Important Points of Chemistry For Entry Tests (Part 1 & 2)

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©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

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INTRODUCTION TO THIS DOCUMENT

Assalam U Alaikum..!
Entry tests are very important for the admission in Engineering

University. Almost every good and well known university like
UET, NUST, PIEAS, GIKI etc. conduct entry tests. So you should
have the quality which differs between you and rest of the
candidates. You should be hard working and your self
confidence should be very high and you should have a firm faith
on ALLAH. Many students think that getting admission in UET is
first and last thing. No doubt, UET has a name in engineering
but there are many other options for you. Apply in every
university, appear in all the entry tests, keep your hard work
continue and In sha ALLAH you will get what you deserved.
This document contains important points for Chemistry. In
Entry test, you don’t have to solve the question and show the
solution as in board exams. Entry test is different. You have to
guess the right option and you will get full marks. If you have
good concepts then there will be no difficulties for you.
Before reading, we will suggest you to first study the text book
very carefully. Take a highlighter and study the theory of the
chapter. Highlight important points and If you have any

confusion then make it clear. This document will only help you
if you have studied the text book very carefully.
Always remember “PRACTICE MAKES A MAN PERFECT”. So, do
maximum practice of mcq’s. There are lot of mcq books
available in the market. ILMI is very good and there are many
others also. Buy the one you like.
If you find any error in this document or if you know any trick
then send us . We will update this document and add your
tricks. Have a good time and many best wishes. Thank You
Regards,
ZAINAB FATIMA
SHAYAN ABBAS

IMPORTANT POINTS FORMULAE TIPS AND TRICKS OF CHEMISTRY

(1ST YEAR)
ENTRY TEST
CHAPTER 1
 J Berzelius determine atomic masses and symbols of elements.
 the diameter of atom is of the order of 0 .2nm or 2 × 10^10
 the mass of atom ranges from 10^-27 to 10^-25kg
 1amu= 1.661 × 10^-24 g .
 Size of negative ion(anion) is greater than neutral atom ,positive
ion(cation) is smaller than neutral atom.
 Greater the amount of positive charge on cation smaller its size than
neutral atom.vice versa for negative charge on anion.
radical cation is called molecular ion.
elements no. of isotopes
Hydrogen 3
carbon 3
nickel 5
calcium 6
Pladium 6
cadmium 9
Tin 11
flourine 1(monoisotopic)
Iodine 1(monoisotopic)
 The pressure of vapours in mass spectrograph is 10^-6 to 10^-7 torr and

potential.diff is 1000 to 2000 volts.
 In combustion analysis water is absorbed in Mg(ClO4)2 and Co2 is
absorbed in 50 % kOH .

 Gram formula is for those substances which are ionic in nature.They don‘t
have molecules.
 Theoratical yield is always greater than actual yield.
 % yield indicates the efficiency of chemical Reaction.
 Molecular formula=n(Empirical formula)
Where n= molar mass
empirial formula mass
percentage composition of element = mass of element ×100
Total mass of given substance
 The average of masses of all isotopes of an element is called average or

fractional atomic mass of that element .
 The fractional atomic mass of an element depends on the natural
abundance of isotopes and number of isotopes of that element.
 Moles and Mass and volume
number of moles= Mass in grams
Molar mass
Mass in grams = No. of particles × Avagodros No.
Molar mass
Avagadros number = 6.022 × 1023

One mole ideal gas at STP(0°C, 1atm) occupy volume of 22.4 dm3
Known as molar volume.
Molar mass of a gas = mass of gas in grams , but moles of gas=
volume in dm3
Moles of that gas
22.4 dm3
Molar mass of gas = mass of gas in grams × 22.4 dm3
Volume in dm3
 Limiting reactant: CAT‘s method

Quantity of Reactant 1 : Quantity of

Reactant 2
Moles in same unit moles in same
unit
Applications of Avagadros law:
 In calculating the atomicity of elementary gases. For example atomicity of
oxygen is 2.
 To find the relationship between molecular weight and vapour density of a
gas which is given as:
Molecular wieght = 2 × vapour density

CHAPTER 2
 Simple filter paper is only usefull in seperating solid particles from neutral
liquids.
 Iodine, naphthalene, ammonium chloride ,benzoic acid, camphor
and anthracene undergo sublimation.
 CaCl2 ,P2O5 H2SO4 used as drying agents.
 The more solute is obtained with smaller portion of solvent so solvent
extraction is done repeatedly using small portions
 Distribution co-efficient is given as:
K=
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑕𝑎𝑠𝑒
 A compound having smaller value of distribution coff.(K) remains in
stationary phase and mobile phase flows over it and vice versa for larger
value of distibution coff.(K)
 In paper chromatography Retardation factor is given as:
RF =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
 To filter reactive solutions like Like HCL ,KMnO4 etc base of gooch
crucible is covered by Asbestos .
 Solvent extraction obeys distribution law.

CHAPTER 3
 Very weak forces of attraction exist among gas molecules. Forces are
mostly wander wall forces.
 Gases exert pressure on the wall of container ; the pressure of gas is due
to the collisions of gas molecules with each other and with walls of
container
 Units of pressure
 Atmosphere(atm): is the force exerted by 76 cm long Hg column on area
of 1 cm2 at 0° C at sea level i.e. 1atm =76 cm Hg or 1 tam = 760 mm Hg.
 SI unit: is Nm-2 or Pascal ( 1 tam = 101325 Nm-2)
 Torre : It is a smaller unit of pressure ( 1 torr = 1 mmHg)
According to Boyle‘s law:

PV = K
Or P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = K= constant
The equation means that by changing pressure volume also changes but
in such a way the product of both remains constant.
According to Charles‘s law:
V = KT
𝑣
Or =K
𝑡
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
Or = = =K
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇2
This equation means if heat is supplied to a gas in a cylinder than volume
increase but above equations always remain valid.
According to Avogadro‘s law ;
V = Kn
𝑣1 𝑣2
Or = = K (constant)
𝑛1 𝑛2
This equation means that if v1 = v2 then n1 = n2

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Although masses and sizes of different gasses are different but volume of
gas does not depend on sizes and molar masses because there are large
no. of spaces among gas molecules.
Forms of general Gas equation:
PV = nRT
MP = dRT
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= =R
𝑇1 𝑇2
Applications of general gas equation:
𝑃𝑉
 Units and values of R as R =
𝑛𝑇
𝑀𝑃𝑉
 Mass of gas as m =
𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑃
 Density of gas as d =
𝑅𝑇
Units and Values of R in various systems

Calculation of partial pressure of a gas:

Pa = XaPt and Pb = XbPt where X = mole fraction =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠
Partial pressure of a gas = x total pressure
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
gas mole fraction partial pressure
nitrogen 20/100 = 0.2 0.2 x 200 = 40 tam
hydrogen 60/100 = 0.6 0.6 x 200 = 120 tam
ammonia 20/100 = 0.2 0.2 x 200 = 40 tam

Graham‘s law of diffusion and effusion :
𝑟1 𝑑2 𝑟1 𝑀2
= or =
𝑟2 𝑑1 𝑟2 𝑀1
If you know the molar masses of given gases, You can easily find ration
between their rates of diffusions.
3𝑅𝑇
Root mean square velocity =
𝑀
3
K.E = RT
2
 Gases with greater size are more non ideal because greater size means
greater electronic cloud ,greater polarizability greater forces of attraction
greater value of "a" and "b" so gas deviates from ideal behavior.
 Gases deviate from ideal behavior at high temperature and low pressure
because the forces of attraction become significant.
 According to Wander walls equation

𝑎𝑛2
Pobs + V – nb = nRT
𝑉2
NOTE :
 The Vander walls constant ―a‖ shows the forces of attractions among gas
molecules such that larger value of ―a‖ for a gas shows stronger forces
and vice versa.
 The Vander Walls constant ―b‖ shows the excluded which depends on
size of gas molecules such that larger the size of gas molecules , high will
be value of b, and vice versa.
 Excluded volume (b) is not equal to actual volume of gas molecules but
b=4Vm
 Smaller the value of Vander walls constant a and b more ideal will be gas
NOTE :

You can form direct and inverse relations in the above given formula when
question will be about increment or decrement of one value with respect to
other. This tip will help u a lot.
 pressure of ideal gas is doubled ,the volume becomes half at constant

temperature.
 Isotherms are parabola like they move away from axis at high temp for a
gas.
 At high tmperature the graph of p and 1/v becomes closer to pressure
axis.
 All gases becomes liquid before reaching -273.16 degree C
 for diffusion collision is essential but not for effusion
 sudden expension cause cooling
 If gas maintained at critical temp than it can be liquefied if external
Pressure is equal to critical pressure.
 H2 and He can‘t liquefy by applying joule Thomson effect because they
are nearly ideal
 Actual volume of molecules in gas is 4 times the molar volume .

Chapter 4
 Intermolecular forces are attractions among molecules while
intermolecular forces of attraction with in molecules.
 Greater the electro negativity difference stronger will be the dipole dipole
forces and stronger will the bond.
 NOTE : ( Remember some electro negativity values of some well known
or frequently used elements)
 London forces exist both in polar and non polar molecules but more
prominent in non polar molecules because no other forces exists among
non polar molecules.
 London forces and MP BP depends on size of molecules. Such that
greater the size greater will be MP BP and stronger London forces and
vice versa
 Dipole dipole forces are 1% more effective than covalent and more
operate in liquids dipole induced dipole also called Debye forces.
 London forces are more prominent in non polar
 Hydrogen bonding is most likely to be formed between H and N,O,F .

 Chloroform and Acetone are soluble in each other due to hydrogen
bonding.
 Due to high electro negativity of Nitrogen NH3 shows maximum boiling
points among hydrides.
 H2O , HF and Nh3 show relatively high boiling points due to strong
intermolecular hydrogen boiling .
 H bonding is 20 tymz weaker than simple covalent bond.
 greater strength of H.B greater is viscosity

 In case of right helix of protein the groups like N-H and C=O form
hydrogen bonding vertically.
 In DNA common vertical axis is known as sugar phosphate backbone.
 Evaporation occurs at all temperature.
 Evaporation causes cooling.
1
 Evaporation ∝
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
 Evaporation ∝ Temperature
 Surface area ∝ evaporation
 Pressure of vapors of liquid at dynamic equilibrium state is called vapour
pressure of that liquid.
1
 Vapour pressure ∝
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
 Liquids have different vapour pressure at different temperatures
 Surface area has no effect on vapour pressure of a liquid.
 Boiling point remains constant , inspite of heat supply continuously
 Boiling point ∝ intermolecular forces
 Boiling point ∝ exeternal pressure
 Heat of sublimation is greater than vaporization and heat of vapor. is
greater than fusion
 The turbid state i.e. milky state is having both properties of crystalline solid
and clear liquid called liquid crystals
 Liquid crystals are always isotropic.
 Liquid crystals are used as a solvent in chromatography
 stronger the intermolecular forces stronger is the thermodynamic
properties i.e. m.p,.b.p etc.
 increasing polarizability increase m.p b.p of noble gases
 like dissolves like i.e. polar dissolves polar and non polar dissolves in non
polar
 density of ice is less than water due to empty spaces
 evaporation is continuous process causes cooling …

 Vapour pressure does not depend upon amount of liquid, volume and
area of the liquid.
 Amorphous solids have some regions of orderly arrangements called
crystallites.
 isomorphism in compounds is mostly due to atomic ratio.
Allotropy is for elements and polymorphism for compounds and both have
transition temperature of their own.
 Molecular solids have low m.p b.p because they have venders Waals
forces in there crystal structure.
 Ionic solids are non directional‘s having crystal structures on bases of
radius ratio.
 more charge more lattice energy.
 electrical and thermal conductivity of atoms is due to free electrons in
them.
 metals have shiny looks due to excitation of electrons in them.
NOTE:
(you should have good concept of forces i.e. dipole, induced dipole and
memorise the terms of solids specialy there examples because mcqs will
come relating to the examples, also learn by heart seven crystal systems)

CHAPTER 5
 Cathode rays travel from cathode to anode.
 Temperature of tube is 5000-10000 volts.
 Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic as well as electric field toward
positive side due to its negative nature.
 Positive rays are also known as canal rays..
 Neutrons can‘t ionize gases.
 Neutrons are highly penetrating particles.
𝑒 𝑉 𝑒 𝑋
 = or = 1.76 × 108
𝑚 𝑟𝐻 𝑚 𝑟𝐻2
where X=strength of electric field.
Relati
Relative
Partic Charge ve Ma Loca
mass**
le Charg ss tion
e**
1.6
72
Proto
+1.60 x 10-19 C +1 x 1 amu nucleus
n
10 -
24 g
9.0
0 amu
Electr 5 x electron cloud
-1.60 x 10-19 C -1 ~(1/1840
on 10- (orbital)
28 g
amu)
1.6
74
Neutr
neutral 0 x 1 amu nucleus
on
10-
24 g

Chemical Demonstration Videos
 Plank‘s equation: E = h
 E = hc/ℵ where c = speed of light , h = planks constant
𝑛𝑕
mvr =
2𝜋
 Atomic radius = r = n2h2𝜀°

𝜋mZe2
According to equation r ∝ n2 . radius increases as no. of shells increase.
Similarly r is inversely proportional to no. of protons. As no. of protons
increase radius decreases.
NOTE: student can use these relations to predict the radius of given
element if the parameters for measurment are not given.
 r = 0.529 ×10-10 (n2).

