Concrete Production and Its Impact On Concrete Failures

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Concrete Production And

Its Impact On Concrete Failures
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning : The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CSE20202 A.M. Al-Khunaini on 874-6148
Engineering Encyclopedia Civil
Contents Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
Purpose ..................................................................................................................... 1
Scope ........................................................................................................................ 1
PHASES OF CONCRETE PRODUCTION.......................................................................... 1
Batching.................................................................................................................... 2
Batching Sequence ........................................................................................ 3
Mixing ...................................................................................................................... 4
Types of Mixers............................................................................................. 5
Mix Proportions............................................................................................. 6
Sequence of Mixing Problems ....................................................................... 9
Mixing Duration Problems............................................................................. 9
Temperature of Mix Problems ......................................................................10
Problems of Mix Proportions........................................................................13
Transporting.............................................................................................................17
Duration Problems........................................................................................18
Discharge Control Problem...........................................................................18
Placing and Consolidating........................................................................................19
Placing and Consolidating Problems.............................................................20
Finishing..................................................................................................................21
Matching-sample Finish ...............................................................................23
As-cast Finish...............................................................................................24
Rubbed Finished...........................................................................................24
Screeding or Strikeoff...................................................................................25
Hand Screeding ............................................................................................27
Bullfloating or Darbying...............................................................................28
Edging and Jointing......................................................................................30
Floating ........................................................................................................31
Troweling.....................................................................................................33
Brooming .....................................................................................................35
Problems with Tool Selection for Finishing ..................................................36

Problems with the Duration of Finishing.......................................................36

Curing......................................................................................................................36
Retaining Forms in Place..............................................................................38
Water Methods .............................................................................................38
Membrane Method .......................................................................................40
ACTIONS TO AVOID PRODUCTION-RELATED
CONCRETE DURABILITY PROBLEMS..........................................................................42
Monitor the Mixing Process .....................................................................................43
Monitor Transport Times .........................................................................................44
Monitor Placing and Consolidation ..........................................................................44
Monitor Finishing and Curing ..................................................................................46
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................48
WORK AID 1. HOW TO DETERMINE THE CAUSES

OF PRODUCTION-RELATED CONCRETE FAILURES .........................49
WORK AID 2. HOW TO MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS

TO AVOID PRODUCTION-RELATED CONCRETE FAILURES............50
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................53

List of Tables and Figures Page
Figure 1. Batch Plant Water Meter ............................................................................ 3
Figure 2. Hopper Arrangement For Blending Materials ............................................ 4
Figure 3. Pan Mixer ................................................................................................. 5
Figure 4. Saudi Aramco Mix Design Report............................................................. 7
Figure 5. Water Requirements Vs. Temperature ......................................................11
Figure 6. Effect Of Temperature On Compressive Strength.....................................12
Table 1. Effects Of Mix Water Temperature On Concrete .......................................13
Figure 7. Concrete Strength vs. Water-Cement Ratio ...............................................14
Figure 8. Influence of the A/C Ratio on Concrete Strength......................................16
Figure 9. Workers Using a Leveling Screed to Rough Finish Concrete....................26
Figure 10. A worker using a hand screed..................................................................27
Figure 11. A Worker Using a Bullfloat....................................................................29
Figure 12. Worker Using Corner Trowel .................................................................30
Figure 13. A Worker Using a Hand Float ................................................................32
Figure 14. Workman Using a Hand Trowel ..............................................................34
Figure 15. Workman Brooming a Concrete Slab .....................................................35
Figure 16. Influence of Moist Curing on Concrete Strength......................................37
Table 2. Production-related Durability Problems .....................................................42
Table 3. Matrix Used to Determining Production Related Durability Problem. ........49

INTRODUCTION
The phases of concrete production must be monitored to ensure a good durable product.
Production of the concrete is as important as the materials that go into the production. If the
production methods are faulty, there will be failures.
Purpose
The purpose of this module is to present knowledge and skill to the engineer to assist in making
proper choices about the production of concrete. This module will cover the various phases of
the production and the problems that may be related with each phase. It will also present
methods to avoid concrete production-related failures.
Scope
This module will only cover the production phases. It will not cover material again unless it is
directly related to the production phase. It will only cover environment as far as it is related to
production. Materials and environment are covered in other modules in this course.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

PHASES OF CONCRETE PRODUCTION
Construction of concrete structures involves the production of good durable concrete. Each
phase of the production process must be carefully programmed and the correct technique applied.
Following are the phases of concrete production:
• Batching
• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing and consolidation
• Finishing
• Curing.
The production and delivery of ready-mixed concrete are covered in 09-SAMSS-097, Ready-
Mixed Portland Cement Concrete. Placing, consolidation, finishing, and curing are covered in
SAES-Q-001, Criteria for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures.
Using improper techniques of production cause concrete durability problems, such as, steel
corrosion, cracking honeycombing, cold joints, crazing, and scaling.
Batching
Batching is the process of measuring and placing concrete ingredients into a concrete mixer to
produce a batch of concrete. These concrete ingredients can be measured either by weight or
volume. The size of a batch of concrete may vary from 0.5 to 8 cubic meters (0.65 to 10.5 cubic
yards).
To produce concrete of uniform quality, accurately measuring the ingredients for each batch is
essential. 09-SAMSS-097 requires that batching be done by the weight of the ingredients instead
of the volume. This requirement stems from the inaccuracies that result from batching by
volume. This inaccuracy stems mainly from measuring aggregates volume (especially damp
sand). Water and liquid admixtures can be measured accurately by either volume or weight.

Figure 1 shows the water meter at the batch plant that measures the exact proportion of water.
Figure 1. Batch Plant Water Meter
Specifications require that materials be measured in individual batches within the following
percentages of accuracy from the required weight:
• Cement: ±1%
• Aggregates: ±2%
• Water: ±1%
• Admixtures: ±3%
Plant scales must be calibrated no less than three times per year. Plant scales must also be
certified in conformance to ASTM C94.
Batching Sequence
The sequence of placing ingredients into the mixer is important in determining properly mixed
concrete.
For stationary mixers, it is essential to obtain a pre-blending or ribboning effect as the stream of
ingredients flow into the mixer. The plant hopper arrangement is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Hopper Arrangement For Blending Materials
In truck mixers, about 10% of the coarse aggregate and water is placed in the mixer before the
sand and cement are added.
Generally about one-fourth to one-third of the water is held back until the other ingredients are
placed in the mixer. Water charging pipes should be designed so that water enters at a point well
inside the mixer. Consistent entry of materials into a batch increases the uniformity of the
batches.
The chemical admixtures for every batch of concrete should be charged with the water at the
same point in the mixing sequence. If this consistency in charging is not followed, significant
variations in the time of initial set and percentage of entrained air may result. Liquid admixtures
should be charged with the water or on damp sand. If two or more admixtures are used in the
same batch of concrete, they should be added separately. Admixtures are added to the mix
separately to avoid any interaction that might interfere with the efficiency of the admixtures and
adversely affect the concrete properties
Note: Dry batching is prohibited by 09-SAMSS-097 because it is extremely difficult to achieve

a good mixture of concrete, without significantly reducing the volume of materials.
Mixing
Correct mixing coats the surface of all aggregate particles with cement paste and combines all of
the ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass. Concrete mixers should not be loaded above
their rated capacities and should be operated approximately at their design speeds.

Types of Mixers
Concrete mixers may be stationary mixers at a central mix plant or truck mixers. Stationary
mixers may be classified as tilting-drum, drum, or pan mixers. In the tilting-drum mixer, the
mixing chamber, or drum, tilts to discharge the concrete.
The drum mixer axis is always horizontal. The cement discharges from the drum mixer by
inserting a chute into the drum, or by reversing the direction of the drum's rotation.
The tilting drum mixers have blades fastened inside of the drum. These blades pick up and drop
the concrete ingredients to combine these ingredients into a uniform plastic mass.
Pan mixers have a circular pan and one or more sets of paddles that rotate about the mixer's
axis. The pan rotates in one direction while the paddles rotate in the opposite direction. Cement
is usually discharged from an opening in the bottom of the circular pan Figure 3 shows a pan
mixer.
Figure 3. Pan Mixer

Truck mixers are revolving drum mixers mounted on a truck chassis. Concrete is discharged
from the front or the rear of the drum. Both front and rear discharge drum mixers use fins or
blades attached to the inside of the drum to mix the concrete, and to discharge the concrete when
the drum rotation is reversed. Truck mixers may also be used as truck agitators. Truck agitators
are vehicles that transport freshly mixed concrete from the batch plant to the placement site. The
concrete in truck agitators is constantly agitated during transport. ASTM C94, states the
following about concrete mixing:
• Truck-mixed concrete volume is not to exceed 63% of the total volume of the drum.
• Stationary-mixer concrete volume, that is transported in the truck mixer or agitator,

is not to exceed 80% of the total volume of the drum.
Mix Proportions
The objective in designing concrete mixtures is to determine the most economical and practical
combination of readily available materials in order to produce a concrete which will satisfy the
performance requirements for the particular conditions of use.
To meet the objective for design of concrete mixtures, properly proportioned concrete should
have the following characteristics:
• Acceptable properties (workability, placeability, and consistency) in the plastic state.
• Acceptable properties (durability, strength and uniform appearance) in the hardened

state.
• Economical value
Proportioning of mixes may depend on experience or observation alone. Proportioning mixes

may also depend on a technical basis of tests and calculations. Figure 4 shows a mix design
report that lists all the ingredients and proportions that goes into a specific batch of concrete.
You will notice that this particular batch is Type V Sulphate Resistance Cement.

