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Regards,
SHAYAN ABBAS
CHAPTER 2
Simple filter paper is only usefull in seperating solid particles from neutral
liquids.
Iodine, naphthalene, ammonium chloride ,benzoic acid, camphor
and anthracene undergo sublimation.
CaCl2 ,P2O5 H2SO4 used as drying agents.
The more solute is obtained with smaller portion of solvent so solvent
extraction is done repeatedly using small portions
Distribution co-efficient is given as:
K=
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑒
A compound having smaller value of distribution coff.(K) remains in
stationary phase and mobile phase flows over it and vice versa for larger
value of distibution coff.(K)
In paper chromatography Retardation factor is given as:
RF =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
To filter reactive solutions like Like HCL ,KMnO4 etc base of gooch
crucible is covered by Asbestos .
CHAPTER 3
Very weak forces of attraction exist among gas molecules. Forces are
mostly wander wall forces.
Gases exert pressure on the wall of container ; the pressure of gas is due
to the collisions of gas molecules with each other and with walls of
container
Units of pressure
Atmosphere(atm): is the force exerted by 76 cm long Hg column on area
of 1 cm2 at 0° C at sea level i.e. 1atm =76 cm Hg or 1 tam = 760 mm Hg.
SI unit: is Nm-2 or Pascal ( 1 tam = 101325 Nm-2)
Torre : It is a smaller unit of pressure ( 1 torr = 1 mmHg)
Although masses and sizes of different gasses are different but volume of
gas does not depend on sizes and molar masses because there are large
no. of spaces among gas molecules.
Forms of general Gas equation:
PV = nRT
MP = dRT
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= =R
𝑇1 𝑇2
Applications of general gas equation:
𝑃𝑉
Units and values of R as R =
𝑛𝑇
𝑀𝑃𝑉
Mass of gas as m =
𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑃
Density of gas as d =
𝑅𝑇
𝑟1 𝑑2 𝑟1 𝑀2
= or =
𝑟2 𝑑1 𝑟2 𝑀1
If you know the molar masses of given gases, You can easily find ration
between their rates of diffusions.
3𝑅𝑇
Root mean square velocity =
𝑀
3
K.E = RT
2
Gases with greater size are more non ideal because greater size means
greater electronic cloud ,greater polarizability greater forces of attraction
greater value of "a" and "b" so gas deviates from ideal behavior.
Gases deviate from ideal behavior at high temperature and low pressure
because the forces of attraction become significant.
NOTE :
The Vander walls constant ―a‖ shows the forces of attractions among gas
molecules such that larger value of ―a‖ for a gas shows stronger forces
and vice versa.
The Vander Walls constant ―b‖ shows the excluded which depends on
size of gas molecules such that larger the size of gas molecules , high will
be value of b, and vice versa.
Excluded volume (b) is not equal to actual volume of gas molecules but
b=4Vm
Smaller the value of Vander walls constant a and b more ideal will be gas
NOTE :
You can form direct and inverse relations in the above given formula when
question will be about increment or decrement of one value with respect to
other. This tip will help u a lot.
Chapter 4
Intermolecular forces are attractions among molecules while
intermolecular forces of attraction with in molecules.
Greater the electro negativity difference stronger will be the dipole dipole
forces and stronger will the bond.
NOTE : ( Remember some electro negativity values of some well known
or frequently used elements)
London forces exist both in polar and non polar molecules but more
prominent in non polar molecules because no other forces exists among
non polar molecules.
London forces and MP BP depends on size of molecules. Such that
greater the size greater will be MP BP and stronger London forces and
vice versa
Dipole dipole forces are 1% more effective than covalent and more
operate in liquids dipole induced dipole also called Debye forces.
London forces are more prominent in non polar
In case of right helix of protein the groups like N-H and C=O form
hydrogen bonding vertically.
In DNA common vertical axis is known as sugar phosphate backbone.
Evaporation occurs at all temperature.
Evaporation causes cooling.
1
Evaporation ∝
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Evaporation ∝ Temperature
Surface area ∝ evaporation
Pressure of vapors of liquid at dynamic equilibrium state is called vapour
pressure of that liquid.
1
Vapour pressure ∝
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
Liquids have different vapour pressure at different temperatures
Surface area has no effect on vapour pressure of a liquid.
Boiling point remains constant , inspite of heat supply continuously
Boiling point ∝ intermolecular forces
Boiling point ∝ exeternal pressure
Heat of sublimation is greater than vaporization and heat of vapor. is
greater than fusion
The turbid state i.e. milky state is having both properties of crystalline solid
and clear liquid called liquid crystals
Liquid crystals are always isotropic.