 Energytotal = - Z2e4m
8𝜖°2n2h2
 Equation shows that total energy of atom is directly proportional to atomic
no. (Z) And inversely proportional to no. of shells (n).
 difference of energy between different orbits goes on decreasing from
lower to higher.
 NOTE: student can use these relations to predict the total energy of
given element if the parameters for measurement are not given.
𝑐
 ℵ= where v is frequency
𝑣
 According to Debroglie‘s equation:
𝑕
mc =
ℵ
𝑕
ℵ=
𝑚𝑐

 Equations show that momentum of particle is inversely proportional to

wavelength .(ℵ )
 According to Heisenberg uncertainty principle position and momentum of
electrons can‘t be measured accurately at a same instant.
 For calculation of uncertainty:
𝑕
∆𝑥.∆𝑝 =
2𝜋𝑚
 The circular path around the nucleus in which electrons can revolve is
called orbit .order is K, L , M , N etc
Maximum no. of electrons in an orbit is given by formula 2n2 .
 Sub orbits are : s(sharp) p(principle)
d(diffused) f(fundamental)
 Nodal plane or nodal surface is the place where probability of existence of
electrons is zero.
 Principle quantum no. (n)
If n = 1 2 3 4 5 6
Than orbits = K L M N O P
 Azimuthally quantum no.(l)
n orbits l=n-1 suboribits Total no. of

electrons(2(2l+1))
1 k 0 s 2
2 L 1 p 6
3 M 2 d 10
4 N 3 f 14
 Magnetic quantum no.(m) (also known as orbital orientation quantum no.
n l=n-1 sub orbits Total value of m=2l+1

1 0 s 1
2 1 p 3

3 2 d 5
4 3 f 7
 Spin quantum no. (s)

1
If s = - for an electron it means that its direction of rotation is clockwise
2
1
 If s = + for an electron it means that its direction of rotation is
2
anticlockwise.
NOTE: students should remember and learn by heart electronic
configuration and all the principles to fill the electrons in given orbits
and sub orbits.
 energy wise arrangement is done with (n+1) rule,
CHAPTER 6
 the distance 75.4 pm is called bond length or bond distance or

compromise distance.
 Loss in energy leads to stability.
 Shielding affect increases down the group due to increase in no. of shells
but shielding effect remains same along the periods.
 Atomic distance can‘t be measured precisely due to wave nature of
electrons and disturbance due to neighbouring atoms.
 Atomic radii increase down the group due to increase in no. of shells and
shielding effect.
 Atomic radii decrease along the period due to increase in nuclear charge.
 Ionic radius of anion is always larger than parent atom while ionic radius
of cat ion is always smaller than parent atom.
 Half of the bond length is covalent radius.
 Ionization energy increases along periods.
 Ionization energy decrease down the group.
 The gap in ionization energy values tells us the no. of electrons in
outermost orbit and hence valiancy of elements.
1
 Ionization energy ∝
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
 Ionization energy ∝ nuclear charge
1
 Ionization energy ∝
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
 Ionization energy depends on nature of orbital as:
S >p > d> f
 Electron affinity increases along periods and decreases down the group.
1
 Electron affinity ∝
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
 Electron affinity ∝ nuclear charge
1
 Electron affinity ∝
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
 Exception: fluorine has electron affinity less than chlorine.

 Electro negativity increases along the period and decreases down the
group.
 Low I.E Ionic bond  High E.F
 G1A , G2A  GvlA, GVllA
 When we mover from left to right in period the members of group 3 A and
6A abnormally low values of ionization energy.
 Actually members of 2A and 5A groups have stable configurations so
they have greater values of ionization energies..the groups 3A and 6A
have low energies than 2A and 5A.
 ionization energy is directly proportional to stability

 Fluorine has lesser electron affinity than chlorine, this is because fluorine
has smaller size greater nuclear attraction electrons are tightly bond to the
atom when an electron is added to atom them the already present
electrons offer repulsion to the incoming electron energy is utilized to
overcome this repulsion so the energy released in the form of electron
affinity decreases.
 Group members of 2A 5A and 8A show lesser electron affinity because of
their stable electronic configurations.

 If electro negativity difference is 1.7 or more, the bond will be ionic and
 If electro negativity difference less than 1.7 bond will be covalent.
 A polar covalent bond is formed between dissimilar atoms.
 Non polar covalent bond is formed between similar atoms.
 Co-ordinate covalent bond is formed between electron pair donor and
electron pair acceptor.
 Oxy acid halogens also contain the co-ordinate covalent bonds.
 Lewis theory cannot explain the shapes and geometry of molecules.
 Electro negativity difference ∝ strength of bond.
 In Lewis structure double bond is considered as single bond for the
geometry of molecules.
 Valence electron pairs = lone pair + bond pair
 Repulsion of electron pairs is as follows:
Lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bond pair > bond pair-lone pair
 In VESPER theory double bond is considered as single bond for the
geometry of molecules.
 This is an IMPORTANT point to remember in VSEPR. The more electrons
in a domain, the more repulsive it is and it will push other domains farther
away than if all domins were equal in strength.

Number of General
Arrangement of Molecular
valence shell Molecular Examples
Domains Shape
electron pairs Formula
Equilateral
triangular
3 AX3 Trigonal planar BCl3, AlCl3
(three
domains)
AX2E Angular SnCl2
Tetrahedral
4 AX4 Tetrahedral CH4, SiCl4
(four domains)
Trigonal
AX3E NH3, PCl3
pyramidal
AX2E2 Angular H2O, SCl2
Trigonal
Trigonal
5 bipyramidal AX5 PCl5, AsF5
bipyramidal
(five domains)
AX4E Disphenoidal SF4
AX3E2 T-shaped ClF3
AX2E3 Linear XeF2
Octahedral
6 AX6 Octahedral SF6
(six domains)

Square
AX5E BrF5
pyramidal
AX4E2 Square planar XeF4
In table X is (bond pair) E is (electron pair)

 Greater the extent of overlapping stronger will be bond shorter will be
bond length and high will be the bond energy
 Pie bond is more diffused than sigma bond.
 Mode of Hybridization = no. of sigma bond + no. of lone pair of
electrons .
 Hybridization is a purely hypothetical concept.
 The orbital‘s undergoing hybridization should have almost similar
energies.
 An empty half filled or fully filled orbital can involve in hybridization.
 If n number of orbitals is hybridizing they will result into n hybridized
orbitals.
 Hybridized orbitals have better overlapping ability hence form strong
bonds.
 Only $\sigma$ bond formation is possible by hybridized orbital‘s, they are
unable to form $\pi$ bonding.
 Learn this table
Properties sp3
Geometry Tetrahedral
Bond angle 109o28'
Free p orbital‘s Nil
Bonds formed $\sigma$ bonds
Rotation of bonds Free rotation about $\sigma$ bond.
Possibility of isomerism Structural isomerism
% of s character and % of p character 25% s character and 75% p character
𝑛𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐵.𝑀.𝑂−𝑛𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐴.𝐵.𝑀.𝑂
 In MOT bond order =
2

 In MOT:
 Total number of molecular orbitals is equal to the total number of
atomic orbitals used to make them.
 Bonding molecular orbital‘s are lower energy than the atomic
orbital‘s from which they were formed.

 Ant bonding molecular orbital‘s are higher energy than the
atomic orbital‘s from which they were formed.
 Following both the principle and Hund's rule, electrons fill in orbital‘s
of increasing energy.\
 Molecular orbital‘s are best formed when composed of Atomic
orbital‘s of like energies.
 Energy of orbital‘s is given as:

 Bond energy ∝ electronegativity difference
1
 Bond energy ∝
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

1
 Bond energy ∝
𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕
 Greater the s character causes bond length shorter because s orbital has
a smaller radius.
 Bond length decreases along the period and increases down the group.
 Dipole moment = q × r
 Units of dipole moment are meter coulomb and Debye related to each
other as:
1D = 3.33 × 10-30 mC
 If there is a perfect geometry of molecules than dipole moment is zero e-g
if molecule has geometry triangular or tetragonal etc
 Ionic compounds show no isomerism
 Ionic compounds give fast reaction and covalent compounds give slow
reactions.
 Abnormality for bond length and bond strength is maximum for HF.
 Comparison of VBT and MOT
MOT
VBT
1.Ineratomic orbital is produced by 1. Molecular orbital‘s are formed by
multiplying, exchanging and of all atomic orbital‘s from the
combinations of space wave functions of valence shell of two atoms.
two electrons.
2. Orbital‘s of bonded atoms lose
2.Orbitals of bonded atoms cannot lose their individual identity.
their identity.
3. Molecular orbital‘s are polycentric
3. Atomic orbital‘s monocentric.
4. Molecular orbital theory explain
4.It explains that inert gases have orbital the non-existence of molecules of
already spin paired, so they have no inert gases, since number of bonding

tendency to form any linkage. and ant bonding electrons are equal
5.Pauli‘s exclusion principle decides the 5. It explains how electrons are
spin function combination with wave originally present in atomic orbital‘s
function as and are distributed in new molecular
orbital‘s.
6. MOT is not capable or predicting
ionic character in a bond.
6.VBT introduces a special form to 7. In MOT both bonding and ant
explain the presence of ionic character in bonding orbital‘s can have electron
bond. pairs with opposed spins.
7.VBT explains the difference between
bonding and ant bonding orbital‘s as
following:
Bonds are localized to two atoms not Bonds are localized to two atoms as
molecule. well as molecule.
Valence orbital theory was first Molecular orbital theory was proposed
proposed by Whittler and F.London in by F. Hund and R.S. Mulliken in 1932.
1927.
Resonance plays an important role in There is no place of resonance in this
this theory. theory.
There is no explanation of Satisfactory explanation of
paramagnetic character of oxygen. paramagnetic character of oxygen.
Calculations are simpler. Calculations are very tedious.

CHAPTER 7
1 calorie = 4.184 j
Spontaneous reactions are irreversible
Non spontaneous reactions are reversible
 A spontaneous process is capable of proceeding in a given direction without
needing to be driven by an outside source of energy.
 The laws of thermodynamics govern the direction of a spontaneous process,
ensuring that if a sufficiently large number of individual interactions are
involved, then the direction will always be in the direction of increasedentropy.
 An endergonic reaction (also called a no spontaneous reaction) is a chemical
reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive and energy is
absorbed.