SAUDI ARAMCO MIX DESIGN REPORT

PLANT NAME : XYZ LOCATION MIX : Saudi Arabia
DATE : 2-27-94 DESIGN MIX : 4000 PSI-C6D863111
PLANT MANAGER: -- PLANT QC : --
Batch Weights Per m 3 SSD X DRY

MATERIALS AMOUNT TYPE % ADJ. FINAL SOURCE
M/C WEIGHT
Cement 370 kg. Type V -- -- 370 SCC- Hofuf
3/4" Agg. 700 kg. Crushed 60 4 704 Al-Rakkah-Abu Hadriyah
1/" Agg. --
kg. -- -- -- -- --
3/8" Agg. 470 kg. Crushed 40 6 476 Al-Rakkah-Abu Hadriyah
Sand 705 kg. Dune 45 10 715 Half Moon Bay
Water 148 lt. Sweet -- 20 128 Sweet water- Aqua cool
Addmixture 1 4 lt. Conp-423 1 lt./100 kg
-- 4 Fosroc-Rosam
Addmixture 2 -- lt. Conp-430 -- -- -- --
--
Mix Properties Time

Slump (mm) 100 Slump @ 0 min 125 mm 0735/24°C Air Temp14°C
Air content (%) Entrapped Slump @ 30 min 100 mm 0805/22°C Time

0735
Free W/C ratio 0.40 Slump @ 60 min 85 mm 0835/21°C Mix Temp
24°C
Slump @ 90 min 78 mm 0905/21°C
A/C ratio 5.1 Ave. Unit Weight 2388 kg/m3 Water TDS 180 ppm
Aggregate Gradings (ASTM No. _____67)

SIEVE mm 25 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 600
SIZES inch 1" 3/4" 1/2" 3/8" no. 4 no. 8 no. 16 no. 30
% Passing 100 98.72 56.54 31.24 7.15 0.64 -- --
Specification 100 90–100 -- 20–55 0–10 0–5 -- --
Compressive Strength 78 mm 0905.21°C
Crushing Date No. of Days PSI Saudi Aramco Inspector

2-27-94 3 4260 Jules
2-26-94 7 5740 "
3-19-94 28 6400 "
3-19-94 28 6720 "
Ave. 28 days 6560 "
Figure 4. Saudi Aramco Mix Design Report

Traditionally, the proportions of the granular materials in concrete mixes were expressed in the
form of parts or ratios of cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate. For example, a 1:2:4
mix contained 1 part of cement, 2 parts of fine aggregate and 4 parts of coarse aggregate. The
use of this expression was established before the important influence of the amount of water or
quality of water was understood.
After the importance of the quantity of water was established proportions of granular materials in
concrete mixes were expressed in the form of water, cement, fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate. For example, a 0.4:1:2:4 mix contained 0.4 parts of water, 1 part of cement, 2 parts of
fine aggregate, and 4 parts of coarse aggregate.
The basis of proportions should always be stated. If the basis of proportions is not stated, it will
not be clear whether the proportions are defined by weight, by solid (absolute) volume, or by
overall (bulk) volume. Furthermore, if a proportion is based on overall volume, it should be
understood whether the aggregates in the proportion are loose or compacted, and whether the
sand in the proportion is damp or dry.
Today's mix proportions are usually selected on the basis of tests and calculations. These tests
and calculations follow the procedures outlined in ACI 211.1-91. Material are usually expressed
in kilograms per cubic meter for cement and aggregates, and in liters per cubic meter for water
and liquid admixtures.
Proper proportioning is essential to ensure that the required placeability, density, strength, and
durability are achieved in the field. Incorrect mix proportions can result in a concrete that is
difficult to place, consolidate, and finish.
Concrete durability problems that are related to incorrect mix proportions are: cracking,
honeycomb, crazing, and scaling.
SAES-Q-001, Criteria for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures, requires that ACI
211-81, Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass
Concrete, be used for concrete mix proportioning. Specification 09-SAMSS-097, Ready Mixed
Concrete should be referred to for the list of exceptions.
There are four major problems that may occur in the mixing phase of production:
• Sequence of mixing
• Mixing duration
• Mixing temperature
• Mixing design

Sequence of Mixing Problems
The sequence of charging the mixer should be strictly followed for consistent concrete quality.
This sequence should be the one that is best suited to the particular mixers and site conditions.
The coarse aggregate is always loaded first. If the coarse aggregate is not placed in the mixer
before the addition of the sand, or sand and cement, these materials may become lodged in the
head of the mixer. The result is a mixture that is rocky and prone to honeycomb.
If water or cement are fed too quickly into the mixer, or if the water or cement is too hot, there is
a danger of cement balls being formed. Cement balls cause popouts in the finished concrete.
Mixing Duration Problems
The required time of mixing after all materials have been added, including water, depends on the
consistency of the mix and on the type of mixer. The time of mixing should not be less than the
minimum time that is recommended by the mixer manufacturer, nor should it exceed two and a
half times the minimum period. The mixing time required should be based on the ability of the
mixer to produce uniform concrete for each produced batch. Mixer performance tests should be
made before commencement of major projects and then performed at frequent intervals
throughout the job.
The performance of mixers can be evaluated by conducting uniformity tests on concrete batch
samples that have been mixed for a specified time. These concrete batch samples are taken from
two or three different locations. The maximum test result differences allowed for a batch of
ready mixed concrete are given in ASTM C94.
The number of revolutions of the mixer -not the mixing time- is the criterion for adequate
mixing. Because there is an optimum speed of rotation that is recommended, the number of
revolutions and the time of mixing are interdependent.
Insufficient mixing will result in a segregated non-homogeneous mixture. This segregation

produces cracking and honeycomb.
Overmixing promotes evaporation of water from the mix. Evaporation causes a decrease in
workability. A secondary effect of overmixing is grinding of the aggregate, particularly if the
aggregate is soft. This grinding (friction effect) causes the grading of the aggregate to become
finer, which reduces workability. The friction effect also produces an increase in the temperature
of the mix. The increased temperature leads to a more rapid slump loss. If water is added to
offset the loss of workability, increased cracking may occur in the hardened concrete.

Temperature of Mix Problems
Increases in concrete temperature during hot weather will have the following adverse effects:
• Increased water demand. More water will be required for the same slump. This
increased water content will cause a proportionate decrease in strength and durability
and an increase in shrinkage and cracking that can result during drying.
• Increased rate of slump loss and a tendency to add water at the jobsite. The slump
loss may make placing and finishing more difficult, and it may result in increased
scaling and cracking.
• Increased rate of setting, which results in greater difficulty in placing, consolidation,

and finishing and a greater risk of cold joints.
• Increased tendency for plastic shrinkage cracking.
• Decreased concrete durability. Increased potential for reinforcing steel corrosion due
to increased cracking.
• Increased permeability.
All of the deleterious effects of high concrete temperatures are mitigated by the reduction of the
temperature of the fresh mix. The fresh mix temperature can be reduced by cooling the
ingredients or using ice as part of the mixing water.
09-SAMSS-097, Ready-Mixed Portland Cement Concrete, restricts the temperature of concrete

delivered to the job site to a maximum temperature of 32°C (90°F).
Temperature of Mix Water — The temperature of the mix water is important in determining
the temperature of the freshly mixed concrete. A plastic concrete temperature of 10°C to 15°C
(50°F to 59°F) is desirable but not always practical. In hot weather, water should be kept as
cool as practical by refrigeration or by the addition of ice. In some cases, ice may be added
directly into the mixer. When ice is added, it must be considered as part of the mix water and the
water contained in the ice must meet the same specifications for contaminants.

Figure 5 shows how the water required to maintain an 80mm slump increases as the concrete
temperature increases.
Figure 5. Water Requirements Vs. Temperature
As concrete temperatures increase, slump is reduced, but the slump is often restored through the
addition of water at the job site At higher temperatures, a greater amount of water is required to
hold slump constant. Less water is needed at lower temperatures. Adding water without adding
the correct equivalent of cement increases the water-cement ratio.
09-SAMSS-097 specifies that the temperature of concrete that is delivered to the job site must
not exceed a maximum value of 32°C (90°F). Saudi Aramco specifications do not place a limit
on mix water temperature.
Concrete temperatures that are higher than 23°C (73°C) give higher early compressive strengths,
but at later ages the concrete strengths are lower.
Figure 6 shows the effect of high initial concrete temperatures on compressive strength. During
mixing, casting, and curing, the concrete temperatures varied. The concrete temperatures were:
23°C (73°F), 32°C (90°F), 41°C (106°F), and 49°C (120°F). After 28 days, the specimens were
all moist-cured at 23°C until they were tested at ages of 90 days and at one year.