Liquid crystals are used as a solvent in chromatography
stronger the intermolecular forces stronger is the thermodynamic
properties i.e. m.p,.b.p etc.
increasing polarizability increase m.p b.p of noble gases
like dissolves like i.e. polar dissolves polar and non polar dissolves in non
polar
density of ice is less than water due to empty spaces
evaporation is continuous process causes cooling …
Vapour pressure does not depend upon amount of liquid, volume and
area of the liquid.
Amorphous solids have some regions of orderly arrangements called
crystallites.
isomorphism in compounds is mostly due to atomic ratio.
Allotropy is for elements and polymorphism for compounds and both have
transition temperature of their own.
Molecular solids have low m.p b.p because they have venders Waals
forces in there crystal structure.
Ionic solids are non directional‘s having crystal structures on bases of
radius ratio.
more charge more lattice energy.
electrical and thermal conductivity of atoms is due to free electrons in
them.
metals have shiny looks due to excitation of electrons in them.
NOTE:
(you should have good concept of forces i.e. dipole, induced dipole and
memorise the terms of solids specialy there examples because mcqs will
come relating to the examples, also learn by heart seven crystal systems)
CHAPTER 5
Cathode rays travel from cathode to anode.
Temperature of tube is 5000-10000 volts.
Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic as well as electric field toward
positive side due to its negative nature.
Positive rays are also known as canal rays..
Neutrons can‘t ionize gases.
Neutrons are highly penetrating particles.
𝑒 𝑉 𝑒 𝑋
= or = 1.76 × 108
𝑚 𝑟𝐻 𝑚 𝑟𝐻2
where X=strength of electric field.
Relati
Relative
Partic Charge ve Ma Loca
mass**
le Charg ss tion
e**
1.6
72
Proto
+1.60 x 10-19 C +1 x 1 amu nucleus
n
10 -
24 g
9.0
0 amu
Electr 5x electron cloud
-1.60 x 10 C
-19 -1 ~(1/1840
on 10- (orbital)
28 g
amu)
1.6
74
Neutr
neutral 0 x 1 amu nucleus
on
10-
24 g
Plank‘s equation: E = h
E = hc/ℵ where c = speed of light , h = planks constant
𝑛
mvr =
2𝜋
3 2 d 5
4 3 f 7
CHAPTER 6
the distance 75.4 pm is called bond length or bond distance or
compromise distance.
Loss in energy leads to stability.
Shielding affect increases down the group due to increase in no. of shells
but shielding effect remains same along the periods.
Atomic distance can‘t be measured precisely due to wave nature of
electrons and disturbance due to neighbouring atoms.
Atomic radii increase down the group due to increase in no. of shells and
shielding effect.
Atomic radii decrease along the period due to increase in nuclear charge.
Ionic radius of anion is always larger than parent atom while ionic radius
of cat ion is always smaller than parent atom.
Half of the bond length is covalent radius.
Ionization energy increases along periods.
Ionization energy decrease down the group.
The gap in ionization energy values tells us the no. of electrons in
outermost orbit and hence valiancy of elements.
1
Ionization energy ∝
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Ionization energy ∝ nuclear charge
1
Ionization energy ∝
𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
Ionization energy depends on nature of orbital as:
S >p > d> f
Electron affinity increases along periods and decreases down the group.
1
Electron affinity ∝
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
Electron affinity ∝ nuclear charge
1
Electron affinity ∝
𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
Exception: fluorine has electron affinity less than chlorine.
Electro negativity increases along the period and decreases down the
group.
Low I.E Ionic bond High E.F
G1A , G2A GvlA, GVllA
When we mover from left to right in period the members of group 3 A and
6A abnormally low values of ionization energy.
Number of General
Arrangement of Molecular
valence shell Molecular Examples
Domains Shape
electron pairs Formula
Equilateral
triangular
3 AX3 Trigonal planar BCl3, AlCl3
(three
domains)
Tetrahedral
4 AX4 Tetrahedral CH4, SiCl4
(four domains)
Trigonal
AX3E NH3, PCl3
pyramidal
Trigonal
Trigonal
5 bipyramidal AX5 PCl5, AsF5
bipyramidal
(five domains)
Octahedral
6 AX6 Octahedral SF6
(six domains)
Square
AX5E BrF5
pyramidal
Properties sp3
Geometry Tetrahedral
Bond angle 109o28'
Bond energy ∝ electronegativity difference
1
Bond energy ∝
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
1
Bond energy ∝
𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡
Greater the s character causes bond length shorter because s orbital has
a smaller radius.