 Endergonic processes can be pushed or pulled by coupling them to

highly exergonic reactions.
 Some examples of spontaneous reactions are:
a smell diffusing in a room
ice melting in lukewarm water
salt dissolving in water
 iron rusting.
 Examples of non spontaneous reactions are:
 food coloring into water

Enthalpy of system depends on physical states of system such as :

H20(s) < H20(l) < H20(g)
Standard enthalpy of neutralization remains same for all acids and bases .
Conversion Factors for Units of Energy
Conversion factors for units of energy

kJ kcal kWh kg ce kg oe m³ natural
gas
1 kJ 1 0.2388 0.000278 0.000034 0.000024 0.000032
1 kcal 4.1868 1 0.001163 0.000143 0.0001 0.00013
1 kWh 3 600 860 1 0.123 0.086 0.113
1 kg ce 29 308 7 000 8.14 1 0.7 0.923
1 kg oe 41 868 10 000 11.63 1.428 1 1.319
1 m³ natural 31 736 7 580 8.816 1.083 0.758 1
gas
Units of energy overview

Unit Name Conversion to kJ or kWh

J joule 1 000 J = 1 000 Ws = 1 kJ

cal calorie 1 000 cal = 1 kcal = 4.186 kJ
Wh watt hour 1 Wh = 3.6 kJ
(kg) ce (kilogram) coal equivalent 1 kg ce = 29 308 kJ
(kg) oe (kilogram) oil equivalent 1 kg oe = 41 868 kJ
m³ natural cubic meter natural gas 1 m³ natural gas = 31 736 kJ
gas
BTU British Thermal Unit 1 BTU = 0.000293071 kWh =
1.05506 kJ
kpm kilogram force meter 1 kpm = 2.72e-6 kWh =
(Kilopondmeter) 0.00980665 kJ
erg erg 1 erg = 2.78e-14 kWh = 1e-10 kJ
eV elektron volt 1 eV = 1.60217733e-19 J =
1.60217733e-22 kJ
W = P∆V
∆E = q + w If heat is supplied to the system and work is done on the system
If heat is supplied to the system and work is done by the system

∆E = q – w
Where
H = E + PV
M= mass of reactants
S= specific heat
∆H = ms∆𝑇 or ∆H = C∆𝑇 T = change in
temp(Kelvin)
C= capacity of
calorimeter
Stating Hess's Law :

The enthalpy change accompanying a chemical change is independent of the
route by which the chemical change occurs.
Hess's law states that energy changes are state functions
Hess's law can be applied to calculate enthalpies of reactions that are difficult to
measure .
 Hess's law states that the standard reaction enthalpy is the sum of the
standard enthalpies of the intermediate reactions into which the overall
reaction can be divided, while each occurs at the same temperature.
 Enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the number of ways
a product can be obtained, if the initial and final conditions are the same.
 Negative enthalpy change for a reaction indicates exothermic process, while
positive enthalpy change corresponds to endothermic process.

 Dissociation energy: The energy required to dissociate a compound is

called as dissociation energy. Dissociation of a compound is always an
endothermic process and requires an input of energy.
 Sublimation energy: The energy required to change the phase from solid
to gas, by passing the liquid phase is called as sublimation energy.
 Heat of formation: The energy change during the formation of a
compound from its elements is known as heat of formation.
 Born-Haber cycles could be thought of as complex Hess's
Law rectangles. One major application of Born-Haber cycles is in the
determination of lattice enthalpies, which cannot be obtained directly from
a single experiment.
 A state function is a property whose value does not depend on the path
taken to reach that specific value.
 state functions include energy (E), entropy (S), temperature (T), molar
volume (V/N), total mass, speed of sound, et c

CHAPTER 8
 irreversible reactions always goes to completion.
 Reversible reactions never goes to completion.
 Only reversible reactions get such a state at which rate of forward reaction
is equal to rate of reverse reaction.

 Chemical equilibrium is also known as dynamic equilibrium

 Chemical equilibrium is independent of direction from which it is started.
 Equilibrium constant expression is given as:
𝑐 (𝐷)
 Kc =
𝐴 (𝐵)
 Rate of forward reaction is directly proportional to the multiple of
concentrations of reactants .
 If no. of moles of reactants are equal to no. of moles of product than kc
has no unit but if different than it does.



∆𝑛

 Assumptions about the Reaction Based on the Value of K

When we know the numerical value of the equilibrium constant, we can
make certain judgments about the extent of the chemical reaction.
K>1
If K is larger than 1, the mixture contains mostly products.

K<1
If K is less than 1, the mixture contains mostly reactants.
K=1
If K is about equal to 1, the reaction will reach equilibrium as an intermediate

mixture, meaning the amounts of products and reactants will be about the same.
Changing K when Changing the Balanced Equation

Since the value of K is dependent on the chemical reaction, when the balanced
chemical equation is manipulated in any way, the value of K changes
accordingly.
The Effect on K of Reversing a Balanced Equation
When an equation is reversed, the value of K must be inverted. Take, for

example, the chemical equation listed below
 "At a given temperature, the product of concentrations of the reaction
product each raised to the respective stoichiometric coefficients in
the balanced chemical equation divided by the product of
concentrations of the reactants raised to their individual
stoichiometric coefficients has a constant value"

 It should be noted that the reciprocal of Kc is also a constant and it will
be the equilibrium constant for the backward reaction.
 Equilibrium constant varies with temperature. But at a particular
temperature, its value remains constant. Its value increases with
temperature.
 It is independent of the initial concentration.
 Increasing concentration of reactants shift reaction in forward direction
and vice versa.

 Increased conc. Of products shift reaction in reverse direction according

to lechatlier‘s principle. And vice versa.
 Increase pressure (decrease of volume) on a reaction in equilibrium
state , shift reaction toward lesser moles side or lesser volume side for
gaseous reactions
 Increasing temperature at equilibrium will shift the reaction in forward
direction.
 Heat evolve favour the exothermic reaction.
 A catalyst has no affect on equilibrium position and equilibrium constant
(kc) .
𝑐 (𝐷)
 If =Kc then reaction is in equilibrium.
𝐴 (𝐵)
𝑐 (𝐷)
 If < Kc , Reaction proceeds in forward direction to get
𝐴 (𝐵)
equilibrium
𝑐 (𝐷)
 if > Kc , Reaction proceeds in reverse direction to get
𝐴 (𝐵)
equilibrium.
 Value of Kw is 10-14 at 25°C.
 PKw = PH + POH = 14 at 25°C.
 Increase in temperature increases value of Kw.
 The value of Ka (ionization constant of acid) show ability of an acid to
donate (H+) ions and hence strength of acids such that higher the Ka
for an acid stronger will be acid and vice versa.
 Higher the value of Kb more will be the ability of a base to accept proton
and hence stronger will be the base.
 Larger the values of PKa and PKb for acids and bases , weaker will be
the acids and bases and vice versa.
1
 Ka ∝ (means stronger the acid weaker will
𝐾𝑏
be its conjugate base)
 PKa + PKb = 14 at 25°C.
 Adding a common ion decreases solubility, as the reaction shifts
toward the left to relieve the stress of the excess product. Adding a

common ion to a dissociation reaction causes the equilibrium to shift

left, toward the reactants, causing precipitation.
 The PH of buffer solutions do not change on dilution and on keeping it
for long time.
 Acids buffers are prepared by making weak acids and its salt with
strong base.
 Basic buffer solutions are prepared by mixing weak base and its salt
with strong acid.
 The common ion effect suppresses the ionization of a weak base by
adding more of an ion that is a product of this equilibrium.
 Adding a common ion prevents the weak acid or weak base from
ionizing as much as it would without the added common ion. The
common ion effect suppresses the ionization of a weak acid by adding
more of an ion that is a product of this equilibrium.

𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
 PH = PKa + log (Henderson‘s equation.)
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
 POH = PKb + log
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
 The extent to which a buffer resist the change in PH is called buffer
capacity.
 Buffer can‘t keep PH constant exactly but it resist the change in PH to a
greater extent.
 Buffers are used in Fermentation reactions – such as in beer or yogurt
– are highly affected by varying pH. This means it‘s essential to use
buffer solutions to avoid harsh changes and allow fermentation to
progress to obtain maximum yield.
 Buffers are used to Maintain the drug in a near-neutral pH, this way
avoiding any irritation to the body tissues
 Buffers are used in Manufacture of glue: , Electroplating: , Printing.
 If we know the solubility product of a meagerly soluble salt like
AgCl we can calculate the solubility of the salt.

 Ionic product > Ksp (solubility product) then precipitation will occur
Ionic product < Ksp (solubility product) then precipitation will not occur
 The concept of solubility product and common ion effect play a vital role
in the separation of basic radicals i.e. cations into different groups of
qualitative analysis.
 The common ion effect is generally employed in qualitative analysis.
Solubility product Ionic product

It is the product of the
It is the product of the concentration
concentration of ions of the
of ions of the electrolyte each raised
electrolyte each raised to the
to the power of their coefficients in
power of their coefficients in the
the balanced chemical equation in a
balanced chemical equation in a
saturated solution
solution at any concentration
It is applicable to only saturated It is applicable to all types of
solutions solutions of any concentration
Its value is not constant and
It has a constant value for an varies with change in
electrolyte at a constant temperature concentration
 Solubility product constants are used to describe saturated solutions of

ionic compounds of relatively low solubility.
 The smaller the solubility product of a substance, the lower is its
solubility.
 Solubility products have units of concentration raised to the power of
the stoichiometric coefficients of the ions in the equilibrium.
 In qualitative analysis, a solution is treated with various reagents to
test for the presence of certain ions.
 Solubility-product constants can be used to devise methods for
separating ions in a solution by selective precipitation.
 Cations are usually classified into six groups, where each group has a
common reagent which can be used to separate them.

CHAPTER 9
 Every sample of matter with uniform properties and fixed composition is
called phase.
 The amount of solute in unit volume of solution or solvent is called
concentration of solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 % weight / weight = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 In percentage weight / volume quantity of solvent is not exactly known.
 In percentage volume/weight we don‘t know total volume of solution.
 The number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 of solution is called
molarity .

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1
 Molarity = ×
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚 3
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Molarity =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚 3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1
 Molality = ×
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡 𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Molality =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
 Parts per million (ppm) = × 106
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 The solution is homogeneous, which means that both solute and
solvent are in the same state which cannot be differentiated easily.
 The solution is stable, which means that the solute particles will not
settle down in time.
 The properties of a solution are different from the solute and solvent. In
the case of solid solutions like alloys, the properties like melting point,
refractive index are entirely different from the parent metals. Similarly
for liquid solutions, the melting point and boiling point are different from
a pure solvent.
 Saturated solution is a solution to which no more solute can be added
at a particular temperature. As temperature affects the solubility of a
substance, a saturated solution at lower temperature may become a
dilute solution at higher temperature.
 It is a solution to which more solute can be added to dissolve. They are
also otherwise called dilute solutions. The concentration of a solution
is very low in an unsaturated solution.
 Due to the high dielectric constant and high intermolecular space, the
solutes can undergo either dissociative dissolving or undissociative
dissolving.
 Solubility is a measure that denotes the maximum amount of substance
that can be dissolved in a solvent in a saturated solution. It is the
amount of solute present in 100ml of a saturated solution at a particular
temperature. It depends on :

 Temperature: Temperature is directly related with solubility. When we

increase the temperature, more energy is given to break the molecules.
Hence the solubility increases on increasing the temperature.
 Nature of substance: In solubility 'like dissolves like', which means that
non polar substances can dissolve well in non polar solvents like
benzene etc. Similarly polar substances like sodium chloride will
dissolve in polar solvents like water.
 Pressure: Pressure will affect the solubility of a gas in a liquid. Hence
the solubility of gas is directly related to the pressure of the gas over the
liquid. It is well known as Henry's law.
 Gases diffuse uniformly to form a homogeneous mixture. Air is such a
homogeneous mixture
 A solution where the solute cannot be added further even at elevated
temperature is called a super saturated solution. It is highly unstable
and the solute will crystallize when the temperature is reduced.
 NOTE: learn by heart 9 types of solutions given in book and their
examples.
 The liquids which mix up with each other in all proportions are called
completely miscible liquids.(the volume of such solution is less or
greater than the sum of volumes of two components)
 Two liquids are considered "immiscible‖ If the volumes of the liquid
layers are the same as the volumes of liquids originally added to the
mixture.
 Two liquids are considered "miscible" or mixable if shaking them
together results in a single liquid phase.
 Two liquids are considered partially miscible if shaking equal volumes of
the liquids together results in a meniscus visible between two layers of
liquid, but the volumes of the layers are not identical to the volumes of
the liquids originally added.
 Polar liquids are made up of covalently bonded molecules that each
have a partial positive charge on one end and a partial negative charge
on the other end.
Non-ideal solutions

Ideal solutions Positive deviation Negative deviation from

from Raoult’s law Raoult’s law
Obey Raoult‘s law at Do not obey Raoult‘s Do not obey Raoult‘s law
every range of law.
concentration.
Hmix = 0; neither is Hmix>0. Endothermic Hmix<0. Exothermic
evolved nor absorbed dissolution; heat is dissolution; heat is
during dissolution. absorbed. evolved.
Vmix = 0; total Vmix > 0. Volume is Vmix <0. Volume is
volume of solution is increased after decreased during
equal to sum of dissolution. dissolution.
volumes of the
components.
P = pA + pB = pA > pA0XA; pB > pB0XB pA < pA0XA; pB < pB0XB
pA0XA + pB0XB ∴ pA + pB > pA0XA + ∴ pA + pB < pA0XA +
pB0XB pB0XB
A—A, A—B, B—B A—B attractive force A—B attractive force
interactions should be should be weaker should be greater than
same, i.e., ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ than A—A and B—B A—A and B—B attractive
are identical in shape, attractive forces. ‗A‘ forces. ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ have
size and character. and ‗B‘ have different different shape, size and
shape, size and character.
character.
Escaping tendency of ‗A‘ and B‘ escape Escaping tendency of
‗A‘ and ‗B‘ should be easily showing higher both components ‗A‘ and
same in pure liquids vapour pressure than ‗B‘ is lowered showing
and in the solution. the expected lower vapour pressure
value. than expected ideally.

