Lecture 2 4/1/2016

Flow sheets for textile wet processes

Pre-treatment Dyeing/Printing Post-treatment

1) Pre-treatment: All the treatments given to the textile material in order to make
it free of all kind of impurities so, it is ready for dyeing, printing or to be sold as
white.

 Pre-treatment varies from fibre to fibre origin (cotton, wool, polyester)

 It varies with the form of the material ( fibre, yarn, fabric)

1.1) Pre-treatment of cellulosic materials

Fibre form

scouring bleaching mercerization

Yarn form

ssingeing desizing scouring bleaching mercerizing

Fabric form (woven)

inspection &
sewing ssinge desize scour bleach mercerize

Pre-treatment of woolen materials

crabbing
sscouring in yarn fabric
carding spinning weaveing and
loose dyeing dyeing
decatising

Pre-treatment of synthetic materials

desizing
scouring/washing heat setting
(optional)
2) Dyeing/ Printing Of Textile Materials lecture 2
Dyeing is defined as a process of uniform coloration of a material with a single
shade throughout its length.

Printing is defined as localized dyeing of a material with a number of shades

throughout its length.

 Different dyes have to be used for dyeing/printing of different fibres.

Figure – 1: Fibre Specific Dyes

3) Post Treatment Of A Textile Material:

Textile Finishing is the operation where the final fabric properties are developed.
Finishing is not restricted to wet processing alone since any operation for
improving the appearance or usefulness of a fabric after it leaves the loom or
knitting machine can be considered a finishing step.

 Depends upon nature of a fibre

 It could be dry or wet

Typical Textile finishing processes for a cotton fabric include:

Calendering Sanforizing Emerizing Softening Easy care finish

(Physical process) (Physical process ) (Physical process) (chemical process) (chemical process)
Objects Of Pre-Treatment:

 High and uniform absorptivity

 Completely free from husks
 High degree of polymerization
 Adequate degree of whiteness to permit flawless dyeing of pale shades
 Absence of creases
 Excellent handle

Conditions Of Pre-Treatment:

 Adequate long reaction time

 Minimum tension on running goods to enable them to shrink freely
 Minimum loss in tensile strength of a material

Pre- Treatment Machineries for cotton materials:

Machines can be classified as:

 Machines for loose fibre form treatments

 Machines for yarn form treatments
 Machines for fabric form treatments

 Rope processing machines

 Open-width processing machines
Whether it is rope processing or open width, basic techniques of processing
involved are:
 Exhaust / Batch wise machineries
 Semi-continuous machineries
 continuous machineries
Pre-Treatment Processes For Cotton:

inspection
& sewing ssingeing desizing scouring bleaching mercerizing

1) Inspection And Sewing

 Grey fabric inspection is the process of identifying weaving faults in the fabric just after
the grey fabric production in the loom.
 In the inspection table the operator finds out faults in the fabric and analyses their
intensity by visual inspection.
 Fabric passing through the frame must be between 45-60 degree angles to inspector
and must be done on appropriate Cool White light 2 F96 fluorescent bulbs above
viewing area.
 Fabric speed on inspection machine must not be more than 15 yards per minute.

Fabric should be inspected in terms of :

 Fabric width
 Roll length
 Fabric odor
 Holes
 Weaving faults

Some of the common weaving faults are:

 Abrasion marks
 Pick faults, e.g.-miss pick and double pick.
 Wrong density /drawing
 Pattern or design break
 Selvedge faults, e.g.-lashing in, cut selvedge.
 Oil stain.
 Crack, hole
 Missing ends
 Slubs.
 Skew and bow
 Crease
AMERICAN 4 POINT SYSTEM.
 The ASTM D5430 standard explains how to assign points to each defect–mostly based
on its size.

Size of Defect Penalty

LENGTH POINT

3 inches or less 1

Over 3, but not over 6 inches 2

Over 6, but not over 9 inches 3

Over 9 inches 4

 A maximum of four points is charged to one linear yard. No more than four penalty
points may be given for any single defect.