Bond length decreases along the period and increases down the group.
Dipole moment = q × r
Units of dipole moment are meter coulomb and Debye related to each
other as:
1D = 3.33 × 10-30 mC
If there is a perfect geometry of molecules than dipole moment is zero e-g
if molecule has geometry triangular or tetragonal etc
Ionic compounds show no isomerism
Ionic compounds give fast reaction and covalent compounds give slow
reactions.
Abnormality for bond length and bond strength is maximum for HF.
MOT
VBT
1.Ineratomic orbital is produced by 1. Molecular orbital‘s are formed by
multiplying, exchanging and of all atomic orbital‘s from the
combinations of space wave functions of valence shell of two atoms.
two electrons.
2. Orbital‘s of bonded atoms lose
2.Orbitals of bonded atoms cannot lose their individual identity.
their identity.
3. Molecular orbital‘s are polycentric
3. Atomic orbital‘s monocentric.
4. Molecular orbital theory explain
4.It explains that inert gases have orbital the non-existence of molecules of
already spin paired, so they have no inert gases, since number of bonding
tendency to form any linkage. and ant bonding electrons are equal
5.Pauli‘s exclusion principle decides the 5. It explains how electrons are
spin function combination with wave originally present in atomic orbital‘s
function as and are distributed in new molecular
orbital‘s.
6. MOT is not capable or predicting
ionic character in a bond.
6.VBT introduces a special form to 7. In MOT both bonding and ant
explain the presence of ionic character in bonding orbital‘s can have electron
bond. pairs with opposed spins.
7.VBT explains the difference between
bonding and ant bonding orbital‘s as
following:
Bonds are localized to two atoms not Bonds are localized to two atoms as
molecule. well as molecule.
Valence orbital theory was first Molecular orbital theory was proposed
proposed by Whittler and F.London in by F. Hund and R.S. Mulliken in 1932.
1927.
Resonance plays an important role in There is no place of resonance in this
this theory. theory.
There is no explanation of Satisfactory explanation of
paramagnetic character of oxygen. paramagnetic character of oxygen.
Calculations are simpler. Calculations are very tedious.
CHAPTER 7
1 calorie = 4.184 j
Spontaneous reactions are irreversible
Non spontaneous reactions are reversible
A spontaneous process is capable of proceeding in a given direction without
needing to be driven by an outside source of energy.
The laws of thermodynamics govern the direction of a spontaneous process,
ensuring that if a sufficiently large number of individual interactions are
involved, then the direction will always be in the direction of increasedentropy.
An endergonic reaction (also called a no spontaneous reaction) is a chemical
reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive and energy is
absorbed.
Endergonic processes can be pushed or pulled by coupling them to
highly exergonic reactions.
Some examples of spontaneous reactions are:
a smell diffusing in a room
ice melting in lukewarm water
salt dissolving in water
iron rusting.
Examples of non spontaneous reactions are:
food coloring into water
Standard enthalpy of neutralization remains same for all acids and bases .
W = P∆V
∆E = q + w
Where
H = E + PV
M= mass of reactants
S= specific heat
∆H = ms∆𝑇 or ∆H = C∆𝑇 T = change in
temp(Kelvin)
C= capacity of
calorimeter
CHAPTER 8
irreversible reactions always goes to completion.
Reversible reactions never goes to completion.
Only reversible reactions get such a state at which rate of forward reaction
is equal to rate of reverse reaction.
Chemical equilibrium is also known as dynamic equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is independent of direction from which it is started.
Equilibrium constant expression is given as:
𝑐 (𝐷)
Kc =
𝐴 (𝐵)
Rate of forward reaction is directly proportional to the multiple of
concentrations of reactants .
If no. of moles of reactants are equal to no. of moles of product than kc
has no unit but if different than it does.
∆𝑛
K>1
K<1
K=1
CHAPTER 9
Every sample of matter with uniform properties and fixed composition is
called phase.
The amount of solute in unit volume of solution or solvent is called
concentration of solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% weight / weight = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
In percentage weight / volume quantity of solvent is not exactly known.
In percentage volume/weight we don‘t know total volume of solution.
The number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 of solution is called
molarity .
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1
Molarity = ×
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎 𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚 3
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚 3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1
Molality = ×
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molality =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Parts per million (ppm) = × 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The solution is homogeneous, which means that both solute and
solvent are in the same state which cannot be differentiated easily.