 Such a solution show positive deviation from Raoult‘s Law and the
observed boiling point of such solutions is found to be less than the
calculated value


 Solutions of above type show negative deviation from Raoult‘s law
and their observed boiling point is found to be higher than the
calculated value
re % Composition of Boiling point

azeotrope (pressure = 1 tam)
1. Water-Ethanol 95.97 Ethanol 78.13oC
2. Pyridine-Water 57.00 Pyridine 92.6oC
3. Ethanol-Benzene 32.40 Ethanol 67.8oC
4. Acetic acid-Toluene 28.00 Acetic-acid 105.4oC
 zeotrope is a liquid mixture that shows no local maximum or minimum
when vapour pressure is plotted as a function of composition.[1] Such a
mixture is separable into its component parts by fractional distillation
 Azotropic will only have one boiling or condensing point for each system
pressure negligible fractionation or temperature glide will occur
 Hydration is water intake while hydrolysis is the breakdown of complex
bonds by splitting a water molecule.
 Hydrolysis is a chemical process that decompound the substance to
new materials. But, hydration is a physical process that water molecule
combine the ion, like H+ in water, the actually exist sate is H3O+.
 Colligative properties are those properties of solutions that depend on
the number of dissolved particles in solution, but not on the identities of
the solutes.
 Colligative properties of solutions are:
Vapor Pressure Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing

Depression Point Depression
Colligative Properties
Osmotic Pressure
Calculations

 Colligative properties depend on the lowering of the escaping tendency

of solvent particles by the addition of solute particles.
 When ions dissolve in water, the stabilizing interactions that result
release energy called the "heat of hydration."
 The ionization is always endothermic; it takes a lot of work to break

up an ionic crystal lattice into its component ions. Lattice energy is
defined as the energy that is released when one mole of ionic solid is
formed from gaseous ions, and it increases with increasing atomic
charge and decreasing atomic size (radii)..
CHAPTER 10
 The interconversion of electrical and chemical energies take place in
electrolytic cells and in galvanic or voltaic cells.
 Current can pas through conductor due to free electrons present in
metallic lattice.
 Electronic conduction is also called metallic conduction.
 The flow of electric current through an electrolyte due to movement of
ions not due to electrons.
 Oxidation is : addition of oxygen , removal of hydrogen , removal of
electrons

 Reduction is: addition of hydrogen, removal of oxygen, addition of

electrons.
 Apparent charge on an atom in a molecule or ion is called oxidation
number or oxidation state.
RULES OF ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER
 The oxidation number for an atom in its elemental form is always zero.
o A substance is elemental if both of the following are true:
 only one kind of atom is present
 charge = 0
o Examples:
 S8: The oxidation number of S = 0
 Fe: The oxidation number of Fe = 0
 The oxidation number of a monatomic ion = charge of the monatomic
ion.
o Examples:
 Oxidation number of S2- is -2.
 Oxidation number of Al3+ is +3.
 The oxidation number of all Group 1A metals = +1 (unless elemental).
 The oxidation number of all Group 2A metals = +2 (unless elemental).
 Hydrogen (H) has two possible oxidation numbers:
o +1 when bonded to a nonmetal
o -1 when bonded to a metal
 Oxygen (O) has two possible oxidation numbers:
o -1 in peroxides (O22-)....pretty uncommon
o -2 in all other compounds...most common
 The oxidation number of fluorine (F) is always -1.
 The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms (or ions) in a neutral
compound = 0.
 The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion =
charge on the polyatomic ion.
 When assigning oxidation numbers to the elements in a substance, take
a systematic approach. Ask yourself the following questions:
 Is the substance elemental?

 Is the substance ionic?

 If the substance is ionic, are there any monatomic ions present?
 Which elements have specific rules?
 Which element(s) do(es) not have rules?
o Use rule 8 or 9 from above to calculate these.
Differences Electrolytic Chemical Cell / Voltaic

Cell(Electrolysis) Cell
Structure With electrical No electrical supply.
supply.
Electrodes Can be the same Must be two different
or difference metal metals.
(graphite or
platinum).
Flows of From anode to From more electropositive
electrons cathode through metal to less electropositive
external circuit. metal through external
circuit.
Transformation Electrical energy to Chemical energy to
of energy chemical energy. electrical energy.
At positive Anode. Oxidation Cathode. Reduction occurs.
terminal occurs. Anions Oxidizing agent gain
release electrons electrons.
at the anode.
At negative Cathode. Anode. Oxidation occurs.
terminal Reduction occurs. Reducing agent releases
Cations gain electrons.
electrons from the
cathode.
 electrolysis is a method of using a direct electric current (DC) to drive an

otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
 Down‘s cell consists of iron cathode and graphite anode dipped in molten
NaCl.

 Nelson cell or castner-kellner cell .In this cell anode is made of titanium
and cathode is made of stell or mercury.
 Oxygen requires a higher voltage because it is a gas, whereas Sn is in a
solid state and requires less voltage for electrolysis to occur.
 Anodized aluminum can be nearly as hard as diamond under the right
anodizing process.
 Because of its strength and durability, anodized aluminum is also used in
a number of other applications. Many of the satellites circling the Earth are
protected from space debris by layers of anodized aluminum.
 The purpose of a salt bridge is not to move electrons from the electrolyte,
rather to maintain charge balance because the electrons are moving from
one half cell to the other. The electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode.
 The salt bridge serves two related functions. The primary function is to
complete the circuit so that charge can flow from one half-cell to the other.
The second is to balance the mass by allowing the anion to move to the
half-cell where additional cations are being produced.
 without the salt bridge, the solution in the anode compartment would
become positively charged and the solution in the cathode compartment
would become negatively charged,because of the charge imbalance,the
electrode reaction would quickly come to a halt,therefore It helps to
maintain the flow of electrons from the oxidation half cell to a reduction
half cell,this completes the circuit..
 the standard electrode potential is the 'potential' of a redox system to lose
or gain electrons when compared to the standard hydrogen electrode -
assigned a value of 0 volts.
 Electrode potential is the measure of the tendency of an electrode to
loose or gain electron (s).
In other words electrode potential describes the tendency of an
element to oxidize or reduce.
Electrode potential also determines the chemical activity of an
element.
 Unit of electrode potential is "VOLT".
 By convention standard electrode potentials are written as:
oxidized state + ne- ↔ reduced state

Eo values give you a way of comparing the positions of equilibrium when

certain elements lose electrons to form ions in solution.
The more negative the Eo value, the further the equilibrium lies to the left (i.e. the
more readily the element loses electrons and forms ions). The more positive the
Eo value, the further the equilibrium lies to the right (i.e. the less readily the
element loses electrons and forms ions).
In an electrochemical cell, an electric potential is created between two dissimilar

metals. The potential voltage of a chemical cell is dependent upon the
difference between the two metals' electronegativities. Therefore, gold and
magnesium strips would make a high-voltage cell; iron and zinc less so.
Some important points to note regarding the determination of electrode

potentials:
1. The electrode potential cannot be determined in isolation, but in a reaction

with some other electrode (usually the SHE, Standard Hydrogen
Electrode, which is assigned a voltage of 0.0 volts).
2. The electrode potential depends upon the concentrations of the

substances, the temperature, (and the pressure in the case of a gas
electrode).
Since the values are given in their ability to be reduced, the larger the standard
reduction potentials, the easier they are to be reduced, in other words, they are
simply better oxidizing agents. For example, F2 has 2.87 V and Li+ has -3.05 V.
F2 reduces easily and is therefore a good oxidizing agent. In contrast, Li+ would
rather undergo oxidation (it is hence a good reducing agent). Thus Zn2+ whose
standard reduction potential is -0.76 V can be oxidized by any other electrode
whose standard reduction potential is greater than -0.76 V (example,
Cu2+(0.16 V) and can be reduced by any electrode with standard reduction
potential less than -0.76 V (example, Na+(-2.71 V).

In an overall reaction, a positive Eo value indicates a spontaneous reaction as

written (i.e. the reaction produces electrical energy from chemical energy and can
therefore function as a battery), and a negative Eo value indicates a non-
spontaneous reaction (i.e. the reaction as written does not occur but the reverse
reaction occurs spontaneously).
NOTE: please remember the standard electrode potential of some important
elements like Fe,Co,Ni,O,Zn,Cu,Al,H, etc.
 A positive Eo value indicates a spontaneous reaction as written (i.e. the
reaction produces electrical energy from chemical energy and can
therefore function as a battery).
 A negative Eo value indicates a non-spontaneous reaction (i.e. the
reaction as written does not occur but the reverse reaction occurs
spontaneously)).
 Reactivity of metal depends upon its tendency to lose electron to form a
positive ion.thus metals with smaller reduction potential have greater
tendency to lose electron.so they are more reactive.
 A reducing agent reduces other substances
and loses electrons; therefore, its oxidation state increases.
 An oxidizing agent oxidizes other substances
and gains electrons; therefore, its oxidation state decreases.
 An oxidizing agent, or oxidant, gains electrons and is reduced in a
chemical reaction. Also known as the electron acceptor, the oxidizing
agent is normally in one of its higher possible oxidation states because it
will gain electrons and be reduced. Examples of oxidizing agents include
halogens, potassium nitrate, and nitric acid.
 An oxidizing agent, or oxidant, gains electrons and is reduced in a
chemical reaction. Also known as the electron acceptor, the oxidizing
agent is normally in one of its higher possible oxidation states because it
will gain electrons and be reduced. Examples of oxidizing agents include
halogens, potassium nitrate, and nitric acid.


 A reducing agent, or reductant, loses electrons and is oxidized in a
chemical reaction. A reducing agent is typically in one of its lower possible
oxidation states, and is known as the electron donor. A reducing agent is
oxidized, because it loses electrons in the redox reaction. Examples of
reducing agents include the earth metals, formic acid, and sulfite
compounds.

Common oxidizing Common reducing agents

agents
O2 H2
O3 CO
F2 Fe
Br2 Zn
H2SO4 Li
Halogen metals Alkali metals (alkali metals tend to lose an
(halogen metals tend electron to get to noble gas configuration)
to gain an electron to get
to noble gas
configuration)

Oxidizing Reducing Agents

Agents
Oxidation State Decreases Increases
# of Electrons Gained Lost
Substance is... Reduced Oxidized
 I m leaving the topic of batteries because their will be no conceptual

questions regarding batteries. You just have to remember the anodes ,
cathodes and electrolytes used in each battery.
CHAPTER 11
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Rate of reaction =
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Units of rate of reaction = moles dm-3sec-1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Average rate =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 The rate of a reaction when concentrations of reactant are unity is called
specific rate constant or velocity constant of a reaction.