Defects Rules:
 A continuous of defect shall be assigned four points for each linear meter or
yard in which it occurs.
 Any piece having a running defect through more than three continuous linear
meters or yards shall be rejected. Regardless of point count.
 Any piece with a full width defect over six inches in length shall be rejected.
 Any piece that contains more than three full width defects per one hundred
linear meters or yards shall rejected.
 No piece shall be accepted that contains a full width defect in the first and last
three meters or yards.
 A hole or torn is considered to be a major defect and shall be penalized four
points.
 Fabric construction and weight, No tolerance will be allowed.
 The distance between major defects should be more than 20 meters .
.
 The defects found and the points given against them are recorded in the grey fabric
inspection sheet
Calculation
 The average number of points (on a 100 meters basis) of all inspected rolls,
 The proportion of rolls above acceptance limit.

Maximum acceptable limit = 22/100 sq. meter basis

Points/ 100 sq. yard = 3600× Total points assigned / Fabric Length in yards × Fabric Width in inches

Points/100 sq. mtrs. = 100.000 × Total points assigned / Fabric Length in mtrs× Fabric Width in mm

Example: A fabric roll 200yds long and 60” wide contains following defects

8 defects up to 3" length 8x1 8 points

5 defects from 3" to 6" length 5X2 10 points
2 defects from 6" to 9" length 2X3 6 points
1 defect over 9" length 1X4 4 points
1 hole over 1" 1X4 4 points

Total defect points 32 Points

Therefore, = (32 X 3600) / (60 X 200)
Points / sq. yards = 9.6 points

.
Lecture 3 8/1/2016

SINGEING OF A COTTON FABRIC

The aim of singeing is to bum-off the protruding fibres and hairs from the fabric surface.

OBJECTIVES
 Singeing improves the end use and wearing properties of textiles.
 The burning-off of protruding fibres results in a clean surface which allows the structure
of the fabric more clear.
 Singeing reduces the fogginess caused by differing reflection of light by the projecting
fibre and the dyed fabrics appear brighter.
 Singeing is an effective means of reducing pilling in blended fabrics containing synthetic
fibres.
 A closely singed fabric is essential for printing fine intricate patterns.
 Singeing process facilitates and speeds up desizing, if the fabric is impregnated with
desizing liquor immediately after singeing.
SINGEING FAULTS :
 Uneven singeing effect can cause streaks when the fabric is dyed, or bubbles when the
fabric is finished.
 In the cotton system singeing is done on the grey cloth, but for blended fabrics containing
synthetic fibres grey state singeing is not advisable because small globules of melted
synthetic fibres absorb dye preferentially, giving cloth a speckled appearance.
 There is a possibility of thermal damage to temperature sensitive fibres, for instance
polyester.
 Stop-offs can cause heat bars on fabrics. Creasing produces streaks which are magnified
when dyed.
 Protruding fibres are firmly bound by singeing on the surface by the sizing agent by
hardening of the size and can lead to difficulties in desizing.
 When singeing is done after dyeing, heat can cause colour loss from polyester portion of
the blend because of sublimation of dye.
 There may be reduction of tear strength due to over singeing of the fabric.

WAYS OF SINGEING

Plate
Contact
Cylinder/Roller
Singeing
Direct
Open flame
Indirect
Contact Singeing Machines

 Plate singeing machine

 Cylinder singeing machine

Drawbacks of plate and roller singeing machines

 Sooty process
 Localized cooling
 Temperature variation
 Both sides are evenly singed
 Versatile process
Open flame singeing machine

 Gas singeing machine

Gas singeing is more convenient, more economical and more effective than other methods
and is well accepted commercially.
In this type of singeing machine, the fabric passes over a burning gas flame at such a speed
that only the protruding fibres burn and the main body of the fabric is not damaged by the
flame. This is the most common type of machine used for singeing fabrics as well yarns.

Main Components Of A Gas Singeing Machine

 Main entry zone

 Pre-brushing zone
 Singeing zone
 Post – brushing zone
 Impregnation zone
 Winding zone
Main entry zone:

Main entry zone includes:

 Tension roller
 Web guiding system
 Guide Rollers
 J.Scray
 Pre-Drying Cylinders (Optional)
PRE-CLEANING ZONE
SINGEING ZONE

INTENSIVE SINGEING SINGEING ONTO WATER COOLED ROLLER TANGENTIAL SINGEING

Important singeing parameters

 Fabric speed
 Singeing position
 Distance between flame burner and fabric
 Flame intensity and width of the flame

Post Cleaning and Impregnation Zone

 Beating roller
 Saturator
 Guide roller

PROBLEMS IN GAS SINGEING MACHINE

 Incomplete singeing
 Uneven singeing
 Horizontal singeing stripes
 Vertical singeing stripes
 Over singeing
 DESIZING