The solution is stable, which means that the solute particles will not
settle down in time.
The properties of a solution are different from the solute and solvent. In
the case of solid solutions like alloys, the properties like melting point,
refractive index are entirely different from the parent metals. Similarly
for liquid solutions, the melting point and boiling point are different from
a pure solvent.
Saturated solution is a solution to which no more solute can be added
at a particular temperature. As temperature affects the solubility of a
Non-ideal solutions
Ideal solutions Positive deviation Negative deviation from
from Raoult’s law Raoult’s law
Obey Raoult‘s law at Do not obey Raoult‘s Do not obey Raoult‘s law
every range of law.
concentration.
Hmix = 0; neither is Hmix>0. Endothermic Hmix<0. Exothermic
evolved nor absorbed dissolution; heat is dissolution; heat is
during dissolution. absorbed. evolved.
Vmix = 0; total Vmix > 0. Volume is Vmix <0. Volume is
volume of solution is increased after decreased during
equal to sum of dissolution. dissolution.
volumes of the
components.
P = pA + pB = pA > pA0XA; pB > pB0XB pA < pA0XA; pB < pB0XB
pA0XA + pB0XB ∴ pA + pB > pA0XA + ∴ pA + pB < pA0XA +
pB0XB pB0XB
A—A, A—B, B—B A—B attractive force A—B attractive force
interactions should be should be weaker should be greater than
same, i.e., ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ than A—A and B—B A—A and B—B attractive
are identical in shape, attractive forces. ‗A‘ forces. ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ have
size and character. and ‗B‘ have different different shape, size and
shape, size and character.
character.
Escaping tendency of ‗A‘ and B‘ escape Escaping tendency of
‗A‘ and ‗B‘ should be easily showing higher both components ‗A‘ and
same in pure liquids vapour pressure than ‗B‘ is lowered showing
and in the solution. the expected lower vapour pressure
value. than expected ideally.
Such a solution show positive deviation from Raoult‘s Law and the
observed boiling point of such solutions is found to be less than the
calculated value
Solutions of above type show negative deviation from Raoult‘s law
and their observed boiling point is found to be higher than the
calculated value
Colligative Properties
Osmotic Pressure
Calculations
CHAPTER 10
The interconversion of electrical and chemical energies take place in
electrolytic cells and in galvanic or voltaic cells.
Current can pas through conductor due to free electrons present in
metallic lattice.
Electronic conduction is also called metallic conduction.
The flow of electric current through an electrolyte due to movement of
ions not due to electrons.
Oxidation is : addition of oxygen , removal of hydrogen , removal of
electrons
Reduction is: addition of hydrogen, removal of oxygen, addition of
electrons.
Apparent charge on an atom in a molecule or ion is called oxidation
number or oxidation state.
The oxidation number for an atom in its elemental form is always zero.
o A substance is elemental if both of the following are true:
only one kind of atom is present
charge = 0
o Examples:
S8: The oxidation number of S = 0
Fe: The oxidation number of Fe = 0
The oxidation number of a monatomic ion = charge of the monatomic
ion.
o Examples:
Oxidation number of S2- is -2.
circuit.
The second is to balance the mass by allowing the anion to move to the
half-cell where additional cations are being produced.
without the salt bridge, the solution in the anode compartment would
become positively charged and the solution in the cathode compartment
would become negatively charged,because of the charge imbalance,the
electrode reaction would quickly come to a halt,therefore It helps to
maintain the flow of electrons from the oxidation half cell to a reduction
half cell,this completes the circuit..
the standard electrode potential is the 'potential' of a redox system to lose
or gain electrons when compared to the standard hydrogen electrode -
assigned a value of 0 volts.
Electrode potential is the measure of the tendency of an electrode to
loose or gain electron (s).
In other words electrode potential describes the tendency of an
element to oxidize or reduce.
Electrode potential also determines the chemical activity of an
element.
Unit of electrode potential is "VOLT".
By convention standard electrode potentials are written as:
oxidized state + ne- ↔ reduced state
Eo values give you a way of comparing the positions of equilibrium when
certain elements lose electrons to form ions in solution.
The more negative the Eo value, the further the equilibrium lies to the left (i.e. the
more readily the element loses electrons and forms ions). The more positive the
Eo value, the further the equilibrium lies to the right (i.e. the less readily the
element loses electrons and forms ions).