 Rate of reaction = K(A)a(B)b

 The sum of (a+b) is called order of reaction .
 Zero: A zero order indicates that the concentration of that species does
not affect the rate of a reaction
 Negative integer: A negative order indicates that the concentration of that
species INVERSELY affects the rate of a reaction
 Positive integer: A positive order indicates that the concentration of that
species DIRECTLY affects the rate of a reaction
 Non-Integer: Non-integer orders, both positive and negative, represent
more intricate relationships between concentrations and rate in more
complex reactions.
 n a first-order reaction, the reaction rate is directly proportional to the
concentration of one of the reactants. First-order reactions often have the
general form A → products.
 The simplest kind of second-order reaction is one whose rate is
proportional to the square of the concentration of one reactant. These
generally have the form 2A → products.
 Half Life Period is defined as the time taken for half of the reaction to be
completed i.e. the time in which the concentration of a reactant is reduced
to half of its original value is called Half Life Period of the reaction.
 For zero order, t1/2 α [A0]
For 1st order, t1/2 α [A0] 0
Similarly for 2nd order, t1/2 α [A0] -1 and so on
In general, for a reaction of nth order:
t1/2 α [A0] 1-n
Or
t1/2 α 1/ [A0] n- 1
 The rate determining step is the slowest stepof a chemical reaction that
determines the speed (rate) at which the overall reaction proceeds.
The rate determining step can be compared to the neck of a funnel.
 Chemists often write chemical equations for reactions as a single step,
which shows only a reaction's net result. However, most chemical
reactions occur over a series of elementary reactions. The reaction
mechanism is the step-by-step process by which reactants actually
become products.

 The overall reaction rate depends almost entirely on the rate of the
slowest step. If the first step is the slowest, and the entire reaction must
wait for it, then it is the rate-determining step.
 Physical methods to determine the rate of reaction:
 Spectrometry is applied when a reactant or product aborbs ultraviolet ,
visible , or infrared radiations .
 Electrical method is applied when reactants or products involve ionic
species.
 Dilatometric method is applied for those reactions which involve small
volume changes.
 Refractometric method is applied for those reactions when reactants or
products change their refractive indxes.
 Optical rotation method is applied for those reactions when anyone
reactant or product is optically active.
 Molecules must collide in order to react.
 In order to effectively initiate a reaction, collisions must be sufficiently
energetic (kinetic energy) to break chemical bonds; this energy is known
as the activation energy.
 As the temperature rises, molecules move faster and collide more
vigorously, greatly increasing the likelihood of bond breakage upon
collision.
 All reactions involving two reactants require collisions between particles to
proceed.
 Not all collisions taking place between particles results in a reaction.
 In the middle of a reaction, there is a configuration of the particles, which
is difficult to achieve - this is the Transition State.
 The total kinetic energy of reactant molecules must be at least as high as
the activation energy in order to achieve the Transition State so the
reaction can proceed.
 The Transition State does not always proceed to the products of the
reaction - it can also return to reactant molecule
 An activated complex is an intermediate state that is formed during the
conversion of reactants into products. An activated complex is the
structure that results at the maximum energy point along the reaction
path. The activation energy of a chemical reaction is the difference

between the energy of the activated complex and the energy of the
reactants.
𝑡1
log (𝑡2 )
 Order of reaction = n = 1 +
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 2/𝑎1
 activation energy, in chemistry, the minimum amount of energy that is
required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they can
undergo chemical transformation or physical transport.
 Activation energy (Ea) = Threshold energy - Average kinetic energy
of molecules
 Rate of reaction ∝ surface area
 Rate of reaction ∝ Light
 Rate of reaction ∝ concentration of reactants
 Rate of reaction ∝ temperature


 The exponential factor is dimensionless, the pre-exponential factor
or Arrhenius constant (A) has the same unit as the unit of the rate
constant (k).
Arrhenius equation has significant uses
 It can be used to calculate the Ea from the temperature dependence of the

rate constant.
 It can be used to calculate the rate constant for a given temperature if
Ea and A are known.
 The equation relates k, the rate constant for a given chemical reaction, with
the temperature, T, the activation energy for the reaction, Ea , the pre-
exponential factor A, and the universal gas constant, R.

 High temperature and low activation energy favor larger rate constants, and
therefore speed up the reaction.
 The equation is a combination of the concepts of activation energy and the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
 Arrhenius plots show that reaction rates are inversely proportional to
temperature changes
 The negative slope from the Arrhenius plot gives the activation energy,
Ea: slope = -Ea/R
 Extrapolation of the Arrhenius plot back to the y-intercept gives lnA
 The Arrhenius plot shows how activation energy and temperature affect the
sensitivity of the reaction rate

 In a heterogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in a different phase from the

reactants. In a homogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in the same phase
as the reactants.
 The catalyst remains unchanged (in mass and chemical composition ) in
the reaction (Activity of catalyst.)
 2. A small quantity of the catalyst is required. e.g. One mole of colloid Pt
catalyses
 3. The catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant. But the
equilibrium approaches earlier.
 4. Specificity of Catalyst:
 The catalyst is specific in nature. It means by the change of catalyst,
nature of the products changes or specific catalyst for a specific reaction.

 Or






 5. The catalyst cannot make impossible reaction to occur and does not
initiate a reaction.
 Catalyst Poison: There are certain substances which decrease or
destroy the activity of the catalyst. Such substances are known as
catalytic poisons. E.g. arsenic destroys the catalytic activity of the
platinum catalyst in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
 Catalyst Promoter: There are certain substances which increase the
activity of the catalyst. Such substances are known as catalyst promoters
e.g. Mo acts as a promoter in the manufacture of ammonia by I-laber‘s
process.
 Ex.
 Ex. 2. In Bosch process of preparation of acts as a promoter for
catalyst . Catalyst Poison or Promoter does not act like a catalyst.
 6. The catalyst exhibits maximum activity at a particular temperature
which is known as optimum temperature.
Best of luck


Inorganic Chemistry
Identification of on element on the basis of its properties
Most important thing is to recognize that element belongs to which

group and period…here are some methods…
 No. of outermost electrons in any atom represents group no….for

example hydrogen has 1 electron so it belongs to grp 1…similarly
Al has 3 electrons in outermost shell so it belongs to grp 3
 Now if an atom has one outermost shell than it belongs to 1st
period…and if 2 shells than 2nd period and so on
 Valency of atoms can also give information….1st group elements
only show +1 valancy ( excepetion hydrides in which H- is
present…)
 No. of bonds formed can also give information
If the bond length is given between two atoms of a molecule,half
that distance, to get radius of atom
 As size of atom increases when we move downward in a group
and decreases when we move from left to right in a period. So if u
know that the given element belongs to which group or period u
can easily guess about its size comparing to others.( in Ecat there
will be given mcqs in which you have to pick the smallest or
greatest ( w.r.t size ) from the given)
 Size of + ion is always less than parent neutral atom
 Size of - ion is always greater than parent neutral atom
 Now if atom belongs to some starting groups than its ionization
energy is small and if atom belongs to 6 7 or 8th group than its
ionization energy is high…this is again important because if u have

little idea about the place of that atom in periodic table u can
easily compare different values
 Same is the case with electron affinity.
 Valancy of atoms can be predicted if u know that that element
belongs to which group..1st group elements usually show +1 ….2nd
group +2..so on upto group 4….5th group elements can have two
type of valancies ..+5 and -3.. similarly 6th and 7th group elements
can have two type of valancies..Electronegativity of elements can
also help us to decide this
Trends in various properties of elements
 Upto group (iv) metallic bonds are present (ionic, covalent also)
which get stronger as size decreases and no. of bond increases. So
melting and boiling point decreases from top to bottom in a group
and increases from left to right in a period.
 From group (iv) to group (viii) as Vander Wal forces are present
between atoms which increases as size increases so M.P and B.P
increases form top to bottom and decreases from left to right.
 Greater is the charge to size ratio greater will be hydration
energy
 Electronegativity if electronegativity difference between bonded
atoms is > 1.7 than bond will be ionic otherwise covalent
 Every 1st element of each group show deviation form normal
behaviour

 Abrupt increase in sizes of elements down the group increases

their metallic character
 Less electronegative elements are more metallic in character
Properties of Various elements
 Pair of electrons which can take part in chemical reaction but

don’t due to some reasons are called inert pairs
 CO is less polar due to a co-ordinate covalent bond from oxygen
toward carbon
 Oxidizing agents are those which oxidizes other and itself
reduced means which take electrons from others
 Reducing agents are those which reduces others and itself
oxidized means give electrons to others
 The atomic chlorine is most reactive so it is main agent of aqua
regia
 Sulphuric acid is strong dehydrating and oxidizing agent
 Pur e acids are always non- conductors while little addition of
water make them conductor due to ion formation
 Most metals like aluminium form oxide layer ( protective) when
they come in contact with air . this layer protects further
oxidation
 Brown fumes and dark brown colour of solutions are due to the
presence of NO2
 Flourine has highest electronegativity (4) while Cs has lowest so
CsF is strongest bond ever
 Halogens are most electronegative elements . so they form
mostly ionic bonds. Especially with starting group element
 Oxidizing power means tedency to snatch electrons from other
atoms, it is maximum in halogens

 Hydrogen bonding can give peculiar chracteristics to any

element
 Acid strength increases with increase in no. of oxygen atoms
 Increase of oxidation no. can give stability and extra binding
forces to an ion
 Bleaching action of bleaching powder depends upon the
amount of availble chlorine. more available chlorine stronger
action and vice versa
 Noble gases can be isolated from air by fractional distillation
 Neon is used in laser because it produces intense light . ( mostly
red in colour)
 Solubility of noble gases in water increases with increase in
atomic no. because the bigger atoms are more readily polarized
by water molecules
 Helium is 2nd lightest element in universe.( hydrogen is first) ,
due its lightness baloons are filled with helium try to fly upward
 Actually the word transition means in between or intermediate
 Transition elements has partially filled d or f subshells
 Increase of no. of unpaired electrons increases paramagnetic
character
 Variable oxidation state is the most important property of
transition elements but element like sulphur they are not
transition although they can show variable valeny
 For transition element covalent radii decreases rapidly at start of
series than become almost constant and finally begin to
increases at the end of series
 Colour chracteristic of transiton element is due to d-d transition.

 Mostly Hydrogen , boron, carbon, nitrogen are used in

interstetial compounds.
 In writing formula of complex ion the usual practice is to place
the symbol of the central metal atom first , followed by
formulas of the ionic legends in alphabetical order and the
formula of the whole complex ion enclosed in squrare bracket
 Memorize the percentage of carbon in pig , steel and wrought
iron.(given in book)
 Impurities accelerate corrosion,
 Chromates and dichromates are salt of chromic acid ( H2CrO4).
 Dichromates are very powerful oxidizing agents
Organic Chemistry
Organic Compounds are those compounds which contain carbon and

hydrogen together.