 Rot steeping

In this method grey cotton fabric is steeped in water in suitable box at a

temperature of about 30-40C During the storage micro-organisms develop
excreting enzymes which attack the starch. The swollen and hydrolysed starch is
thus partially converted into soluble state which are then removed from the
fabric by normal washing with water

 Acid desizing

In this method cotton fabric is treated with dilute sulphuric acid with a
concentration of 5-10 g/1 at a temperature of about 40C for 3-4 h. Dilute acid
attacks the polymer chain of starch and due to chain cleavage of starch
molecule short water soluble or dispersible chain segments are formed. With
sulphuric acid higher than 10 g/1 and above 50C there is always the possibility
of weakening the cloth or causing holes

 Enzymatic desizing

Enzymes are organic biocatalysts highlyspecific both in the reaction catalysed and
their choice of reactants (substrate). Physically enzymes are colloidal nature and
chemically they are of the nature of protein. Enzymes are complex and have high
molecular weights

The enzyme process of desizing is very easy to use and is adaptable to any type
of equipment. In actual practice the grey cloth is first passed through hot water to
approximately 100% pick-up and then padded with the desizing mixture containing
0.5-2% malt extract and non-ionic wetting agent at 60-70C Wetting agent helps
the enzyme to penetrate the size film. The optimum conditions required for
different enzyme desizing processes are compared with rot and acid-steeping in
Table 3.1. The length of time for digestion will vary with the concentration of

TABLE 3.1.

Comparison of Process Conditions for Desizing

Process Concentration(g/l) Time(hr) Temperature©

Rot-steeping - - 10-16 h 30-40

H2SO4-steeping 5-10 3-4 h 40

Malt 3-20 4.5-5.5 50-60

Pancreative 1-3 6.8-7.5 50-60

Bacterial 0.5-1 6.5-7.5 60-70

PH
enzyme used, the temperature of the desizing bath, the types of goods being desized
and by the methods depending on the batch or continuous process. Compared to
pancreative enzyme, the malt enzyme has a lower action even with the addition of
more amount of enzyme. The use of greater amount of enzyme than the optimum
will not itself convert the starch. When the goods are padded with desizing mixture,
digestion of the starch is a matter of time and temperature. At lower temperature the
desizing efficiency is also lower. Malt enzyme is more strongly dependent upon
temperature than other enzymes.
The pH of the desizing bath is maintained by adding acid or alkali. In general,
changes in pH, temperature and duration of storing alter both the activity and
stability of enzymes very greatly.

Desizing Recipe and Calculations

Recipe

Chemicals Quantity
Desizer 0.5-1g/l
Wetting agent 1g/l
Sequesterant 1g/l

Time Depend on process (pad batch,

exhaust or fully continuous)
Temperature 60-70C
pH 6.5-7.5

Desizing with oxidising agents

Though the use of oxidants for desizing of cotton fabric is widely accepted but their
large scale industrial application is yet to be exploited. The most important aspects
of oxidizing agents are that they can be applicable to wide range of fabrics, the size
content of which is often not known. Table 2 summarizes the necessary conditions
for desizing starch in presence of some important oxidizing agents.
Oxidising agent Process Process Additives pH Time Temp.
H2O2 PAD H2O2 8-9 1-5 90
STEAM
NaOH

SOD. PAD SODIUM BROMITE 7.5-8.5 15 20-40

BROMITE BATCH
NaOH
WETTING AGENT
PERSULPHATE PAD Na2S2O8 10- 1-3 95-100
STEAM 10.5
NaOH
WETTING AGENT
H2O2 + PAD H2O2 10- 6-20 20-40
PERSULPHATE BATCH 10.5
Na2S2O8
NaOH
WETTING AGENT
STABLIZER

The main limitations of oxidative desizing agents are increased pollution load, fibre
damage and inability to recover and re-use water soluble sizes. Oxidative desizing
agents require precise control on process.

SCOURING
The objective of scouring is to reduce the amount of impurities sufficiently to obtain level and
reproducible results in dyeing and finishing operations. Raw cotton contains 8-12% impurities.