Since the values are given in their ability to be reduced, the larger the standard
reduction potentials, the easier they are to be reduced, in other words, they are
simply better oxidizing agents. For example, F 2 has 2.87 V and Li+ has -3.05 V.
F2 reduces easily and is therefore a good oxidizing agent. In contrast, Li+ would
rather undergo oxidation (it is hence a good reducing agent). Thus Zn 2+ whose
standard reduction potential is -0.76 V can be oxidized by any other electrode
whose standard reduction potential is greater than -0.76 V (example,
Cu2+(0.16 V) and can be reduced by any electrode with standard reduction
potential less than -0.76 V (example, Na+(-2.71 V).
A reducing agent, or reductant, loses electrons and is oxidized in a
chemical reaction. A reducing agent is typically in one of its lower possible
oxidation states, and is known as the electron donor. A reducing agent is
CHAPTER 11
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Rate of reaction =
𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Units of rate of reaction = moles dm-3sec-1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Average rate =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The rate of a reaction when concentrations of reactant are unity is called
specific rate constant or velocity constant of a reaction.
Rate of reaction = K(A)a(B)b
The sum of (a+b) is called order of reaction .
Zero: A zero order indicates that the concentration of that species does
not affect the rate of a reaction
Negative integer: A negative order indicates that the concentration of that
species INVERSELY affects the rate of a reaction
Positive integer: A positive order indicates that the concentration of that
species DIRECTLY affects the rate of a reaction
Non-Integer: Non-integer orders, both positive and negative, represent
more intricate relationships between concentrations and rate in more
complex reactions.
n a first-order reaction, the reaction rate is directly proportional to the
concentration of one of the reactants. First-order reactions often have the
general form A → products.
The simplest kind of second-order reaction is one whose rate is
proportional to the square of the concentration of one reactant. These
generally have the form 2A → products.
Half Life Period is defined as the time taken for half of the reaction to be
completed i.e. the time in which the concentration of a reactant is reduced
to half of its original value is called Half Life Period of the reaction.
For zero order, t1/2 α [A0]
For 1st order, t1/2 α [A0] 0
Similarly for 2nd order, t1/2 α [A0] -1 and so on
In general, for a reaction of nth order:
t1/2 α [A0] 1-n
Or
t1/2 α 1/ [A0] n- 1
The rate determining step is the slowest stepof a chemical reaction that
determines the speed (rate) at which the overall reaction proceeds.
The rate determining step can be compared to the neck of a funnel.
Chemists often write chemical equations for reactions as a single step,
which shows only a reaction's net result. However, most chemical
reactions occur over a series of elementary reactions. The reaction
mechanism is the step-by-step process by which reactants actually
become products.
The overall reaction rate depends almost entirely on the rate of the
slowest step. If the first step is the slowest, and the entire reaction must
wait for it, then it is the rate-determining step.
Physical methods to determine the rate of reaction:
Spectrometry is applied when a reactant or product aborbs ultraviolet ,
visible , or infrared radiations .
Electrical method is applied when reactants or products involve ionic
species.
Dilatometric method is applied for those reactions which involve small
volume changes.
Refractometric method is applied for those reactions when reactants or
products change their refractive indxes.
Optical rotation method is applied for those reactions when anyone
reactant or product is optically active.
Molecules must collide in order to react.
The exponential factor is dimensionless, the pre-exponential factor
or Arrhenius constant (A) has the same unit as the unit of the rate
constant (k).
The equation relates k, the rate constant for a given chemical reaction, with
the temperature, T, the activation energy for the reaction, Ea , the pre-
exponential factor A, and the universal gas constant, R.
High temperature and low activation energy favor larger rate constants, and
therefore speed up the reaction.
The equation is a combination of the concepts of activation energy and the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
Arrhenius plots show that reaction rates are inversely proportional to
temperature changes
The negative slope from the Arrhenius plot gives the activation energy,
Ea: slope = -Ea/R
Extrapolation of the Arrhenius plot back to the y-intercept gives lnA
The Arrhenius plot shows how activation energy and temperature affect the
sensitivity of the reaction rate
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5. The catalyst cannot make impossible reaction to occur and does not
initiate a reaction.
Catalyst Poison: There are certain substances which decrease or
destroy the activity of the catalyst. Such substances are known as
catalytic poisons. E.g. arsenic destroys the catalytic activity of the
platinum catalyst in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
Catalyst Promoter: There are certain substances which increase the
activity of the catalyst. Such substances are known as catalyst promoters
e.g. Mo acts as a promoter in the manufacture of ammonia by I-laber‘s
process.
Ex.
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