Functional Groups


Hybridization
Atoms can broadly bond to form either covalent or ionic compounds. The
concept of hybridization was introduced to explain covalent bonding. So, if
atoms are combining to form ionic compounds like NaCl, they use ions to
combine, i.e they are losing or gaining electron(s), so the concept of
hybridisation is not required here. When atoms bond covalently,some of the
atomic orbitals undergo intermixing of energies to yield a set of hybridised
orbitals which are equivalent in energy. These new, hybrid orbitals are used
to overlap with hybrid or unhybridised orbitals of other atoms, forming a
covalent bond.
How to check hybridization state
Hybridization state = no. of bonds formed + no. of lone pair of electrons
To check no. of hybrid orbitals
Hybridization state can also help to check the no. of bonds formed
If sp3 hybridization so s+p+p+p= 4 sp3
If sp2 hybridization so s+p+p= 3 sp2
If sp hybridization so s+p = 2 sp
Sp3 hybridization 109.5 angle

Tetrahedral geometry
4 sp3 orbitals
Sp2 hybridization 120 angle
Trigonal planar
3 sp2 orbitals
Sp hybridization 180 angle
Linear geometry

2 sp orbitals
Isomerism
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
 Saturated (alkanes)
 Unsaturated (alkenes,alkynes)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(benzene)
Functional group Compounds

Alkyl Halides halogen as a functional group

Alcohols hydroxide as a functional group
Phenols hydroxyl as a functional group with benzene ring
Ethers oxygen atom between two carbon atoms
Carbonyl Compounds carbonyl group (C=O) as a functional group
Carboxylic Acids carboxyl group (COOH) as a functional group
Amino Acids amino (NH2) and carboxyl group on same carbon atom
Some important terms to remember
Hydrogenation addition of hydrogen

Oxidation addition of oxygen
Hydration addition of water
Reduction addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
Electrolysis breakdown of compound by electricity
DeCarboxylation removal of carbon dioxide
Nitration addition of NO2
Combustion Burning of compound in the presence of oxygen
Halogenation addition of halogen
DeHydrohalogenation removal of hydrogen and halogen at the same
time
Hydroxylation addition of hydroxyl group
Ozonolysis breakdown of compound in the presence of ozone
Polymerization combining monomers to form polymers
Rectified Spirit 95% alcohol+5% water
Absolute Alcohol pure alcohol (no water)
Methylated Spirit denatured alcohol by 10% methanol

Wood Spirit methanol

Formalin 40% formaldehyde+8% methyl alcohol+52% water
Some Important Reactions to remember
Sabatier-Sendern’s Reaction reduction of alkenes and alkynes to form

alkanes
Kolbe’s Electrolysis electrolysis of saturated monocarboxylic
acid,saturated dicarboxylic acid, unsaturated dicarboxylic acid to form
symmetrical akanes,alkenes and alkynes respectively
Clemmensen And Wolf-Kishner’s Reduction reduction of carbonyl
compounds to form alkanes
Friedel-Crafts Reaction alkylation and acylation of benzene
Wurtz Reaction preparation of symmetrical alkanes from alkyl halides
Williamson’s Reaction preparation of ethers from alkoxide ion
(alcohol+metals)
Dow’s Reaction preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene
Aldol Condensation Condensation of two molecules of aldehydes or
ketones possessing alpha hydrogen atom to form aldols
Cannizaro’s Reaction self oxidation-reduction reaction of aldehydes
possessing no alpha hydrogen
Haloform Reaction formation of haloforms when halogen is treated with
acetaldehyde,methyl ketones,ethanol and those secondary alcohols
possessing hydroxyl group on second carbon atom
Strecker Synthesis preparation of amino acids from carbonyl compounds
Esterification preparation of esters
Some Important Reagents and Catalysts to remember

Reducing Agents platinum,palladium,nickel,palladium-charcoal,LiAlH4,Zn

(zinc is used for cleavage of alkyl halides to obtain hydrogen atom for
reduction,this is because zinc has greater affinity for halogens),Zn-
amalgum+HCl (used in reducing carbonyl compounds-Clemmenson
Reduction)
Oxidating Agents KMnO4, K2Cr2O7
DeCarboxylating Agent Soda lime (CaO+NaOH)
Grignard Reagent alkyl magnesium halide
Dehydrohalogenating agent Alc. KOH
Dehydrating Agents P4O10,P2O5,conc.H2SO4,H3PO4,Al2O3
Hydrating Agents conc.H2SO4 , conc. HgSO4
Partial Hydrogenating Agents
Lindlar’s Catalyst Pd (BaSO4)/quinoline (to form cis
alkenes)
Na/liq.NH3 (to form trans alkenes)
Lucas Reagent ZnCl2+HCl
Bennedict’s Soln. alkaline soln. containing copper citrate complex ion
Fehling’s soln. alkaline soln. containing copper tartarate complex ion
Tollen’s Reagent ammonical silver nitrate soln.
Cu as a catalyst used in catalytic oxidation of alkanes
Ultraviolet light used for the halogenation of alkanes (a free redical
mechanism)
Baeyer’s Reagent dil.1% alkaline KMnO4 soln. (used in hydroxylation of
alkenes)
Organo-nickle Catalyst used in the polymerization of acetylene to form
benzene
Cr2O3+Al2O3+SiO2 as a catalyst used in preparing benzene from alkanes

Sunlight in the addition reactions of benzene like halogenation

Vanadium Oxide as a catalyst used in catalytic oxidation of benzene
ZnCl2 as a catalyst used for preparing alkyl halides from alcohol
ZnO+Cr2O3 as a catalyst used to prepare methanol on industrial scale
Pyridine as a catalyst used for preparing alkyl halide when alcohol is
treated with thionyl chloride
PdCl2 as a catalyst used to prepare acetaldehyde on industrial scale
Pt-abestos as a catalyst used for preparing formaldehyde in laboratory
Iron oxide-molybdenom oxide as a catalyst used for preparing
formaldehyde on industrial scale
Invertase used to convert molasses into glucose and fructose
Zymase used to convert glucose into alcohol (ethanol)
Diastase used to convert starch into maltose
Maltase used to convert maltose into glucose
Some Important Chemical Tests to remember
Baeyer’s Test used to test unsaturation (if pink colour of Baeyer’s reagent
decolourizes it means unsaturation is present)
Ozonolysis ozonolysis of alkenes is used to locate the position of double
bond
Lucas Test used to distinguish b/w primary,secondary and tertiary alcohols
Tertiary alcohols immediately appears cloudy when treated
with Lucas Reagent
Secondary alcohols turns cloudy after 5-10 min
Primary alcohols remains clear or turns to cloudy on heating
Tollen’s test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
Aldehydes give positive test

Fehling’s Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.

Bennedict’s Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
2,4 DNPH Test used to indicate carbonyl compounds
Sodium Nitroprusside Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and
ketones.Ketones give
positive test
Iodoform Test used to distinguish Methyl ketones from other ketones
Acetaldehyde from other aldehydes
Ethanol from Methanol
Ninhydrin Test used to test amino acids
Test for alkyl benzene oxidation of alkyl benzenes give benzoic acid which
on treatment with KMnO4 decolourizes the solution
Bromine Water Test used to test unsaturation.. Also used to distinguish
between phenol and benzene (phenol gives white ppt)
Some Important Common names and formulas to remember
1. Toulene
2. Phenol
3. Benzaldehyde
4. Nitrobenzene
5. Naphthalene
6. Anthracene
7. Biphenyl
8. Aniline
9. Benzoic acid

10. Pyridine
11. Furan
12. Pyrrole
13. Thiophene
14. Benzene sulphonic acid
15. o-xylene m-xylene p-xylene
16. picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol)
17. TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)
18. Acetophenone
19. Tartaric acid (2,3-dihydroxybutan-1,4-dioic acid)
20. Lactic acid (3-hydroxypropanoic acid)
21. Marsh gas (methane)
22. Formic acid Acetic acid
23. Ethylene Acetylene Ethylene glycol
24. Propylene glycol
25. Ethylene epoxide (oxygen atom attached with two adjacent carbons)
26. Halohydrin (halogen and hydroxyl group on adjacent carbon atoms)
27. Vicinal dihalides (two halogen atoms on adjacent carbons)
28. Geminal dihalides (two halogen atoms on same carbon atom)
29. Mustard gas (2,2-dichloro ethyl sulphide) glyoxal (oxygen atoms
bonded via double bonds on adjacent carbon atoms)
30. Neoprene (polymer of chloroprene)
Chemistry of Reactions
Bonding species
Electrophile:

 e- loving- have affinity for e-

 e- deficient species
 They act as Lewis Acid as they accept electron
 +vely charged species (H+,CH3+ etc) or may be neutral (SO3,BF4
etc)
Nucleophile:
 nucleus lover
 e- rich species
 -vely charged (O-,F-,Br- etc) or may be neutral (NH3,SO2,H2O etc )
 They act as a Lewis Base as they donate electrons
Free Radical:
 Have unpaired e-
 produced as a result of homolysis
 Cl*, CH3* etc
Types of Bond Fission:
Bond fission is of two types
 Homolytic Fission
 Heterolytic Fission
Homolytic fission
 in which shared e- pairs are equally distributed among bonded
atoms
 resulting specie have unpaired e- and are called free radical
 similar groups are produced
 product is paramagnetic due to unpaired e-
 The reactions carried upon by homolytic fission are called radical
reactions

Heterolytic fission;
 shared e- pairs is taken by 1 of bonded atom only
 ions are produced
 electrophile (+ve) and nucleophile (-ve) are produced
 products are diamagnetic
 The reactions carried upon by heterolytic fission are called ionic or
polar reactions
Types of Reactions
 Addition Reactions
 Substituition Reactions
 Elimination Reaction
Addition Reactions
The reactions which involved the addition of different compounds and
finally give a single product are called addition reactions
E.g Benzene+3H2  Cyclohexane
 Carbonyl Compounds give Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
Substituition Reactions
Substitution reaction (also known as single displacement reaction or
single replacement reaction) is a chemical reaction during which one
functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another
functional group

Two types of Substituition Reactions

 Nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
 Electrophilic Substituition Reactions
Nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
Nucleophilic substitution is the reaction of an electron pair donor (the

nucleophile, Nu) with an electron pair acceptor (the electrophile). An
electrophile must have a leaving group (X) in order for the reaction to
take place.
 Alkyl Halides give nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
There are two fundamental events in these substitution reactions:
1. formation of the new bond to the nucleophile

2. breaking of the bond to the leaving group
Depending on the relative timing of these events, two different

mechanisms are possible:
 Bond breaking to form a carbocation preceeds the formation of

the new bond : SN1 reaction
 Simultaneous bond formation and bond breaking : SN2 reaction
SN1 mechanism
SN1 indicates a substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular reaction,

described by the expression rate = k [R-LG]
This pathway is a multi-step process with the following characteristics:
 step 1: rate determining (slow) loss of the leaving group, LG, to

generate a carbocation intermediate, then

 step 2: rapid attack of a nucleophile on the electrophilic

carbocation to form a new s bond
Effects of R-
Reactivity order : (CH3)3C- > (CH3)2CH- > CH3CH2- > CH3-
In an SN1 reaction, the key step is the loss of the leaving group to form
the intermediate carbocation. The more stable the carbocation is, the
easier it is to form, and the faster the SN1 reaction will be. Some
students fall into the trap of thinking that the system with the less
stable carbocation will react fastest, but they are forgetting that it is the
generation of the carbocation that is rate determining.
-LG
The only event in the rate determining step of the SN1 is breaking the C-
LG bond. For alcohols it is important to remember that -OH is a very
poor leaving. In the reactions with HX, the -OH is protonated first to
give an oxonium, providing the much better leaving group, a water
molecule (see scheme below).
Nu
Since the nucleophile is not involved in the rate determining step of an
SN1 reaction, the nature of the nucleophile is unimportant. In the
reactions of alcohols with HX, the reactivity trend of HI > HBr > HCl > HF
is not due to the nucleophilicity of the halide ion but the acidity of HX
which is involved in generating the leaving group prior to the rate
determining step
It involves Retention of Configuration
SN2 mechanism
SN2 indicates a substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular reaction,

described by the expression

rate = k [Nu][R-LG]
Single step reactions have no intermediates and single transition

state (TS).
In an SN2 there is simultaneous formation of the carbon-nucleophile

bond and breaking of the carbon-leaving group bond, hence the
reaction proceeds via a TS in which the central C is partially bonded to
five groups.
Effects of R-
Reactivity order : CH3- > CH3CH2- > (CH3)2CH- > (CH3)3C-
For alcohols reacting with HX, methyl and 1o systems are more likely to
react via an SN2 reaction since the carbocations are too high energy for
the SN1 pathway to occur.
-LG
Once again the leaving group is a water molecule formed by
protonation of the -OH group. -OH on its own is a poor leaving group.
Nu
Since the nucleophile is involved in the rate determining step, the
nature of the nucleophile is very important in an SN2 reaction. More
reactive nucleophiles will favor an SN2 reaction.
It involves Inversion of Configuration
Electrophilic Substituition Reactions
Electrophilic aromatic substitution (SEAr) is an organic reaction in

which an atom that is attached to an aromatic system (usually
hydrogen) is replaced by an electrophile. Some of the most important
electrophilic aromatic substitutions are aromatic nitration, aromatic

halogenation, aromatic sulfonation, and acylation and

alkylating Friedel–Crafts reactions.
Elimination Reactions
One of the example of elimination reactions is β-elimination reaction
A chemical reaction in which atoms or groups are lost from adjacent

atoms, resulting in a new pi bond: A-B-C-D ---> A + B=C + D. One of
atoms lost is usually (but not always) a proton. The new pi bond is
usually (but not always) formed between two carbon atoms.
 They are given by those alkyl halides having β-hydrogen atom
 Elimination of halogen acid takes place and this results in the

formation of Alkenes
E1 mechanism
 It constitutes of two steps. In first step slow ionization of the

substrate occurs that resul in the formation of carbocation. In
second step the nucleophile attacks and give alkene as a product
 Unimolecular Reaction
 Rate of the reaction depends upon the concentration of Alkyl
Halide
 Tertiary Alkyl Halides generally follow this mechanism
E2 mechanism
 Single step mechanism,the nucleophile attacks and leaving group

leaves at the same time
 Bimolecular Reaction
 Rate of reaction depends upon the concentration of Alkyl AHlides
as well as the attacking Nucleophile
 Primary Alkyl Halides generally follow this mechanism