Table 1: composition of a raw Cotton

Cellulose 80-90%

Water 6-8%
Waxes and fats 0.5-1%
Pectin 4-6%
Motes
Proteins 0-1.5%
Mineral matter 1-1.8%

SCOURING AGENTS:

 Alkali
 Surfactants
 Emulsion Scouring
 Organic Solvents

MECHANISM OF REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES

Table 2: Techniques for Removing Natural Impurities of Cotton during Scouring

Impurities Method of removal
Fats and waxes Levels are reduced to acceptable limits by the action of alkali
and surface active products, in extreme cases the use of solvent
and surfactant mixtures may be necessary.
Pectins and related Solubilized by the action of alkali, usually caustic soda, which
substances also acts as a swelling agent to facilitate removal
Minerals and heavy (a) By producing more soluble salts e.g. acid demineralization
metals (b) By use of sequestering agents.
Amino acids or Solubilized by producing corresponding sodium salt.
proteins

Lubricants/Knitting Modem mineral oil formulation usually contain

oils
their own self-emulsification system.
Wax

Pectin

Proteins

SCOURING AND BLEACHING MACHINERIES

 open width
form
batch process
rope form
scouring and
bleaching single stage
machineries for process
cotton fabric rope form
double stage
process
continous
process
single stage
open width
form
double stage
process

COTTON FABRIC ROPE FORM BATCH MACHINERIES

KIER

WINCH
SOFT FLOW MACHINE
OPEN WIDTH BATCH MACHINERIES

JIGGER MACHINE

BEAM DYEING MACHINE

SEMI CONTINOUS PROCESS
PAD BATCH PROCESS

PAD ROLL PROCESS

ROPE FORM CONTINOUS PROCESS (TWO STAGE)

OPEN WIDTH FORM CONTINOUS PROCESS

CONTINUOUS OPEN WIDTH BLEACHING MACHINE
 The main purpose of the continuous bleaching system, whether in the rope form or in
open-width form, is to reduce the time of bleaching and the cost of labour involved.

 Some fabrics such as heavy drill, corded fabrics, satins and other sensitive weaves, are
liable to be damaged if they are bleached in rope form. Creaseless running and low cloth
tension are also important factors for blends with synthetics.
MECHANISM OF MACHINE

 Overall mechanism of this machine is to feed the washed desized fabric in open width
form to the saturator/ padder in order to saturate the fabric with the bleaching liquor and
then dwell the fabric to complete the reaction. Dwelling of the fabric is normally done in
a steamer.
 Fabric is then washed in open width washers and finally dried on can/ cylinder dryer.

desized washing &

washing saturation dwelling
fabric drying

MAIN SECTIONS
 Entry section
 Washers
 Saturator
 Nip rolls
 Dosing pump
 Steamer
 Steam conditioner
 Washers
 Dryer
 Batching
Entry Section Pre- Washing Padding section Steamer Post washing
section 1) Padding trough (dwelling and drying
1) Selvedge 1) Top rollers 2) Nip rollers section)
guiders 2) Bottom rollers 3) Metering pumps
2) J scray 3) Jockey rollers 4) Circulation pump
3) Tension 4) nip rollers 5) Tension control
compensator 5) Evac system devices(load cells)
4) Bow roller 6) Temp. sensors 6) Moisture sensors
5) Star roller before and after
6) Guide rollers padding

load/9l0ha6j39ogh3aq/ATH+-+Hitman+3+Contracts.rar
CONTINUOUS OPEN WIDTH BLEACHING MACHINE
 The main purpose of the continuous bleaching system, whether in the rope form or in
open-width form, is to reduce the time of bleaching and the cost of labourinvolved.

 Some fabrics such as heavy drill, corded fabrics, satins and other sensitive weaves, are
liable to be damaged if they are bleached in rope form. Creaseless running and low cloth
tension are also important factors for blends with synthetics.
MECHANISM OF MACHINE

 Overall mechanism of this machine is to feed the washed desized fabric in open width
form to the saturator/ padderin order tosaturate the fabric with the bleaching liquor and
then dwell the fabric to complete the reaction. Dwelling of the fabric is normally done in
a steamer.
 Fabric is then washed in open width washers and finally dried on can/ cylinder dryer.