Figure 6. Effect Of Temperature On Compressive Strength
High temperatures of freshly mixed concrete have other harmful effects. Setting time is reduced,
and the rate of hardening is increased. High concrete temperatures will reduce the time that is
available for the concrete to be transported, placed, and finished. If the available time does not
allow the concrete to stay plastic long enough, cold joints may occur in the structure. Table 1
shows the effects of mix water temperature on concrete properties.

Table 1. Effects Of Mix Water Temperature On Concrete
Property As Water Temperature As Water Temperature

Increases Decreases
Concrete Temperature Increases Decreases
Rate of Hydration Increases Decreases
Rate of Slump Loss Increases Decreases
Water Demand Increases Decreases
Setting Time Decreases Increases
Early Compressive Increases Decreases

Strength
Later Compressive Decreases Increases

Strength
Tendency for Plastic Increases Decreases

Cracking
Tendency for Cold Increases Decreases

Joints
Problems of Mix Proportions
Concrete mix proportions calculated by any method must always be subject to revision on the
basis of experience with trial batches. The trial batches may be prepared in a laboratory, or
preferably, as full-size field batches. Field results will not check exactly with laboratory results.
First, the mixer used in the laboratory is different in type and performance from the mixer that is
employed on the site. Second, the wall effect (arising from the surface-to-volume ratio) in
laboratory test specimens is larger than in the full-size structures. The sand content of the mix as
determined in the laboratory may be unnecessarily high. An adjustment of the selected mix
proportions on the job is necessary.
Mix Design Problems. Failure to verify mix designs by full-size field batches results in
mixtures that are too rocky. Mixtures that are too rocky cause honeycomb and increased
cracking in the hardened concrete. High rock contents make the concrete mixture more
economical.

Oversanded mixtures may be produced in the laboratory to achieve the workability necessary to
produce concrete test specimens. Use of these mixes in the field results in increased cracking
and reduced abrasion resistance.
Water-Cement Ratio. The amount of water in the cement mix has a great influence on the
quality of the hardened concrete. The amount of water in the cement mix in relationship to the
amount of cement in the mix is called the water-cement ratio. Generally, Saudi Aramco specifies
0.40 maximum (see 09-SAMSS-097).
Generally, an increase in the water content of a concrete mixture results in a decrease in

compressive strength and sulphate resistance of the concrete as shown in Figure 7. An increase
in water causes the mixture to undergo an increase in permeability, cracking, and shrinkage. If
the cement content is not increased proportionally to compensate for the increase in water
content, the water-cement ratio will increases.
Figure 7. Concrete Strength vs. Water-Cement Ratio
Water is required for the cement hydration reactions, and it provides workability to the concrete
mixture. Gradually, most of the water that does not react with the cement is lost to the
atmosphere, which leaves the pores empty, and causes the concrete to shrink. The concrete
cracks if this shrinkage is restrained.
In a hydrated cement paste, the size and continuity of the pores, at any point during the hydration
process, control the coefficient of permeability. Permeability is defined as the property that
governs the rate of flow of a fluid into a porous solid.

Water-Cement Ratio Problems. The water-cement (W/C) ratio is the fundamental factor for
controlling concrete durability. The W/C ratio determines the permeability of the cement paste
and, to a large extent, the permeability of the concrete.
The W/C ratio may be increased by adding water to the mixer. The addition of water will restore
slump that was lost due to increased temperatures or delays in placing the concrete; however,
these increases in W/C ratio will generally increase cracking and the permeability of the
hardened concrete.
Control of the water content and the water-cement ratio is critical in achieving a durable
concrete. Lack of quality control or supervision can nullify all of the efforts of mix design and
specifications.
09-SAMSS-097, Table B list the W/C ratio specified for Saudi Aramco.
Problems With Too Much Water. In general, when the water-cement ratio is high and the
degree of hydration is low (usually due to low temperatures or lack of curing), the cement paste
contains a relatively large number of big and well-connected pores. The result will be a concrete
with high permeability. Concrete that is highly permeable readily allows water to enter. If the
water contains aggressive chemicals, disintegration of the concrete usually occurs.
High permeability allows water to move through the concrete. If the water contains mineral
salts, the salts are deposited on the evaporating surface, and causes efflorescence and salt
scaling. An increase in chlorides above the threshold level at the rebar starts corrosion of the
reinforcing steel.
Problems With Not Enough Water. Insufficient mixing water results in a concrete that is
difficult to mix, place, and consolidate. As the permeability of the concrete increases,
honeycombing occurs, compressive strength is reduced, and cracking generally increases.
Saudi Aramco specification 09-SAMSS-097, restricts the water-cement ratio to a maximum

value of 0.40. The permissible amount of mixing water is 140-148 liters per cubic meter of
cement mix (62.3-65.9 US gallons per cubic yard). The amount of water to be used depends on
the cement content. The cement content is restricted to a value between 350 and 375 kgs per
cubic meter of cement mix (590-624 lbs per cubic yard).
Aggregate-Cement Ratio (A/C). The aggregate-cement ratio simply refers to the mass of
aggregate divided by the mass of cement that is contained in a cubic meter of concrete. The
mass of aggregate in this ratio usually exists in a saturated-surface dry (SSD) condition. For
example, a concrete mixture with proportions of 1:2:4 by mass would have an A/C ratio of 6.0
(6÷1).
The aggregate-cement ratio is a secondary factor in concrete strength. However, it has been
found that, for a constant water-cement ratio, a higher aggregate-cement ratio results in higher
concrete strength. The influence of the aggregate-cement ratio on the strength of concrete is
illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Influence of the A/C Ratio on Concrete Strength
Increasing the A/C ratio at a given W/C ratio will result in a decrease of slump and workability
of the concrete.
If a concrete meets Saudi Aramco specifications and has a density of 2400 kg per cubic meter
(4045 lbs per cubic yard), the aggregate content would vary from 1910 to 1882 kg per cubic
meter (3220 to 3170 lbs per cubic yard); and the A/C ratio would range from 5.46 to 5.09.
Aggregate-Cement Ratio Problems. The aggregate-cement (A/C) ratio refers to the mass of
aggregate divided by the mass of cement that is contained in a cubic meter of concrete. This
ratio directly affects the economy of the concrete mixture. A high A/C ratio means that more
aggregate is being put into the mixture. Because the aggregate is cheaper than cement, the
mixture becomes more economical.
Increasing the A/C ratio at a constant W/C ratio in the field results in a decrease of slump and
workability. Water should not be added to regain concrete workability. Adding water to regain
concrete workability results in increased shrinkage and cracking. Adding water to regain
concrete workability will result in an increase in the W/C ratio and a decrease in durability.
Saudi Aramco 09-SAMSS-097 specifies an A/C ratio in the range of 5.09 to 5.46. Fluctuating
moisture content in the aggregate will affect the A/C and W/C ratios. Increases in moisture
content result in a decrease in A/C ratio and an increase in W/C ratio.

Percent of Fine Aggregate. The percentage of fine aggregate (%FA) influences the amount of
paste (cement and water) that is required to produce a workable concrete..
Percent of Fine Aggregate Problems. At a fixed cement content, an increase in the percent of
fine aggregate will result in a decrease in slump, unless the amount of water or superplasticizer is
increased. An increase in water results in increased bleeding, cracking, crazing, scaling, and an
increase in permeability
At a fixed cement content, a decrease in the percent of fine aggregate results in lower workability
in the plastic concrete. Concrete mixtures with low workability have a tendency to segregate and
cause a honeycomb effect.
The percent of fine aggregate is not specified in Saudi Aramco specifications. Fine aggregate
percentages must be determined from full-sized field trial batches and job requirements.
Transporting
Concrete can be transported from the batch plant to the job site by a variety of methods and
equipment. Equipment used to transport concrete includes truck mixers, truck mixer-agitators,
truck agitators, and open truck bodies with or without agitators. The method of transportation
that is used should deliver the concrete to the job site in an efficient manner without significantly
altering the properties (e.g., water-cement ratio, slump and homogeneity) of the concrete.
Concrete begins to stiffen as soon as the cement and water are mixed. The degree of concrete
stiffening that occurs in the first 30 minutes is not usually a problem. Concrete that is kept
agitated generally can be placed and compacted within 11/2 hours after mixing.
According to 09-SAMSS-097, the discharge of concrete will be completed within 11/2 hours, or
before the mixing drum has revolved 300 revolutions, whichever comes first. According to this
SAMSS, concrete that is delivered in trucks that do not have operable revolution counters will be
rejected. Trucks that deliver concrete must have an operable revolution counter and an accurate
water-measuring device of one of the following types:
• Automatic cut-off siphon type
• Water meter of the automatic shut-off type
• Sight gauge(s)
Equipment used for transporting concrete must be kept in good mechanical condition. Excessive
wear of the mixer or agitator blades may allow the concrete to segregate resulting in one part of
the concrete having too much coarse aggregate and the other part not having enough coarse
aggregate causing these problems:

Concrete that has too much coarse aggregate will be too harsh and difficult to consolidate and
finish. Concrete that does not fully consolidate will frequently honeycomb.
Concrete that does not have enough coarse aggregate will likely shrink, crack, and have poor
resistance to abrasion.
The uniformity of concrete delivered at a job site may be evaluated by following the procedures
in Paragraph 11.5.1 of ASTM C94.
Duration Problems
The time spent in transporting concrete (i.e., from batching to placing) should be minimized.
Freshly mixed concrete stiffens with time. If the aggregate is wet or saturated, but with a dry
surface, water from the mix is not absorbed by the aggregate. Water is lost by evaporation,
particularly if the concrete is exposed to sun or wind. Initial chemical reactions between the
cement and the water remove water from the mixture. Extended agitation may cause grinding of
the aggregate, particularly if the aggregate is soft. The friction effect may increase the
temperature of the mix and, as a result, lead to a more rapid slump loss. If water is added
(retempering) to offset the loss of workability, increased cracking may occur in the hardened
concrete. Saudi Aramco specification 09-SAMSS-097, Ready-Mixed Portland Cement
Concrete, states that retempering is not allowed. Slump and workability should only be restored
by use of a superplasticizing admixture.
Discharge Control Problem
All of the advantages gained from meticulous control of concrete production before discharge
from the truck may be lost by careless or improper discharge methods. Truck mixers have two
or sometimes, three mechanical features that combine to control the rate of discharge. These
mechanisms which include, reversing, speed control, and discharge opening, are used separately
or in combinations to control the rate that the concrete is discharged.
Familiarity with the proper control of these mechanisms is necessary to prevent segregation.
Proper control of these mechanisms represent an operation that cannot be described successfully
in specifications. Perfectly mixed, and transported concrete may become segregated by improper
discharge control. Segregation, due entirely to improper discharge control, has often been
attributed erroneously to defective mixing action.
Unrestricted discharge at full drum speed with a full discharge opening is desirable whenever the
concrete can be disposed at the maximum discharge rate. For typical truck mixers, the maximum
discharge rate is about 27 sec/m3 (20 sec/yard3) of concrete.

Flat chutes should be avoided unless the concrete is helped along by means of shovels or hoes.
Concrete that is fluid enough to flow of its own accord down a flat chute tends to segregate. In
discharging concrete from a chute or spout, the discharge end should be near the surface of the
concrete. During discharge, the chute or spout should be swung back and forth to avoid coning
and consequent segregation. Segregation can result in increased cracking and honeycomb
Placing and Consolidating
Placing and consolidating procedures are specified in SAES~Q~001.
Placing is the transferring concrete from the transport equipment to the concrete's final position
in the structure under construction.
Placement of concrete is accomplished with chutes, buckets, hoppers, wheelbarrows, pumps, or

tremies. Concrete should be deposited at or near its final position in the placement because it has
a tendency to segregate when it has to flow laterally into place. Concrete should be deposited
continuously to avoid the formation of cold joints.
Consolidation is the process of compacting fresh concrete in order to mold the concrete within
the forms, around reinforcement, and items embedded in the structure that is under construction.
The process of consolidation also eliminates stone pockets, honeycomb, and entrapped air.
Consolidation is accomplished by hand-rodding, spading or tamping, or by mechanical means.

Consolidation by mechanical means includes internal or external vibration. The method chosen
for consolidation depends on the mixture's consistency and placement conditions. Placement
conditions include the amount and spacing of the reinforcement and the complexity of the
formwork
If concrete is not properly consolidated, a considerable reduction in concrete strength can be

expected. Improper consolidation may also result in an increase of concrete cracking, the
appearance of bugholes on hardened surfaces, the development of stone pockets and honeycomb,
and an increase in concrete permeability. These results of improper consolidation allow
aggressive waters and chemicals to enter the concrete more easily.

Placing and Consolidating Problems
The fresh concrete must be placed in its final position and compacted without drying out, or
becoming contaminated or segregated. Drying out can occur when the concrete is placed against
a highly absorbent surface, such as dry soil or porous form materials. These surfaces should be
wetted before the concrete is placed. No free water should be left on the surface. Loss of mix
water to the soil or formwork will result in a permeable concrete layer adjacent to the absorbent
surface. Specification SAES-Q-001 states, "Concrete placed upon or below ground shall have a
plasticized sheet vapor barrier that has a minimum thickness of 0.15 mm (6 mils) and that is
placed beneath and around the sides where the concrete comes in direct contact with earth.
Outdoor sidewalks that are subject to foot traffic are exempt from this requirement".
During placing, concrete can become contaminated by foreign matter left in the excavation or
formwork. Excavations and formwork must be cleaned of all litter before placing starts. Foreign
matter can fall into the concrete during placing. Litter incorporated in the concrete may lead to
cracking and deterioration of the concrete.
Temperature. High ambient temperatures during placing and consolidation cause water in the
concrete to evaporate. As water is lost to evaporation, there is an increase in slump loss. The
concrete should not be placed faster than it can be consolidated and finished. At lower slumps,
the rate of concrete placement is reduced, and the concrete absorbs more heat from the
environment. As more heat is absorbed, cement hydration and the stiffening rate of the concrete
are accelerated. Accelerated cement hydration and stiffening rates compound slump loss and the
difficulties of placing the concrete.
Drying of the concrete surface between lifts in vertical concrete sections such as walls and
anchor blocks may lead to the development of cold joints.
Drying of concrete flatwork may lead to plastic shrinkage cracking and scaling.
Interval. Delays in placing and consolidating truck loads of concrete should be avoided.
Avoiding these delays will minimize the development of cold joints. When the delay is short
enough to permit penetration of the vibrator into the lower layer the vibration ensures thorough
consolidation, and no cold joint will develop; however, when the delay is so long that the
vibrator will not penetrate the lower layer, a cold joint will be formed.

Technique. Plastic concrete should be thoroughly consolidated to eliminate voids and to expel
entrapped air. Improper consolidation results in a considerable reduction in concrete strength.
Improper consolidation may also cause these defects:
• An increase of concrete cracking
• The appearance of bugholes on hardened surfaces
• The development of stone pockets and honeycomb
Consolidation Time. The time required to compact a given concrete mixture cannot be
described successfully in specifications because of the many variables involved. Compacting
time depends on the following variables:
• The consistency of the mix
• The type of vibrator
• The size of vibrator
• The frequency of vibration
Vibration with the right mix and good workmanship can produce excellent, compacted concrete.
To be effective, vibration must be continued until all of the bubbles have escaped. The proper
duration of vibration can be determined by noting when bubbles stop emerging from the
concrete. The appearance of a line of cement paste at the forms and the attainment of a level
surface (with sufficient mortar for finishing) are indications that compaction is complete.
Under-vibration (inadequate vibration time) can result in a concrete that contains excessive
voids. Entrapped air reduces concrete strength and increases cracking, honeycomb, and
permeability.
Over-vibration (excessive vibration time) results in a concrete that segregates, which increases
the possibility of cracking, honeycomb, and increased permeability. Over-vibration can also
bring excess mortar to the surface, which increases the probability of crazing, cracking, and
scaling.
Finishing
Finishing is the process of leveling, smoothing, consolidating, and otherwise treating surfaces of
fresh or recently placed concrete or mortar in order to produce the desired appearance and
service.

These are the things that affect the finishing operation:
• Concrete temperature
• Air temperature
• Relative humidity
• Wind
Finishing begins immediately after the workers place the concrete. It is usually required on all
concrete surfaces that are visible. Examples of concrete surfaces that require finishing include
sidewalks, floors, and finished walls (interior and exterior). The specific type of finish is a result
of how the workers place the forms and what methods the workers use to finish the surface.
Finishes not specified in SAES-Q-001 will be in accordance with ACI-302.1R, Table 1-1.
Finish tolerances specify the degree or depth of the finish (ACI-117-90, Standard Specifications
for Tolerances of Concrete Construction). These are the two factors used to calculate tolerance:
• Flatness, which is a statistical analysis of elevation differences you determine by

measuring a straight line at 12 inch intervals.
• Levelness is a factor you determine by taking consecutive measurements of elevation

differences at 10 ft intervals along a straight line.
If using hand measurement procedures, concrete floors and slabs must finish to a levelness
tolerance of 3 millimeters in every 3 meters (3/16~inch for every 10 feet) per SAES-Q-001,
Section 10.2.2
Concrete finished surfaces as either unformed or formed. Unformed finish requires only a small
amount of finish to make them acceptable. Unformed finish is usually specified in areas where
appearance is not important. SAES-Q-001 requires smooth formed finish on all visible concrete
surfaces, unless otherwise stated
Formed finishes describe the degree of labor required for final finishing. Formed surfaces require
more labor and effort than unformed. Formed finishing usually adds appearance or serviceability
to the concrete.