Some important reactivities of different compounds
Reactivity of halogens for the halogenations of alkanes
F2>Cl2>Br2>I2
Dehydration of Alcohols
Tertiary alc.>Secondary alc.>Primary alc.
Order of Reactivity of Halogen Acids
HI>HBr>HCl
Order of Reactivity of Alcohols in estrification
Primary>Secondary>Tertiary
Oxidation of Alcohols
Primary>Secondary>Tertiary
Order of Reactivity for Nitration
Phenol>benzene>chlorophenol>toluene
Order of Acidic Nature of some compounds
Carboxylic acid>phenol>water>alchol
Order of Reactivity of Alkyl Halides
R-I>R-Br>R-Cl>R-F

Amino Acids
Amino Acids
a) General structure of a-aminoacids;
The naturally occurring amino acids have a common structure. Amino
acids, as the name implies, have two functional groups, an amino group
(–NH 2) and a carboxyl group (–COOH). These groups are joined to a
single (aliphatic) carbon. In organic chemistry, the carbon directly
attached to a carboxyl group is the alpha (α) position, so the amino
acids in proteins are all alpha‐amino acids. The side chains that
distinguish one amino acid from another are attached to the alpha
carbon, so the structures are often written as shown in Figure , where R
stands for one of the 20 side chains:
If you look again at the general structure of an amino acid, you will see
that it has both a basic amine group and an acidic carboxylic acid group.

There is an internal transfer of a hydrogen ion from the -COOH group to

the -NH2 group to leave an ion with both a negative charge and a
positive charge.
This is called a zwitterion.
A zwitterion is a compound with no overall electrical charge, but which

contains separate parts which are positively and negatively charged.
This is the form that amino acids exist in even in the solid state.
b) Nature of R Group:
The 20 naturally occurring α-amino acids used by cells to synthesise

proteins can be generally represented by the generic formula shown

above.
The means the main difference between the various amino acids lies in
the structure of the "R" group.
These 20 α-amino acids can be sub-classified according to how the
properties of other functional groups in the "R" group influence the
system.
non-polar side chains (e.g. alkyl groups)
polar (e.g. amides, alcohols)
acidic (e.g. carboxylic acids, phenols)
basic (e.g. amines)
 Non Polar Amino Acids
Non Polar Amino Acids have equal number of amino and carboxyl
groups and are neutral. These amino acids are hydrophobic and have
no charge on the 'R' group. The amino acids in this group are alanine,
valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenyl alanine, glycine, tryptophan,
methionine and proline.

Go Glycine
And Alanine
Take Tryptophan
Vital valine

Part Phenylalanine
in isoleucine
Promoting Proline

Mother Methionine
Language Leucine
 Polar Amino Acids with no Charge:

These amino acids do not have any charge on the 'R' group. These
amino acids participate in hydrogen bonding of protein structure. The
amino acids in this group are serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine,
glutamine and aspargine.
 Polar Amino Acids with Positive Charge:

Polar amino acids with positive charge have more amino groups as
compared to carboxyl groups making it basic. The amino acids, which
have positive charge on the 'R' group are placed in this category. They
are lysine, arginine and histidine.
 Polar Amino Acids with Negative Charge:

Polar amino acids with negative charge have more carboxyl groups than
amino groups making them acidic. The amino acids, which have
negative charge on the 'R' group are placed in this category. They are

called as dicarboxylic mono-amino acids. They are aspartic acid and

glutamic acid.
c)Essential Amino Acids

You must include them in your diet because your body can't make them
on its own. If you don't ingest them, you will not be experiencing
optimal health and may have a disease caused by that deficiency.
MATH
Methionine
Arginine
Threonine
Histidine
ILL
Isoleucine
Lysine
Leucine
PTV
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Valine
 Non-Essential Amino Acids

Under normal conditions, your body can manufacture these amino

acids, so you don't have to ingest each of these.
Alanine
Asparagine
Aspartic Acid
Cysteine
Glutamine
Glutamic Acid
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
d)Peptide Bond Formation:
A peptide bond (sometimes mistakenly called amino bond) is a covalent
bond that is formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group
of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the another molecule,
releasing a molecule of water. This is a a condensation reaction and
usually occurs between amino acids. The resulting CO-NH bond is called
a peptide bond, and the resulting molecule is an amide.
 Formation of the peptide bond;
The molecules must be orientated so that the carboxylic acid group of
one can react with the amine group of the other. For example, two
amino acids combining through the formation of a peptide bond to
form a dipeptide.

by convention a peptide having molecular mass upto 10,000 is called a

polypeptide while a peptide having molecular mass more than 10,000 is
called a protein.
Amino Acids are those compounds which contains both carboxyl group
and amino group.
 There are several amino acids but only 20 are involved in protein
synthesis
 Such amino acids that synthesize proteins are called Standard
Amino Acids
 Such amino acids that can’t synthesize proteins are called Non-
standard Amino Acids
 Essential Amino Acids are those amino acids which our body can’t
synthesize
 Those amino acids which our body can synthesize are called Non-
essential Amino Acids
 The amino group and carboxyl group can be present on same
carbon atoms or may be on different carbon atoms
 All those amino acids that synthesize proteins contain both amino
and carboxyl group on same carbon atom,hence called α-amino
acids

 Amino Acids join together through peptide linkages to form

dipeptides, tripolypeptides, tetrapeptides or polypeptides
 These polypeptides perform different functions such as protein
formation or formation of membranes
 The properties of amino acids depends upon R group. They may
be acidic,basic, hydrophobic,sulphur containing,OH group
containing,aromatic,imino acid
 Proteins exist in the body as ionized form
 The ionized amino acid is called Zwitter Ion or Internal salt and
hence can behave as both acid and base. If acid is added to amino
acid,it behaves as base and accept the protons,therefore,positive
charge appears on it. If base is added to amino acid,it behaves as
acid and donates the proton,therefore,negative charge appears
on it
 Amino Acids and Imino Acid (contain –NH instead of –NH2) can
be distinguish by Ninhydrin Test.
 Amino Acids give blue colour in Ninhydrin Solution
 Imino Acid give yellow colour in Ninhydrin Solution
 There is only one imino acid “proline” (standard)
 19 other standard amino acid includes
 Glycine (hydrophobic) G
 Alanine (hydrophobic) A
 Threonine (OH group containing) T
 Serine (OH group containing) S
 Cystein (sulphur containing) C
 Methionine (sylphur containing) M
 Arginine (basic) R
 Lysine (basic) K

 Tyrosine (aromatic/OH containing) Y

 Tryptophan (aromatic) W
 Histidine (basic) H
 Aspartic Acid (acidic) D
 Aspargine (amide form of aspartic acid) N
 Glutamic Acid (acidic) E
 Glutamine (amide form of glutamic acid) Q
 Phenyl Alanine (aromatic) F
 Leucine (hydrophobic) L
 Isoleucine (hydrophobic) I
 Valine (hydrophobic) V
 For convenience they are represented by first three letters of

their names
 They can also be abbreviated by single alphabets as written above
 Essential amino acids are 10.
 Non Essential amino acids are 10.
 Acidic amino acids are 2.
 Basic amino acids are 3.
 Amino Acids differ from one another due to difference in R group
that imparts specific properties
 Number of amino acids – 1= Number of peptide bonds
 Number of amino acids – 1= Number of water molecules
 A peptide having a molecular mass of 10,000 is polypeptide.
 A peptide having a molecular mass upto 10,000 is polypeptide.

A peptide having a molecular mass greater than 10,000 is

generally protein but it may also be possible that its simple
polypeptide
 Hydrolysis of Protein:
A peptide bond can be broken down by hydrolysis (the adding of
water). The peptide bonds that are formed within proteins have a
tendency to break spontaneously when subjected to the presence of
water (metastable bonds) releasing about 10 kJ/mol of free energy.
This process, however, is very slow. Living organisms use enzymes to
broken down or to form peptide bonds.
Macromolecules:
a)addition polymer:
Polymers are long chain giant organic molecules are assembled from
many smaller molecules called monomers. Polymers consist of many
repeating monomer units in long chains. A polymer is analogous to a
necklace made from many small beads (monomers). Many monomers
are alkenes or other molecules with double bonds which react by

addition to their unsaturated double bonds. and this process is called

addition polymerization.
 monomer must have multiple bond
 no removal of small molecule in addition polymerization
 these follow free radical mechanism
-initiation, propagation, termination
 chain grows only in one direction.
some examples of A polymers are given below;
Polyethene:
ethene at 400 temp and 100 atm pressure,polymerize to polyethene or
polyethylene.
a good quality polyethene is obtained,when ethene is polymerized in

the presence of Al(C2H5)3 and TiCl4.
Polyethene is a plastic. It is a white translucent, waxy polymer
constituted of only carbon and hydrogen. It burns well, does not
conduct electricity and is insoluble in water and most organic solvents.
Polyethene is a thermoplastic. Thermoplastics melt when heated and
can thus be remodelled.
Uses;
used for making toys,cables,bags,boxes,flexible pipes,sheets etc.
Polypropene:
Propene undergoes addition polymerization to produce poly(propene),

often known as polypropylene, which is one of the most versatile

thermoplastic polymers available commercially.
Uses;
it has many commercial uses, including packaging, automotive
products, textiles, housewares, medicine, tubing, and many others.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC);
Poly(chloroethene) is made by polymerising chloroethene
(vinylchloride), CH2=CHCl at 52 tmp and 9 atm pressure.
it is an addition polymer.
Uses;
addition of plasticizer improve the flexibility of polymer. it is widely
used in floor covering, in pipes,in gramophone recorders etc.
Polystyrene or polyphenylethylene:

it is also an addition polymer and is obtained by polymerization of

styrene in the presence of a catalyst.
or
Uses;
used in manufacture of food containers,cosmetic bottles, toys and
packaging material etc.
b) Condensation Polymerization:
Condensation polymers are any kind of polymers formed through a
condensation reaction—where molecules join together—losing small
molecules as by-products such as water or methanol.
 monomers must be difunctional
 single step
 chain grows in both direction.
some examples are given below;
Polyesters:
A polyester is made by a reaction involving an acid with two -COOH

groups, and an alcohol with two -OH groups.

The acid is benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid (old name: terephthalic acid).
The alcohol is ethane-1,2-diol (old name: ethylene glycol).
polyester is also known as Terylene.