desized washing &

washing saturation dwelling
fabric drying

MAIN SECTIONS
 Entry section
 Washers
 Saturator
 Nip rolls
 Dosing pump
 Steamer
 Steam conditioner
 Washers
 Dryer
 Batching
Entry Section Pre- Washing Padding section Steamer Post washing
section 1) Padding trough (dwelling and drying
1) Selvedge 1) Top rollers 2) Nip rollers section)
guiders 2) Bottom rollers 3) Metering pumps
2) J scray 3) Jockey rollers 4) Circulation pump
3) Tension 4) nip rollers 5) Tension control
compensator 5) Evac system devices(load cells)
4) Bow roller 6) Temp. sensors 6) Moisture sensors
5) Star roller before and after
6) Guide rollers padding

Entry Section
 Selvedge guiders
 J scray
 Tension compensator
 Bow roller
 Star roller
Selvedge Guider
 Function of a selvedge guider is to keep the web straight.
 This is achieved by running each edge through a pair of light nip rollers. Cloth Guiders
always comes left & Right and it should mounted on Adjusting frame
 It has detecting element (photoelectric device, ultrasonic sensors etc)
 When the detecting element show fabric movement in the inward direction then nip
operates in such a way as to pull the cloth outward
 Either the nip or inclination may be permanent
 Rollers may be rotated by the movement of the fabric or positively driven

Bow Roller and Scroll Rollers

 Bow Rolls are known as Banana Rolls, Spreader Rolls, Curve rubber expander, useful for
removing of wrinkles, slack edges, spreading and slit separation.
 Most of the Expander Rolls are driven by web tension itself without any extra drive.
 Scroll rolls are wrinkle removing rolls from web materials. They are available in different
materials (ss, rubber,
Tension compensator
 The tension applied to a web can be described as the webs tautness.
 The tension on the web would be equal to the weight in pounds. PLI would be equal to
the weight in pounds divided by the web width in inches.
 It is impossible to control web without proper tension being applied to it. The web must
be “in traction” with all machine idler rolls and driven rolls to ensure proper web
handling and control.
 When tension is too high webs will stretch in the machine direction and compress in the
cross machine direction. This narrowing of the web width can cause wrinkles to occur.
 When tension is too low webs will shrink in the machine direction and web width will
widen in the cross machine direction. This widening of the web width can cause wrinkles
to occur.
 Tension control is important in three directions: unwind, process zone, rewind zone
 Torque required to provide a certain level of tension to a web is total tension measured
across the web times roll radius
torque = tension x radius is linear,

so torque must bedecreased (for unwinds) and increased (for rewinds) at a linear rate relative
to roll radius.
 Roll diameters are constantly changing, so torque and speed must be constantly adjusted
relative to changing roll diameters. Tension and speed in the internal zones is much more
stable since roll diameters in these zones does not change.
 Tension can be measured either by using:.
o load cell tension control
o dancer rolls,
 dancing roll incorporates idler rolls that are “loaded” in one direction, while the web
tends to move them in the opposite direction. A sensor detects the position of the dancer
and tells the drive to increase or decrease in speed or torque to add or remove material
from the dancer.
 As long as the dancer roll remains between it sphysical limits (completely empty or
completely full) tension is constant on the web.There are many methods of loading
dancer roll tension controls. Older units may be loaded with weights. Newerdancer roll
tension controls may use air cylinders for loading with pressure regulatorvalves.
Open Width Continuous Washing Machine
 Crease free form
 Quick interchange of liquor in the fabric augmented by the fabric’s rapid movement
through relatively stationary liquor and the mechanical action it experiences during its
passage from the roll
 Consist of top and bottom rolls. Bottom one immersed in water
 Top rollers are driven, bottom ones are free wheel
 diameter of roll is around 12-13cm while the distance between top and bottom roll kept
minimum
 Single or double threading is possible
 Counter current flow system in the washing box
 Each successive immersion of fabric is in cleaner water
 Removal of soluble impurities in the fabric increases with increase in temp. mostly 95C is
preferred.
 Carry over can be reduced with pressing rolls
 Horizontal and vertical setups are available
 Evac is installed to improve efficiency
PADDER OR PAD MANGLE

 Mangles are machines which consist of two or more rollers, or bowls’ which run in
contact to form a nip(s), the purpose of which is to remove treatment liquor from
the textile passing through them by squeezing
 The term mangle traditionally implies ‘water mangle’
 Mangles which are used for the application of preparation chemicals, dyes, finishes
and chemicals for dye and print development are often called pad mangles or
padders.
 Padding operation consist of two parts: immersion of the fabric in the dye liquor to
achieve maximum impregnation and second by passing the fabric between two
rollers to squeeze out air from the fabric and forces dye liquor in and to squeeze
surplus liquor back along the fabric to take its position and squeezing
 It consist of padding trough, guide rollers, nip rollers

Padding trough is a vessel that contains the treatment liquor.