There are types of formed finishes:
• Matching-sample finish
• As-cast finish
• Rubbed finished
Matching-sample Finish
Matching-sample finish requires that the contractor produce a sample showing the actual finished
surface. The sample must measure at least 100 ft2 in a designated location. It must be verified
that the sample matches the specifications before the workers can proceed with that specified
finish for that area. Different areas or different finish requirements require another sample.

As-cast Finish
The as-cast finish has two sub-types:
• Rough-form finish which requires tie holes and defects to be patched, fins exceeding
1/4 inches in height must be chipped or rubbed off, and to preserve the texture left by
the forms.
• Smooth-form finish requires the workers to fill all tie hole, patch any defects, remove
of any fins, and give the surface a final rubbed finish. This is the type specified for
Saudi Aramco on all visible concrete, unless otherwise specified.
Rubbed Finished
These are the types of rubbed finishes:
• The smooth-rubbed finish requires the workers to remove the forms as early as can be
permitted, followed by immediate patching of holes and defects. The concrete
surface is then rubbed with a carborundum brick or other abrasive, after wetting until
a uniform color and texture is achieved. The grout used in this process is the grout
produced by the rubbing.
• Grout-cleaned finish requires that the workers first clean and prepare the surface.
Next, the workers apply a coating of grout, consisting of 1-part Portland cement and
11/2-parts of fine sand. The workers scrub the grout into all the voids and all the
excess grout is then removed. When the grout starts to turn white, the workers rub
the surface. The surface is kept damp for 72 hours. The grout mixture may require an
addition of white cement to make the colors uniform.
• Cork-floated finish requires the forms to be removed as soon as possible, followed by

any necessary patching. Finish is then done with a cork covered float.

The finishing of flat concrete surfaces usually consists of the following steps:
• Screeding (strikeoff)
• Bullfloating or darbying
• Edging and jointing
• Floating
• Troweling
• Brooming
Screeding or Strikeoff
Screeding or strikeoff is done to cut off excess concrete in order to bring the top surface of a
concrete slab to correct grade. The templet used in the manual method of screeding is called a
straightedge. A straightedge is moved across the concrete, using a sawing motion , and slightly
advanced with each motion (Figure 9). As the straightedge is passed over the concrete slab there
is a surplus (surcharge) of concrete against the front face of the straightedge. This surplus
concrete is used to fill in the low areas of the concrete slab. This motion takes place until the
workers reach the end of the forms. Straightedges are sometimes equipped with vibrators that
consolidate the concrete and reduce the strikeoff work. This combination of screed and vibrator
is called a vibratory screed.

Figure 9. Workers Using a Leveling Screed to Rough Finish Concrete.

Sometimes the slab will require drainage to only one side, such as to the lawn side of a patio next
to a building. It would not be desirable to have the water drain toward the building. In this case,
a long 2 by 4 piece of material may be placed upon the side opposite the direction of the required
drainage. This will smooth the concrete and give a slight incline to the outside edge toward the
lawn.
Problem with screeding is one of timing. Screeding and consolidation must be completed before
excess bleed water collects on the surface of the concrete. Screeding must be done immediately
after placement and completed before any excess moisture or bleed water is present on the
surface.
When the workers finish this phase, the concrete is approximately level, but it is not smooth or
finished.
Hand Screeding
Figure 10 shows a worker using a hand screed to lightly tap on the surface of the concrete. This
gently compresses and pushes the coarse aggregate below the surface and forces the fine
aggregate, the water, and the cement to the surface. This process levels the concrete and
smoothes the surface.
Figure 10. A worker using a hand screed

Bullfloating or Darbying
A long-handle bullfloat or a short-handle Darby should be used immediately after screeding or

jitterbugging in order to eliminate high and low spots and in order to embed large aggregate
particles. Generally, these tools should preferably be made of wood. For air-entrained concrete,
however, these tools should be made of aluminum or magnesium alloy. The bullfloat is shown
in Figure 11. The Darby is not shown but it is a shorter handled float. It allows for a surface that
is closer to the tolerances.
Bullfloating or darbying levels, shapes, and smoothes the concrete surface and produces a slight
amount of cement paste that helps to facilitate subsequent operations.
Bull floating, if done, should immediately follow screeding and must be completed before any
excess moisture or bleed water is present on the surface. Any finishing operation that is
performed while there is excess moisture or bleeding water on the surface will cause serious
crazing, dusting, or scaling. This fact is the basic rule of concrete finishing, and it cannot be
over-
There is a mandatory waiting period between the time the bullfloating is done and the final finish
work starts. This waiting period is absolutely necessary to permit the bleed water to leave the
surface of the concrete.
Caution: It is a basic rule in finishing concrete that you never use any finishing tool on the
fresh concrete while the bleed water is present on the surface.

Figure 11. A Worker Using a Bullfloat

Edging and Jointing
Edging and jointing is required along all edge forms, isolation, and construction joints in floors
and outdoor concrete slabs such as sidewalks, driveways, parking areas, and patios. Use of an
edger is shown in Figure 12. Edging densifies and compacts the concrete next to the form where
floating and troweling are less effective. Densified and compacted concrete is more durable and
less vulnerable to spalling and chipping.
Figure 12. Worker Using Corner Trowel

When edging is performed, the concrete should be moved away from the forms to a depth of 30
mm (1.2 inches) by using a pointed mason trowel or a margin trowel. After the concrete is
moved away from the forms, an edger should be held almost flat on the concrete surface and run
with the front of the edger slightly raised. Slightly raising the front of the edger prevents the
edger from leaving an overly deep impression on the concrete. Edging may be required after
each subsequent finishing operation.
While edging is being performed, or immediately after the edging is performed, the control joints
should be made, unless the control joints are to be sawed. Proper jointing practices can eliminate
unsightly random cracks in the concrete. Control joints are made with a hand groover that
extends the control joint into the concrete. Control joints are made to a depth of one-fourth of
the thickness of the concrete. A control joint that is one-fourth of the thickness of the concrete
will weaken the concrete and will induce a crack to form beneath the control joint, where the
crack is inconspicuous
Floating
After the concrete has been hand-edged and hand-jointed, it should be floated with a wooden
hand float or with a power finishing machine that uses float blades. This is not to be confused
with using a bull float to level the concrete. Bull floating is done while the cement is still fluid.
Figure 13 shows the use of a hand float. Marks left by the jointer should be removed by floating.

Figure 13. A Worker Using a Hand Float
The following four statements show that the purposes of floating is to:
• Depress large aggregate particles slightly beneath the concrete surface.
• Remove slight imperfections and to even out bumps and voids in the concrete for a
level plane surface.
• Compact the mortar at the surface of the concrete in preparation for subsequent
finishing operations.
• Keep the surface of the concrete open so that excess moisture can escape.
The hand float should be held flat on the concrete surface and moved with a slight sawing
motion in a sweeping arc. This motion will fill in holes, cut off bumps, and smooth ridges on the
concrete. When large concrete slabs are being finished, power floats can be used to reduce
finishing time.

After bull floating, a slight stiffening of the concrete is necessary before proceeding with further
finishing operation. During this waiting period, some bleed water may rise to the surface and
evaporate. The length of this waiting period depends on the composition of the concrete mix, the
concrete temperature, and the ambient conditions (wind velocity and air temperature). No
subsequent operation (floating or troweling) should be done until the concrete can sustain foot
pressure with only about a 5 mm (1/4 inch) of indentation.
Changes in concrete temperature, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind make it difficult to
set a definite time to begin the floating process. These are the factors you must depend on when
determining when to start the floating:
• The water sheen or shine must have disappeared from the concrete surface.
• The mix must be stiff enough that when you stand on the concrete surface, you will
leave only a slight footprint, not more than 1/4” deep.
• When the mortar is not thrown by the rotating blades of a power float.
• When individual can walk on surface and leave only a slight footprint. The footprints
will be smoothed away during the floating procedure.
If marks or designs are desired for decorative purposes, these should be placed after the final
floating and troweling has been performed on the concrete.
Troweling
Troweling smoothes and compacts the unformed surface of fresh concrete by stroking the
concrete with a steel trowel or a power finishing machine. SAES-Q-001, Section 10.2.4 requires
that all interior floor slabs shall have a steel trowel finish only, unless otherwise noted.
Otherwise noted slabs are as follows:
• Slabs to be covered with acid-proof brick, terrazzo, or quarry tile will be screeded
(Section 10.2.5).
• Slabs to receive monolithic acid-proof coating will be finished with a wood float or a
single pass with a steel trowel Concrete hardeners and curing compounds will not be
used (Section 10.2.6).
• Roof slabs to receive a built-up roofing will be floated smooth after screeding
(Section 10.2.7).
The power finishing machine is fitted with smaller individual steel trowel blades. These smaller
trowel blades are slightly tilted to exert pressure on the surface on the concrete.

