be the current entering through A and leaving through B. Let x be the current through 6 V cell.
Going from B to Q : In the loop containing 6 V cell :

VQ  VB = 1i + 3 + 2i = 12  6  2x + 1 (i  x) = 0
 i=3A   6  2x + 3  x = 0
 x=1A
JEEMAIN.GURU
Now going from A to B :

 VB  VA = 1  27 + 2 =  24 V
VB – VA = 2i + 10  1i  3i  6  2x  2i  3  1i
or VA  VB = 24 V
 VB  VA = 1  9i  2x
Example - 9 An external resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and internal resistance r.
(a) Calculate the value of R so that the heat dissipation in R is maximum.
(b) Also find the maximum heat dissipation in R.
SOLUTION :
r
(a) H is maximum if R 0
R
 R  r.
Heat dissipation in R = H = i2R E2

(b) Hmax. = .
4r
E2R E2
H= 
( R  r )2 r2 Note :You should memorise this result (R = r) for
R  2r  maximum thermal power generated in an
R
external resistance.
E2
H= 2
 r 
4r   R  
 R
Example - 10 Twelve wires, each having equal resistance r, are joined

to form a cube as shown in the figure. Find the equivalent resistance between
the diagonally opposite point a and f.
SOLUTION :
ab, ad, ah are symmetrical paths and hence they carry equal currents. Hence b, d, h are equipotential junctions.
Similarly c, e, g are equipotential junctions.
We redraw the circuit by making b, d, h and c, e, g as single junctions.
r r r 5r
 Raf =   
3 6 3 6
NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET TO COMPLETE THIS EBOOK

JEEMAIN.GURU
THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. Electric Current
If dq coulombs of charge flow across any cross-section of a conductor in time dt, then the magnitude of the
current I flowing through it is given by :
dq
I
dt
2. The amount of charge flowing through a crossection of a conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by :
tf
q I dt
ti
3. Temperature coefficient of resistance :

If R1 and R2 are resistances of a material at temperatures t1 and t2 respectively, then :
R2 = R1 (1 + R )
where  = t2 – t1 is the temperature difference and R is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.
4. Ohm’s Law :
It states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across
its ends provided the temperature and the other physical conditions remain unchanged.
If I is the current flowing across a conductor and V is the potential

difference across its ends, then
V I or V = IR where R is constant
5. Electric Power :
The rate at which the energy is dissipated is called as Electric Power (P). It is given as :
heat disspated
P  I2 R
t
6. Series Combination :
Two or more than two resistances say R1 and R2 are said to be joined in series if they are connected end to
end so that the same current flows through each resistor.
Req = R1 + R2
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JEEMAIN.GURU
(i) The current through each resistance is same.

(ii) The total voltage V is divided into two parts :
R1 R2
across R1 : V1  V across R2 : V2  R  R V
R1  R2 1 2
7. Parallel Combination :
Two or more than two resistors say R1, R2 are said to be joined in parallel if the ends of one resistor are
connected across the ends of the other as shown. Let Req be the equivalent resistor of two resistances joined
in parallel. Let I be the current flowing across the combination and V be the potential difference. Then Req is
given as :
1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2
(i) The voltage across each resistance is same.

(ii) The total current I is divided into two parts :
R2
R1  R2
R1
R1  R2
8. Single loop circuit,

E
i
R
net emf
 current supplied by cell = net resis tan ce
9. (a) If current is flowing out of the positive terminals of a cell E2 , this cell is supplying energy to the
circuit and p.d. across its terminals is V = E2  ir2
(b) If current is flowing into the positive terminals of the cell E1 , this cell is receiving energy from the
circuit. We usually say that the cell is being charged. The p.d. across terminals of the cell getting
charged is V = E1 + ir1
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10. Kirchoff’s laws

(a) Kirchoff’s voltage law :
The algebraic sum of the potentials in a closed path is zero.
(b) Kirchoff’s Current Law :

The sum of currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of currents going away from the junction.
11. Wheatstone Bridge Network :

The circuit shown in the figure is called as wheatstone bridge network. It can be shown by solving the circuit
that the current through the resistance R0 becomes zero if the following condition is satisfied.
R1 R3

R2 R4
In that situation, A and B are at same potential and hence a galvanometer connected in series with R0 will not
show any deflection. The network is called a balanced network if the above condition is satisfied.
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JEEMAIN.

Specific Resistance or Resistivity :

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

Effect of temperature on Resistance and Resistivity:

Temperature coefficient of resistivity :

where  = T2  T1 is the temperature difference and  is known as temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Temperature coefficient of resistance :

where  = T2 – T1 is the temperature difference and R is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.

2 Section 1 Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support

Vidyamandir Classes DC Circuits

Ohm’s Law in Microscopic Form :

Heating Effect of current :

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 1

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

Its S.I. units are Watts (W). 1 W = 1 J/s.

Application of Potential difference :

Taking the average of all such instantaneous velocities,

4 Section 1 Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support

Vidyamandir Classes DC Circuits

Drift Velocity (Vd)

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 1 5

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

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All the shells are in the series.

(b) The current density = j = i / A

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 1 7

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

Illustration - 6 A bulb has voltage rating of 220 V and power rating of 40 W.

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Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 1 9

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES Section - 2

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Vidyamandir Classes DC Circuits

(i) The voltage across each resistance is same. R1

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 2 11

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

Quantitatively EMF is the potential difference across the terminals of a Cell

When there is an external conducting path between the cell-terminals,

The potential difference across the cell-terminals in that case is the

Single Loop Circuit :

For a single loop circuit,

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Illustration - 10 Calculate the current through the 5  resistance. The

current through the cell will be

20  5 For || combination of 5  and 20  ,

Illustration - 11 In the circuit shown, the EMF’S of the cell are : E = 10 V ;

E2 = 40 V ; R = 15  ; internal resistances are r1 = 1  ; r2 = 2 

Self Study Course for IITJEE with Online Support Section 2 13

DC Circuits Vidyamandir Classes

If total number of cells is fixed then mn is fixed

The simplified circuit is shown :

This is the current through R.

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This is the condition for getting maximum For maximum current :

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS Section - 3

Kirchoff’s voltage law

Kirchoff’s Current Law