 In rear cases the liquor may be held in the nip of horizontal mangles by fitting side
plates to the bowls
 If the vessel holds only a small volume of treatment liquor (20-500 lit ) the machine
is a pad mangle, whereas if the vessel holds a much larger volume of treatment
liquor liquor (> 500 1) the machine is a saturator.
 saturators have long dwell time and multiple nips and dips which gives high pick-
up and exchange, whereas all other options have short dwell times, little exchange
and low pick-up and it is where the volumes are low that are favourable to add-on
application.
  It is situated below and at the front of the squeeze rollers
 Pad mangle can be of different shapes normally v or u shape is common. The U-
trough provides an excellent compromise between low volume and increased dwell
time.
 It has free running roller at the bottom round which fabric passes
 The liquor is supplied to the trough from a spray pipe which runs the full width of
the mangle and which is connected to the liquor supply tank by a single pipe at its
mid-point
 All modern troughs have a displacement element which reduces the amount of
liquor in the trough, to minimise waste, to 'turn over' the liquor quickly and to
minimise ending. This liquor turn over time should be less than 3 min.

turnover time = V * 100,000 / S * %PU * Y

Trough is supplied with level switch Some vessels, particularly for preparation
saturators, are fitted with circulation pumps
Saturators for scouring or bleaching apply the treatment liquor to washed fabric and so
are fitted with side-tanks to enable concentrated chemicals to be added to compensate for
the water brought in by the fabric. The side-tank is fitted with a water feed, controlled by
a level switch, to maintain the treatment liquor at constant volume/concentration.

Nip rollers

 Padder roll has a steel mandrel and a shell.

 Shell is covered with hard rubber, topped by 15mm of soft rubber.
 Lower roller is fixed while upper can be adjusted according to the pressure.
 Kuster padders are usually use.
  Fixed roller has a hardness of 80 degree shore.
 Pressurized roller has hardness of 98 degree shore.
 To effectively squeeze the excess solution, mandrel of the top roller is pneumatically
pressed at the ends. A pair of cylinders (described as linear actuators) can beused to
generate pressure (P) at the nip
 The high pressure ( 4 bar) causes a deflection in the rollers.
 The pressure at the ends and the consequent squeezing is more at the ends than at
the center.
 In padder it is minimized by providing a camber to the surface thus increasing the
rollers diameters in the center.
 The surface profile nullifies the deflection produced by applying pressure at the
ends of the mandrels.
 With the continuous use the camber is reduced and so the rollers need frequent
grinding to produce the desired cambers.
 Now kuster padders (swimming rolls) are used.

If the fabric weighing 200g / m is padded with 50g / l of caustic at a speed of 100m/min and the final pick up is
110%. Determine the exchange factor if the desired flow rate is 4lit / min. Amount of the caustic on the fabric
after getting padded with caustic is found to be 3.5% owf. Assume sp gravity of caustic as 1.52

Ans: E1 = 79.6, EFFECTIVE PICK UP = 70, F = 0.49

Steamer:
 TEXTILE COLORATION
Classification of Colorants

colorants

dyes pigments

anionic

cationic

non ionic

Dye Selection
(1)The types of fibres present; (dyes are fibre specific)
(2)The form of the textile material and the degree of levelness required level dyeing is
less critical for loose fibres, which are subsequently blended, than it is for fabric;
(3)The fastness properties required for any subsequent manufacturing processes and for
the particular end-use;
(4)The dyeing method to be used, the overall cost, and the machinery available;
(5)The actual colour requested by the customer

Composition Of Commercial Dyes

 Powder
 Granular
 Aqueous paste

Commercial dye powders also contain various other chemicals besides the principal dyestuff.
These include diluents such as salts or starch, wetting agents, dispersants, impurities from
manufacture such as residual intermediate chemicals, anti-dusting agents (oils), buffers (sodium
carbonate or phosphates), and shading dyes.
Naming dyes

1) Commercial name
• given by the manufacturer. It conveys some information
e.g., Dispersol Fast Red RN150
red disperse dye, good fastness properties, 150% strength

2) Colour Index name

• The Colour Index is a reference source of technical information on commercial dyes and
pigments
• produced by the Society of Dyers and Colourists, Bradford. All dyes are given a name of
the form
• CI (Application Type) (Colour) (Number)
e.g., CI Reactive Red 43

Dyeing Methods
(1) Direct dyeing, in which the dye in the aqueous solution in contact with the material is
gradually absorbed into the fibres because of its inherent substantivity;
(2) Dyeing with a soluble precursor of the dye, which forms an insoluble pigment deep within
the fibres on treatment after dyeing;
(3) direct dyeing followed by chemical reaction of the dye with appropriate groups in the fibre;
(4) Adhesion of the dye or pigment to the surface of the fibres using an appropriate binder.