Figure 14 shows a workman using a hand trowel, sometimes called a steel trowel.
Figure 14. Workman Using a Hand Trowel
Problems of Timing. Troweling should not be done on a surface that has not been floated.
Troweling after bullfloating or darbying is not an adequate finishing procedure for concrete.
The waiting time between floating and trawling will depend on the types and quantities of
admixtures used in the concrete, as well as on the atmospheric conditions that are present at the
concrete's surface. Troweling should be delayed until the concrete has hardened enough so that
water and fine material are not brought to the surface. Too long a delay will result in a surface
that is too hard to trowel. The tendency is to float and trowel the surface too soon. Premature
floating and troweling can cause dusting, crazing, scaling, and reduced wear resistance.
Floating and troweling before the bleeding process has been completed may also trap bleed water
under the finished surface of the concrete. Trapped bleed water will produce a weakened zone or
void under the finished concrete surface that may result in concrete delamination.
Finishers should never add water to the concrete surface to facilitate finishing. Added water will
result in a higher water-cement ratio, which can cause crazing, low wear and abrasion resistance,
dusting, and scaling.

Finishers should never apply dry cement to the surface to eliminate the moisture. This procedure
can cause a less abrasive-resistant surface.
Brooming
Brooming refers to the production of a slip-resistant surface by pulling a broom over the concrete
surface as shown in Figure 15 . SAES-Q-001 requires that all outside slabs, process plant paving,
sidewalks and other outdoor areas subject to foot traffic only shall have a light broom finish. In
the brooming process, the concrete has not thoroughly hardened and can still retain the broom's
impression. Rough scoring can be performed with a rake, a steel-wire broom, or a stiff, coarse
fiber broom. Rough scoring will produce a coarse texture and should be done after floating. If a
finer texture is desired, the concrete should be floated and trowelled to a smooth surface and then
brushed with a soft-bristled broom. The soft-bristled broom should be specially made for the
texturing of concrete.
Figure 15. Workman Brooming a Concrete Slab

Problems with Tool Selection for Finishing
Tools used correctly are essential for quality work and durable concrete surfaces.
Round-end shovels do not permit proper leveling of the concrete, and they should not be used for
spreading the concrete before screeding. Rakes should not be used to spread concrete because
they usually cause segregation. Pieces of dimension lumber (e.g., two by fours) are not
recommended for use as screeds. Wood screeds are frequently warped, resulting in uneven
surfaces. Uneven surfaces will require overworking of some areas. These overworked areas
may exhibit crazing and cracking upon hardening.
Pointed masonry trowels should never be used for concrete finishing. These trowels will not
produce a hard, dense surface.
Problems with the Duration of Finishing
The concrete surface should not be over-finished. Excessive working of the concrete surface,
particularly with steel trowels, has a tendency to bring water to the surface. If this water is
remixed during the finishing of the top surface, a weak wearing surface will be formed. Some of
the water may be trapped on the underside of coarse aggregate particles and thereby create zones
of poor bond. This water also leaves behind capillaries. Because all of the voids are oriented in
the same direction, the permeability of the concrete in a horizontal plane may be increased.
Curing
Curing concrete is maintaining a satisfactory moisture content and a favorable temperature in the
concrete immediately following placement. This maintenance is necessary until the desired
properties of the concrete are developed. Curing promotes the hydration of the cement so that
the concrete continues to gain strength and improve in quality. Correctly performed curing
reduces the risk of the concrete cracking, crazing, curling, and dusting. Curing will also improve
the durability of concrete.
Curing is necessary because the hydration of cement can only take place in water filled spaces so
any loss of water by evaporation must be prevented. If the water in concrete is lost internally by
self-desiccation, the water must be replaced by outside water. Outside water must be available to
the concrete at all times.

Figure 16 illustrated the relationship between concrete strength gain and moist curing.
Figure 16. Influence of Moist Curing on Concrete Strength
The following curing techniques and methods are used in Saudi Aramco:
• Retaining the forms in place
• Water method
− Ponding
− Covering
− Sprinkling or Spraying
• Membrane method
− Curing Compound
Note: SAES-Q-001, Section 11.5, requires that for concrete surfaces not in
contact with the forms (able to remove the forms), ponding or
continuous sprinkling, or wet burlap curing be used

Note: The water used in these methods must be potable water with a
maximum of total dissolved solids not to exceed 1000 ppm (SAES-Q-
001, Section 11.2)
Retaining Forms in Place.
This curing technique is a temporary one. It is applies to structures such as beams, columns,
walls, and anchor blocks that do not have large exposed surfaces. The technique prevents the
structure's formed surfaces from drying out. Once the forms are removed, the exposed surfaces
must be cured by one of the techniques listed in one of the following two methods:
• Water method where continuous and frequent application of water through ponding,
sprays, or saturated covering materials such as burlap, earth or sand.
• The use of various materials, such as sheets of plastic, or the application of a

membrane-forming curing compound to the freshly placed concrete to prevent
excessive loss of water from the concrete.
Curing should begin as soon as possible after finishing.
Water Methods
Water methods include the following curing techniques:
• Ponding
• Covering
• Spraying or sprinkling
Ponding. With this curing method, water is ponded on the horizontal surfaces of concrete.
These horizontal surfaces are then covered with polyethylene. The water is continuously
replaced to ensure that the surface is totally covered. Water curing is accomplished continuously
until the compressive strength of the concrete has reached 70 percent of its specified strength, but
never less than 7 days (SAES-Q-001, Section 11.3)
Covering. Covering concrete with sand, burlap sheets, or similar moisture-retaining materials
that are kept constantly wet. This curing method is only effective if the concrete is kept
continuously moist. If sand is used it must be clean sand with no harmful chemicals, just like the
sand used for mixing.

Wet burlap curing must have at least two layers of constantly damped burlap laid tight against
the pre-soaked concrete surface. The burlap will be kept uniformly damp (lighter patches
indicating drier burlap must not be evident). This wet burlap must completely cover the concrete
being cured (SAES-Q-001, Section 11.5.2).
Sprinkling or Spraying. Sprinkling or spraying concrete with water at frequent intervals is

another curing method. Care must be taken to avoid damage to green concrete through the use of
heavy jets of water. This curing method is only effective if the concrete is kept continuously
moist. Intermittent sprinkling and drying of the concrete during the first two or three days may
result in surface cracks and reduced durability of the concrete.
Moisture losses from surfaces placed against wooden forms will be minimized by keeping the
forms continually wet until it is safe to remove them. After the forms are removed, the concrete
will be cured in accordance with other exposed forms, i.e. by ponding, sprinkling or wet burlap
(SAES-Q-001, Section 11.6).
The following are the important factors concerning water curing:
• Starting time
• Continuity of curing
• Quality of water
• Duration of curing
Problems of Starting Time. Curing concrete should begin as soon as possible after the
finishing process. Severe drying conditions may make it necessary to commence curing after the
consolidation of the concrete.
Hot weather may cause rapid withdrawal of moisture from the mix, which results in shrinkage of
the concrete while it is still plastic. This withdrawal of moisture is particularly severe if the
humidity is low, or if evaporation is accelerated by drying winds. When shrinking occurs, severe
cracking (plastic shrinkage cracking) often occurs.
When curing is delayed or neglected, the outer surface of the concrete will dry first. This drying
of the outer surface of the concrete will seriously affect the quality of the concrete. Negative
results will occur to a depth of approximately 30 mm (1.2 inches); such defects make the
concrete less wear resistant and more permeable.
Problems With Interruption of Curing. Interruption or discontinuation of water curing will

allow the outer surface of the concrete to dry out. When the outer surface dries out, shrinkage
stresses occur. These shrinkage stresses usually cause crazing, and they may lead to scaling of
the surface.

Alternate periods of wetting and drying cause volume changes, and they are ineffective as a
curing method. Intermittent sprinkling during the first two or three days may result in surface
cracks and reduced durability.
Problems With Quality of Water. Specification SAES-Q-001 requires that, "water used for
curing shall be sweet water or acceptable water with less than 1000 ppm dissolved solids." The
quality of water used to wet cure concrete is as important, if not more important, than the quality
of water used for mixing. It is essential that curing water be free from substances that attack
hardened concrete.
Dissolved salts can readily penetrate and accumulate within the green concrete as the water
evaporates. Reinforced concrete is especially vulnerable to the effects of chlorides, which may
lead to corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Plain concrete may suffer surface spalling. If salts
(particularly sulphate) are introduced in the curing water, surface spalling occurs. These salts
migrate toward the surface of the concrete and crystallize below the concrete's skin.
Problems With the Duration of Curing. Because all of the desirable properties of concrete are
improved by wet curing, the curing period should be as long as possible. ACI 305R-91, Hot
Weather Concreting, specifies that, "Curing should be continued for at least the first 7 days. If a
change in curing method is made during this period, it should be done only after the concrete is 3
days old. The concrete surface should not be permitted to become dry during the transition."
ACI 308, Standard Practice for Curing Concrete, specifies that, "When the daily mean ambient
temperature is above 400F (50C), curing should be continuous for a minimum of 7 days or for the
time necessary to attain 70% of the specified compressive or flexural strength, whichever period
is less."
Insufficient water curing allows the outer surface of the concrete to dry out before it has reached
sufficient strength. Failure to reach sufficient strength reduces the concrete's resistance to drying
shrinkage stresses. These shrinkage stresses may then cause crazing, cracking, and scaling of the
surface.
Membrane Method
The primary membrane method used in Saudi Aramco is the use of curing compounds.
Curing Compounds. Applications of liquid curing compounds that form a moisture-retaining