Uses:
polyester has large no. of uses in clothing.it is often blended with
cotton or wool for summer and winter clothing.it is also used for
making water tanks etc.
Nylon:
Nylons are condensation copolymers, formed by reacting difunctional
monomers containing equal parts of amine and carboxylic acid, so that
amides are formed at both ends of each monomer.
nylon-6,6 is most imp polyamide.nylon-6,6 derives its name from its
starting materials adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine,both of
which have 6 carbons

Uses:
as textile fibre.it has a combination of high
strength,elasticity,toughness and abrasion resistance.
c)Structure of Protein;
Proteins are large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting
of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a
vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalyzing
metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and
transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ
from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is
dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually
results in folding of the protein into a specific three-dimensional
structure that determines its activity.

The primary structure of a protein — its amino acid sequence — drives

the folding and intramolecular bonding of the linear amino acid chain,
which ultimately determines the protein's unique three-dimensional
shape. Hydrogen bonding between amino groups and carboxyl groups
in neighbouring regions of the protein chain sometimes causes certain
patterns of folding to occur. Known as alpha helices and beta sheets,
these stable folding patterns make up the secondary structure of a
protein. Most proteins contain multiple helices and sheets, in addition
to other less common patterns. The ensemble of formations and folds
in a single linear chain of amino acids — sometimes called a
polypeptide — constitutes the tertiary structure of a protein. Finally,
the quaternary structure of a protein refers to those macromolecules
with multiple polypeptide chains or subunits.
d) Chemistry of Carbohydrate:
Carbohydrates (from 'hydrates of carbon') or saccharides (Greek
meaning "sugar") are the most abundant of the four major classes of
biomolecules, which also include proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.Chemically, carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are
aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on
each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional
group.they are most abundant biomolecule on earth.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
3 major Classes;
Monosaccharides;
 simple sugar
 cant hydrolyzed
 sweet in tasste
 soluble in water

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 Examples: fructose,glucose,glactose,mannose
Dissacharides or oligosaccharides:
 they are formed by condensation of 2 to 9 monosacharides.
 Crystalline solids
 Less sweet in taste
 soluble in water
 Examples; sucrose(Glu+Fruc),lactose(glucose+Glactose)milk sugar
not present in plants,maltose(Glu+Glu), Raffinose (trisaccharide)
Polysaccharides:
 high molecular weight
 yield many monosaccharides units on hydrolysis
 amorphous solids
 insoluble in water
 tasteless so called non-sugars
 Examples: starch,cellulose,glycogen etc.

101
e) Chemistry of Lipids;
Lipids are naturally occuring organic compounds of animals and plants
origin which are soluble in organic solvents and belong to a very
heterogenous group of substances.
 insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents i-e ether,

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benzene etc
 primary building blocks are fatty acids,Glycerol and sterol.
 fats and oils are most imp lipids found in liviong organism.
 animals,plants are natural source of lipids.
Structure Of Lipids;
they are triesters formed from glycerol and long chain acids called fatty
acids.
A triester of glycerol is called triglycerides or glyceride.

the glycerides in which long-chain saturated acid components
predominate tend to be solid or semi-solid and are termed as Fats.on
the other hand oils are glycerol esters which contain high proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids.

103
Classification of Lipids:

104
REx
 Hydrolysis Of Lipids;
triglycerides are easily hydrolyzed by enzyme called ,lipases to glycerol
and fatty acids.
 Sponification:
it is hydrolysis of fats and oils when react with alkali to form salt of
carboxylic acid (soap) and glycerol.

105
 Hardening of oils:
During hydrogenation, vegetable oils are hardened by reacting them
with hydrogen gas at about 60ºC. A nickel catalyst is used to speed up
the reaction. The double bonds are converted to single bonds by the
hydrogenation. In this way unsaturated oils can be made into saturated
fats.

106
 Saponification Number:
Saponification value (or "saponification number" also referred to as
"sap" in short) represents the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide required to saponify 1g of fat under the conditions specified.
Example; saponification no. of glycerol tripalmitate is
208.
Uses of lipids:
Lipids are used by organisms for energy storage, as a signalling
molecule (e.g., steroid hormones), and as a structural component of
cell membranes.
f)Enzymes:
''Enzymes can be defined as the rex catalysts of biological systems
produced by living cells and are capable of catalyzing chemical rex''
they may speed up rex by factors of upto 10^20.
Classification of enzymes:
IUB classified enzymes into six classes
i-Oxidoreductases:
catalyses oxidation,reduction reactions
e.g oxidase,dehydrogenase,peroxydase

107
ii-Transferases:
bring abiut exchange of functional groups between two compounds
e.g phospho-transferases etc
iii-Hydrolases:
catalyses hydrolysis
e.g proteases called protolytic enzymes.
iv-Lyases:
catalyzes addition of NH3,H2O or CO2 to double bonds or removal of
these to make double bonds.
e.g fumarases
v-Isomerases
catalyze the transfer of groups within molecules to yield isomeric forms
of the sunbtrate
e.g phospho-glyceromutases.
vi-Ligases
link 2 molecules together the breaking of high energy bonds
e.g acetyl-S-COH, carboxylase and succinic thiokinase.
Properties of Enzymes:
 Extraordinary Specificity
 Amazing efficiency
 protein nature
 reversible direction of enzyme rex

108
 Isoenzymes
Enzyme activity:
 Directly proportional to enzyme concentration
 occur best at optimum temp
 occur best at optimimum pH
 dec by exposure to radiations
Importance of Enzymes:
Enzymes are of great biological importance & r of great help in
diagnosis of certain diseases
Example;
 ALkaline phosphotases is raised in rickets and jaundice
 Lactic Dehydrogenase or LDH-1 is raised in heart diseases
Many enzymes are useful as drugs
Example
 Thrombin is used to stop bleeding
 L-asparaginase has proved very useful in the treatment of blood
cancer in children.
g) Structure & Function of Nucleic Acid:
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all
known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as
nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all
known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic

109
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as
nucleotides.
The building blocks
Three types of chemicals make up the building blocks for nucleic acids.
 Phosphates
These are based on the inorganic acid H3PO4 (phosphoric acid).
 Sugars
The sugars in DNA and RNA are pentoses.
in DNA the sugar is deoxyribose
in RNA the sugar is ribose
 Organic Bases
There are four organic bases involved in the formation of DNA
molecules:

110
adenine and guanine (both purines containing two rings in their

structures)
thymine and cytosine (both pyrimidines containing only one ring in
their structures)

111
Function of Nucleic Acid:

they play vital role in heritance.they contain in their structure the blue
prints for normal growth & development of each & every organism.
2 Fundamental functions are
a) ability to reproduce,store and transmit genetic info
b)to undergo mutation.
9- Environmental Chemistry:
a) Causes of water pollution:
Water is essential for life.water constitute major portion of living
organism's body.Life is impossible without Water.With the passage of
time vital resources of fresh water are vulnerable to contamination.
Following are some human activities causing water contamination:
1-Livestock wastes
2-Oil spillage
3-Detergents
4-Pesticides
5-industrial waste effluents
6-Leather tanneries

112
Factors affecting Quality of Water;

DO,BOD,COD are frequently used in measuring the quality of water
1-Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
in water most imp oxidizing agent is molecular oxygen (O2) the conc. of
which ranges from 4-6 ppm.it is a parametr to determine Quality of
water.
it is directly proportional to purity of H2O.
2- Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD):
the value of BOD is amount of O2 consumed as a result of biological
oxidation of dissolved organic matter in the sample.
it is inversely proportional to purity of water.
3-Chemical Oxygen demand (COD):
The ogranic content of water which consumes O2 during chemical
oxidation is evaluated by its COD.
its inversely proportional to purity of water.
c) AIR POLLUTION: (Chemistry & causes of----
i- Smog;
The word ''SMOG'' is combination of smoke & fog.
The following conditions are required for formation of smog
 sufficient NO, hydrocarbons & volatile organic compounds (VOC)
emitted by vehicular traffic.
 sunlight
 movement of air mass must be little.

113
there r 2 types of smog

1-Reducing smog;
if it contains high conc. of SO2 it is called reducing smog as it is
chemically reducing in nature.the main cause of reducing smog is
combustion of coal
2-oxidizing smog;
photochemical smog consists of higher conc. of oxidants like
ozone,NO2 and many other gaseous components. the main reactant of
photochemical smog are nitric oxide NO & unburnt hydrocarbons.
the yellow colour in photchemical smog is due to presence of NO2.
the overall result of photochemical smog in afternoon is built up of
oxidizing agents such as H2O2,HNO3, Peroxyacetyl NITRATE (PAN) &
ozone in air
PAN is an eye irritant and is also toxic to plants.
ii-ACID RAIN:
The term "acid rain" was first used by a British chemist, Robert Angus
Smith.
acid rain, which now-a-day is termed as acid deposition, was referred to
the precipitation which was more acidic than natural rain. in the
atmosphere CO2, SOz & NOx are transformed by rex with O2 & H2O
into H2CO3 , H2SO4 & HNO3 respectively.
the pH of unpolluted rain water should be 5.6 the rain water with pH
less than 5 is considered truly acidic
SO2+O2+H2O------------------------>H2SO4

114
Effects of Acid rain:

 Acidification of soil & rocks leach the metals i-e Al, Hg, Pb & Ca &
discharge them into water bodies.
 the elevated conc. of Al is harmfull for fish as it clogs the gills
causing suffocation.
 Acid rain also damages building material such as
steel,paints,plastics,cement,masonry work & sculptural material
specially of marble & limestone.
iii- OZONE LAYER;
Ozone,O3 is a gas having low boiling point.it is present in small
concentration throughout the atmosphere.
In the atmosphere troposphere,which extends to an altitude of 0-15 km
from the earth is present
above it stratosphere, extends from 15 - 40 km, is present.the ozone
layer, 25-28 km high in stratosphere,is main chemical specie preset in
stratosphere, surround the globe and filters most harmful UV radiation
in sunlight before they could reach on earth.
the temp in troposphere dec with increasing altitude from 15 to -56 c
whereas the temp in stratosphere inc with increasing altitude i-e -56 to
-2 c
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere is expresed in dobson unit DU

115
normal amount of overhead ozone is 350 DU

The thickness of ozone layer is dec due to various chemical rex.Main
cause of this depletion is chloroflurocarbons. CFCs plays effective role
in removing O3 in stratosphere through following rex
A single chloride free radical can destroy upto 100,000 O3 molecules.
BEST OF LUCK STUDENTS


Important Points of Chemistry For Entry Tests (Part 1 & 2)

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©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

INTRODUCTION TO THIS DOCUMENT

Entry tests are very important for the admission in Engineering

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

IMPORTANT POINTS FORMULAE TIPS AND TRICKS OF CHEMISTRY

 The pressure of vapours in mass spectrograph is 10^-6 to 10^-7 torr and

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 The average of masses of all isotopes of an element is called average or

Avagadros number = 6.022 × 1023

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Quantity of Reactant 1 : Quantity of

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Solvent extraction obeys distribution law.

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

According to Boyle‘s law:

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Units and Values of R in various systems

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Calculation of partial pressure of a gas:

gas mole fraction partial pressure

nitrogen 20/100 = 0.2 0.2 x 200 = 40 tam

hydrogen 60/100 = 0.6 0.6 x 200 = 120 tam

ammonia 20/100 = 0.2 0.2 x 200 = 40 tam

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Graham‘s law of diffusion and effusion :

 According to Wander walls equation

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 pressure of ideal gas is doubled ,the volume becomes half at constant

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Hydrogen bonding is most likely to be formed between H and N,O,F .

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Chemical Demonstration Videos

 Atomic radius = r = n2h2𝜀°

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Equations show that momentum of particle is inversely proportional to

n orbits l=n-1 suboribits Total no. of

 Magnetic quantum no.(m) (also known as orbital orientation quantum no.

n l=n-1 sub orbits Total value of m=2l+1

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Spin quantum no. (s)

 the distance 75.4 pm is called bond length or bond distance or

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©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

AX2E Angular SnCl2

AX2E2 Angular H2O, SCl2

AX4E Disphenoidal SF4

AX3E2 T-shaped ClF3

AX2E3 Linear XeF2

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

AX4E2 Square planar XeF4

In table X is (bond pair) E is (electron pair)

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Endergonic processes can be pushed or pulled by coupling them to