Pre-treated Fabric Requirement for Dyeing

Degree of size 6 onward Tegawa scale rating

Absorbency 1-4sec drop test AATCC
Whiteness 70-75 CIE Whiteness
Damage
pH Neutral
Water for a dye house
Component Permissible conc. mg/l
Hardness 0-25
Iron 0.02-0.1
Manganese 0.02
Silica 0.5-3.0
Alkalinity to PH 4 35-65 CaCO3
Dissolved solids 65-150

TERMS USED IN DIRECT EXHAUST DYEING

Dyeing is either a batch exhaustion process, or a continuous impregnation and fixation

process. Careful control of the dyeing temperature, pH and auxiliary chemical concentrations is
often necessary to obtain level, well-penetrated dyeings in exhaust process.

Amounts of dye and colour yield

 The amounts of dyes used to produce the colour desired are usually expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the dry material, and abbreviated as % owf, or % dye on the
weight of fibre. Thus, 1.00 kg of dye used to colour 100 kg of cloth corresponds to a
1.00% dyeing.

 The colour yield is the depth of colour of a dyeing per unit amount of dye in the material.
Quantitative assessment is possible from measurement of the reflection spectrum of a
sample of the dyeing and the percentage of the dye

Exhaustion
 For a single dye, the exhaustion is defined as the mass of dye taken up by the
material divided by the total initial mass of dye in the bath, but for a bath of
constant volume:

% E = ((CO – CS) / CO) *100

where C0 and Cs are the concentrations of dye in the dyebath initially and at some time
during the process, respectively.
Rate Of Dyeing

 The slope of a dyeing exhaustion curve (Figure 1) defines the rate of dyeing at any
instant during the process.
 The degree of exhaustion of a dye at equilibrium is higher the greater the
substantivity of the dye for the fibre being dyed.
 Substantivity is the ‘attraction’ between dye and fibre whereby the dye is
selectively absorbed by the fibre and the bath becomes less concentrated.
 The initial rate of dyeing (the initial slope of exhaustion versus time) is called the
strike. Rapid strike by a dye often results in initial unlevelness and must be
avoided for those dyes that cannot subsequently migrate from heavily to lightly
dyed areas of the fabric.
 The strike depends on the dyeing temperature, the dyeing pH, and the addition of
chemicals.

Effect of temperature on exhaustion and dyeing rate

The rate of dyeing increases with an increase in temperature but the final exhaustion may
increase or decrease depending upon the particular dyeing system.
Dyeing is usually an exothermic process (heat releasing); the interaction between the dye and
fibre molecules is stronger than between the dye and water molecules in solution.

MIGRATION
 Migration is the process by which are dye move around the fiber or level itself. Transfer
of dyestuff from heavily dye to light dye portion of the same material during dyeing is
known as migration.
 It can overcome any initial unlevelness resulting from a rapid strike. Migration of the dye
demonstrates that the dye can be desorbed from more heavily dyed fibres and re-absorbed
on more lightly dyed ones.
 Good migration dyes have lower wash fastness and low exhaustion values
Aggregation of dyes
 Dye-dye self-association in solution is called dye aggregation. Dyes generally remain or
tend to remain scattered in powder form but in aqueous solutions individual dye
molecules stack one on top of other e.g. aggregate

 In general, the term aggregation is used for dye-dye interaction and dye association for
interaction of dyes with other compounds e.g. polymers.

 Generally dye molecules form aggregation in aqueous solution at room temperature and
to an extent which depend on
i. Size of dye molecules

ii. No of solubilizing groups in the dye molecules

 Dye aggregation prevents the dye molecules from diffusion into the fiber pores and hence
causes dye wastage as dyes are absorbed in monomeric form which decreases with dye
aggregation.