membrane on the concrete surface is another curing method. Curing compounds are generally
applied by spraying. Care must be taken to ensure that the coverage of curing compounds on the
concrete is uniform and adequate for the ambient conditions. Non-uniform application or
inadequate application of curing compounds may result in surface cracks and reduced durability
of concrete. Curing compounds may be virtually useless when sprayed on vertical surfaces.
Materials. When tested at the rate of coverage to be used on the job, liquid membrane-forming
compounds for curing concrete should comply with the requirements of ASTM C309, Standard
Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete. Curing
compounds consist of waxes, natural and synthetic resins, and solvents of high volatility at

atmospheric temperatures. The product must form a moisture-retentive film shortly after being
applied. The film must effectively prevent evaporation of water from the concrete. This film
will not allow outside water to replace water that is lost internally.
Materials that do not form a continuous moisture-retentive film will allow the surface to dry a
varying rates. This drying difference results in crazing and cracking. Before their use is
approved, concrete curing compounds should be investigated to determine their effectiveness.
Quantity of Curing Compound. The usual values for the application of curing compounds
range from about 0.20 to 0.25 liter/m2 (150 to 200 sq ft. per gal.). Tests to determine compliance
with the requirements of ASTM C309, are made at the coverage to be used in the field. If the
field coverage rate is not shown, the test coverage rate shall be 0.20 liter/m2 (150 ft2/gal.). The
curing compound should be applied at a uniform rate by hand or power sprayers. Two
applications at right angles to each other are recommended for complete coverage. Complete
coverage of the surface must be attained. The presence of even small pin holes in the membrane
permits evaporation of some moisture from the concrete.
Application of insufficient curing compound to the concrete surface results in a discontinuous

film. This discontinuous film allows the surface to dry differentially, which results in crazing
and cracking.
Certain types of curing compounds are designed to disintegrate within a period of about four
weeks. In various cases, the rate of breakdown depends on the thickness of application and on
the degree of exposure to ultraviolet light.
Starting Time of Application. Curing compounds must be applied after final finishing.
Compounds should be applied as soon as the free water on the surface has disappeared and no
water sheen is visible. Do not apply the compounds so late that the compound will be absorbed
by the concrete. If membrane-forming curing compounds are applied to a dry-appearing surface,
either of the following two undesirable conditions may occur:
• Evaporation may be effectively stopped, but bleeding may continue. The result will
be a layer of water forming below the layer of cement paste to which the membrane is
attached. Such a condition promotes scaling.
• Evaporation is stopped temporarily, but bleeding continues and results in map

cracking of the membrane film. Map cracking requires reapplication of the curing
compound. If the curing compound is not reapplied, the surface dries differentially,
which results in crazing and cracking.
Delayed application of the curing compound results in the drying out of the outer surface of the
concrete. Drying out will make the concrete more permeable and less wear-resistant.
ACTIONS TO AVOID PRODUCTION-RELATED CONCRETE DURABILITY

PROBLEMS

Table 2 shows the major durability problems caused by concrete production and the items you
must plan to avoid.
Table 2. Production-related Durability Problems
DURABILITY
PROBLEM POSSIBLE PRODUCTION CAUSES
Steel Corrosion Inadequate cover.

Cracking Inadequate mixing, insufficient curing.
High concrete temperatures, curing delayed.
High W/C ratio , delays in transporting.
High A/C ratio, High sand content.
Improper discharge methods, Concrete dropped too far.
Concrete moved by vibrators, Over/under-vibration.
Insufficient curing compound.
Honeycomb Inadequate mixing, Concrete dropped too far.
Low sand content, Concrete moved by vibrators.
Delays in transporting, Over/under-vibration.
Improper discharge methods.
Cold Joints High concrete temperatures, Delays in transporting
Delays in placing and consolidation
Crazing High sand content, Insufficient water curing
Over troweling, Insufficient curing compound.
Troweling without floating, Water added to the surface during
finishing.
Curing delayed, Water curing interrupted.
Scaling High concrete temperatures, High sand content, Water on slab surface
during finishing.
Overtroweling, Troweling without floating,-Water added to the surface
during finishing.
Curing delayed, Water curing interrupted, Insufficient water curing,
Insufficient curing compound.

It is important to monitor each stage of the production process. Corrective actions must be taken
if incorrect production techniques occur. The use of poor production techniques can cause: steel
corrosion, cracking, honeycomb, cold joints, crazing, or scaling. Following are the stages of
production that require monitoring:
• Mixing Process
• Transport Time
• Finishing and Curing
Monitor the Mixing Process
To produce concrete of uniform quality the ingredients for each batch must be accurately
measured. Plant scales must be calibrated no fewer than three times a year. It is important to
check the water meter or water scale. Ensure that the appropriate changes are made to the design
water requirements when the aggregates are not in a SSD (saturated surface dry) condition.
Damp or wet aggregates can result in a decrease in the aggregate content and an increase in the
water-cement ratio. All ice should be weighed and the amount of mix water reduced
accordingly.
The batching sequence should be the same for each batch of concrete. The chemical admixtures
are to be added to the water at the same point in the mixing sequence.
Mixers should not be loaded above their rated capacities (check the manufacturer's information
plates on the mixer). Mixers should be operated at approximately the speeds for which they
were designed (check the manufacturer's operating instructions or manual). The mixer should
not have worn or bent paddles. The inside of the mixer drum should be clean, without any dried
concrete adhering to the blades or drum.
Assure that the concrete is mixed thoroughly until all the ingredients are evenly distributed and
the cement is uniform in appearance. Check truck mixers periodically to ensure that the mixers
are producing concrete that meets the uniformity requirements of ASTM C94. Check mixing
times to ensure that the manufacturer's recommendations are being met.

If possible, conduct slump and air content tests on every load of concrete, to assure uniformity.
Determine the temperature of the concrete during testing. All test results should be recorded.
Periodically make test cylinders to check hardened concrete density and compressive strength.
For each batch tested it will require four cylinders for testing. Testing is required by 09-
SAMSS-097, Section 17.2 as follows:
• 1 cylinder at age 3 days
• 1 cylinder at age 7 days
• 2 cylinders at age 28 days
Review unusual variations in any concrete property and establish the cause for the variation.
Once the cause of the variation is established corrective action should be taken to reduce the
variation to acceptable limits.
Monitor Transport Times
The transportation time of the concrete from the batch plant to the placing location must be kept
as short as possible. Extended transportation time will cause grinding of the aggregate, loss of
slump, an increase in concrete temperature, and/or segregation of the mix.
Saudi Aramco specification 09-SAMSS-097 requires that concrete be completely discharged

within 11/2 hours, or before the mixing drum has revolved 300 revolutions (whichever comes
first). Concrete that is delivered more than 11/2 hours after it was mixed, or concrete that is
delivered by trucks not having operable revolution counters will be rejected.
If a concrete is within the time and mixing requirements it may have its slump restored by using
a superplasticizing admixture. If water is used to restore slump (retempering) the concrete shall
be rejected. This addition of water may cause increased cracking.
When the trucks arrive at the job site determine the age of the concrete by checking the truck
delivery slips. Check revolution counters to determine if drum revolutions are below 300
revolutions.
Monitor Placing and Consolidation
Fresh concrete must be placed in its final position and compacted before drying out,
contamination, or segregation can occur.

Concrete should be deposited near its final location to minimize lateral flow. Lateral flow should
be contained to roughly 0.6 or 1.0 meter (2 or 3 ft.). To avoid segregation the direction of drop
should be vertical. The top of a layer being placed should be kept as level as possible. The side
layer of a concrete should be lightly spaded to reduce the possibility of bugholes. Assure that
forms are tight fitting to prevent mortar leakage and subsequent segregation.
Assure that the concrete is consolidated thoroughly and uniformly as it is being placed.
Consolidation is done by spading, tamping, or vibration. Consolidation will ensure a dense
structure that is bonded to the reinforcement and has a smooth surface. Concrete vibrators
should be inserted vertically into the concrete. Vibrators should not move the concrete
horizontally, since this will cause segregation. Vibration cannot be expected to correct
segregation that has occurred due to faulty methods of handling and placing.
Vibrators should be lowered vertically into the concrete at regularly spaced intervals and allowed
to descend by gravity. The vibrator should penetrate quickly to the bottom of the layer being
placed and at least 150 mm (6 inches) into any previously placed layer. Each layer or lift should
be equivalent to the length of the vibrator head, generally a maximum of 300 mm (12 inches) in
regular formwork. The vibrator should be held stationary until adequate consolidation is attained
and then slowly withdrawn. An insertion time of 5 to 15 seconds usually provides adequate
consolidation. When the vibrator is withdrawn the concrete should move to fill the hole left by
the vibrator. If the hole does not refill, the insertion of the vibrator at a nearby point should close
the hole.
The adequacy of internal vibration is judged by changes in the surface appearance of the
concrete and by experience. The principal indicators of well-consolidated concrete are as
follows:
• Large aggregate particles are embedded.
• The concrete surface is level.
• A thin film of glistening paste appears around the vibrator head.
• Large bubbles of entrapped air are not escaping at the surface.
Thicker layers require more vibration time than thin layers. In thick layers it takes longer for
deep-seated bubbles to make their way to the surface. At times the pitch or tone of the vibrator is
a helpful guide. When an immersion vibrator is inserted in concrete the frequency of the
vibrator's tone usually drops off, then increases, and finally becomes constant when the concrete
is free of entrapped air.
More information on consolidation of concrete may be found in ACI 309R-87, Guide for
Consolidation of Concrete.

Monitor Finishing and Curing
The concrete should be spread evenly ahead of the strike-off screed using square-nosed shovels.
Round-end shovels and rakes should not be used because they can cause segregation. A small
roll of concrete should be pushed by the strike-off screed to aid in the consolidation of
Bullfloating or darbying must be completed before bleed water accumulates on the surface of the
concrete. The performance of finishing operations on the surface of a concrete slab while bleed
water is present can cause serious crazing, dusting, or scaling.
Edging and jointing should be conducted close behind bullfloating. Be careful that these
operations do not open up the concrete surface. Opening the concrete surface leaves voids where
water and other materials may accumulate.
After the concrete has been hand-edged and hand-jointed, floating is to be done. Floating is
conducted with a wooden hand float, or with a power finishing machine that uses float blades.
Concrete is ready to be floated when the following occur:
• The water sheen on the concrete has disappeared.
• The concrete will support the weight of a person (leaving a footprint with only a
slight indentation on the surface).
• The mortar is not thrown by the rotating blades of a power float.
Delay troweling until the concrete has hardened enough so that water and fine materials are not
brought to the surface of the concrete. Do not trowel a surface that has not been floated.
Sprinkling water on a dry concrete surface to facilitate finishing is prohibited. Sprinkling water
can cause the concrete to craze, map crack, dust, and discolor.
Spreading dry cement on a wet surface to soak up excess water is also prohibited. This practice
can cause the concrete to craze.
Curing should begin as soon as possible after finishing. Severe drying conditions may make it
necessary to commence curing after the consolidation of the concrete (see ACI 305R-91).
If curing is neglected, the outer surface of the concrete will dry first seriously affecting the
quality of the concrete to a maximum depth of approximately 30 mm (1.2 inches) (see curing
monograph from ACI 305R-91). It is this outer layer of the concrete that must resist abrasive
forces, keep out salt and other aggressive chemicals, and protect the reinforcing steel against
corrosion.
Wet curing should be continuous. Sweet water (water with less than 1000 parts per million of
dissolved solids) is to be used for curing.

Curing compounds must be applied after final finishing when no water sheen is visible and there
is no free water on the surface of the concrete. They should not be applied so late that the liquid
curing compound is absorbed into the concrete surface.
The curing compound should be applied at a uniform rate by hand or power sprayers. Two
applications should be at right angles to each other to ensure complete coverage. The rate of
application should be in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations for the conditions
that exist at the construction site. The rate of application may be estimated by dividing the area
treated by the quantity of curing compound used.
Note: This estimate may be grossly in error if the curing compound is applied during windy
conditions

GLOSSARY
dry batching The process where the aggregate and cement are placed into
the mixing truck dry and taken to the site where water is
added.
segregate The separation of the course aggregate from the mortar in

mixed concrete.
control joints Joints place in the concrete for expansion.
coefficient of permeability A numerical value that determines how susceptible concrete

will be to water entry.

WORK AID 1. HOW TO DETERMINE THE CAUSES OF PRODUCTION-RELATED

CONCRETE FAILURES
Use this work aid to assist you in determining concrete durability problems and their
origin This work aid consists of Table 3 below and Handout 1. Refer to both when
determining durability problems.
Table 3. Matrix Used to Determining Production Related Durability Problem.
DURABILITY PROBLEMS CAUSED BY PRODUCTION PROCESS
Steel Corrosion Rebar Placement
Cracking Mixing
Transportation
Placing
Consolidation
Curing
Honeycomb Mixing
Transportation
Cold Joints Placing
Consolidation
Crazing Mixing
Finishing
Scaling Curing

WORK AID 2. HOW TO MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS TO AVOID

PRODUCTION-RELATED CONCRETE FAILURES
Use this check list to assist in inspection of batch plant activities. Also use Handout 2, as
applicable.
Checklist For Avoiding Production-related Concrete Failures

Monitor The Mixing Process by Checking These Items:
Plant scales calibrated as required. (3 times a year)
Plant water meter or scales for accuracy and use.

Plant water meter to verify appropriate adjustments for aggregate not in
SSD condition.
Ice for weighing to determine water reduction.
Batching sequence is the same for each batch.

Batch design mix report is being used
Chemical admixtures added at the same point in the sequence each time.
. Mixers not loaded beyond capacity (manufacturer’s information plate).
Mixers operated at design speed each time (manufacturer’s operating

instructions or manual).
Mixer has not worn or bent paddles
Inside drum is clean with no dried concrete on blades or drum.
Concrete is thoroughly mixed.
Periodically check truck mixers to verify they are producing concrete that
meets uniformity requirements of ASTM- C94.
Check mixing time to verify manufacturer’s recommendations are being
met.
Conduct slump and air-content test on every load of concrete, possible, to
assure uniformity.
Determine the temperature of the concrete during testing
Record all test results on appropriate forms.

Periodically make cylinder tests for checking hardened concrete density
and compression strength.

Review any unusual results that vary in any property and determine the
cause of these variations and take corrective action.
Monitor Transport Time by Checking These Things:
Verify that the concrete is discharged before 1 1/2 hours or 300

revolutions, whichever comes first.
Reject all concrete not placed within the required time or any load
transported by a truck not having a rotation counter.
If slump is restored by using water (retempering), the batch must be

rejected.
Monitor Placing and Consolidation by Checking These Things:

Verify that the concrete is placed near its final location to minimize lateral
flow, roughly 0.6 to 1.0 meter (2 or 3 ft).
Verify that the drop is vertical and the top layer is being kept as level as
possible.
Verify that the side layer of the concrete is slightly spaded to reduce
bugholes.
Be sure that the forms are tight fitting to prevent loss of mortar.
Be sure that the concrete is thoroughly consolidated by spading, tamping
or vibration. Be sure vibrators are inserted vertically at regular intervals
and allowed to descend by gravity.
Be sure that the vibrator extends into the previous layer by 150mm
(6~inches) and is held for 5 to 15 seconds.
Be sure that each lift is equivalent to the length of the vibrator head
(usually 300 mm or 12 inches) in regular formwork.
Verify that all large aggregate particles are fully embedded

Verify that the concrete surface is level after vibration.
Verify at a thin film of glistening paste appears around the vibrator head
Verify that large bubble of entrapped air are not escaping from the surface
of the concrete.
Monitor Finishing and Curing by Checking These Things:

Verify that the concrete is spread evenly ahead of the strike-off screed
with a square-nosed shovel.

Verify that a bullfloat or darby is used directly after screeding to prevent

high and low spots and embed large aggregate.
Caution: Be sure this is accomplished before bleed water accumulated on the surface
Verify that edging and jointing is done closely behind bull floating.
Verify that floating is done next but after a waiting period indicated by
these things:
The sheen on the concrete has disappeared
The concrete will support the weight of a person leaving only

slight indentations.
Mortar is not thrown by the rotating blades of a power float.
Verify that the cement is dry enough so that when troweling, water and
fine minerals are not brought to the surface.
Caution: Do not allow water to be sprinkled on the surface to facilitate finishing.
Verify that the curing of the concrete starts as soon as the finishing
completed. In extreme drying conditions, the curing must start
immediately after consolidation.
Verify that wet curing is continuous and that sweet water is used.
Verify that curing compounds are applied only after final finish and when
no water sheen or free water is visible.
Verify that the curing compounds are not applied too late so that they are
absorbed into the concrete surface.
Verify that the curing compound is evenly spread either by hand or by

power sprayers. Be sure that there are two applications at right angles to
each other.
Verify that the curing compound is applied in the quantity recommended

by the manufacturer.

REFERENCES
09 SAMSS-097, 1 Dec. 1996, Ready-mixed Portland Cement Concrete.
ACI-117-90, Standard Specifications for Tolerances of Concrete Construction.
ACI-201.1R-92, Guide to Making a Condition Survey of Concrete in Service.
ACI 211.1-91, Standard Practices for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass
Concrete.
ACI 305R-91, Hot Weather Concreting
ACI 308-92, Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
ACI 309R-87, Guide for Consolidation of Concrete.
ASTM C94-96, Standard Specifications for Ready-mixed Concrete
ASTM C309-95, Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing
Concrete
SAES-Q-001, 1 Dec. 1996 , Criteria for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures.

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