Prevention of aggregation

 By raising the temperature of dyebath

 Liberation and existence of monomers by circulations or stirring and keep concentration
below 10-5 mole/L of dye
Adsorption Isotherms

 An adsorption isotherm gives the concentration of a substance adsorbed on a solid

surface in relation to its concentration in the surrounding fluid when the system is at
equilibrium at a constant temperature.

 The graph representing a dyeing adsorption isotherm has the adsorbed dye concentration
(Cf in g kg–1 or mol kg–1) plotted against the solution concentration (Cs in g l–1 or mol
l–1).

 Adsorption isotherms are useful for the information they provide on the dyeing
 mechanism. There are three main types of dyeing adsorption isotherm, usually referred to
as the Nernst, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms.

The Nernst isotherm is the simplest and is given by the equation

Cf  kCs where k a constant.

The dyeing of many synthetic fibres with disperse dyes follows this type of
Isotherm
Time of half dyeing

Diffusion Of Dyes
 When the dye molecule get associated to the fabric surface, the next stage is the diffusion
of the dye from the surface and into the fibre to give more uniform distribution of the dye
within the fibre.
 Difference in concentration of a dye at two different areas is termed as concentration
gradient.
 Ficks law will apply for this stage.

Fick’s equations describe the diffusion of a dye within a fibre. Fick’s second law states that the
rate at which the dye diffuses across a unit area in the fibre (dQ/dt in mol m–2 s–1) is
proportional to the concentration gradient across that area (dC/dx in mol m–3 m–1), the
proportionality constant being the diffusion coefficient D (m2 s–1).

Dq/Dt = - d DC/Dx

The negative sign gives a positive value of the diffusion coefficient because the concentration
gradient is negative; the concentration decreases along the x axis, in the direction of diffusion.
Reasons of dye aggregation in dyebath
1. Dyes are consists of
i. Hydrophobic aromatic portion
ii. Polar groups (OH, amino etc.) for water solubility and charged groups (sulfonic or
positive charged groups) for rendering molecule water soluble
When dye molecules dissolved in water a new interface is created between the hydrophobic
portion and water. Dye can reduce the size of the interfacial water by overlapping of the
hydrophobic areas and there will be a tendency to aggregate.
2. Usually linear and planar dye molecules should tend to stack one molecule upo n another
with the ionized groups arranged so as to give minimum free energy condition causes
aggregation.
3. Dyes with long aliphatic chains form micelles of a spherical form in which the flexible
chains associate in the interior with the sulfonic acid groups exposed on the surface of
sphere.
4. Aggregation of dimer is more obvious as aromatic ring system have maximum overlap (van
der waals forces) because the distance between the anionic charges is larger (minimum
electrostatic repulsion).
As dye concentration increases there will be an increased tendency for trimers, tetramers etc. to
be formed.

5. Aggregation is also expected from the unusual structure of water. When the interface is
formed on dissolution of the dye molecule, the water molecules adjacent to the hydrophobic
portion form an ‘iceberg’ type structure accompanied by a reduction in entropy. When the
dye molecules aggregate not only will energy be gained from the reduction on the interfacial
energy but also an increase in energy will rise from the melting of the iceberg structure.
Higher ionic strength, ionic dye aggregation becomes more dominant.

Prevention of aggregation
1. By raising the temperature of dyebath
2. Liberation and existence of monomers by circulations or stirring and keep concentration
below 10-5 mole/L of dye.
 Reactive dyes

 Fibre Reactive dyes are the coloured organic compounds capable of forming covalent
bonds between a reactive group of a dye and a nucleophilic group of a fabric.
 This reaction is only possible under alkaline conditions.

1.1) Fibre nucleophile could be:

 OH Of Cellulose
 OH And Cystine Linkages Of Wool
 Amino Group Of Polyamide Fibres

1.2) Special features of reactive dyes

 good washing fastness,
 their bright shades and
 their versatile batch and continuous dyeing methods.

1.3) General Structure of a reactive dye

Solublising
chromophore Bridging Reactive
group Leaving group
group group

 Solubilizing group = sulphonic acid group

 Chromophore = azo, anthraquinone, metal azo complex, pthalocyanine etc
 Bridging group = - NH2
 Reactive group = triazine, pyrimidine, vinyl sulphone etc
 Fibre = cellulose, wool, polyamide
 Leaving group: Cl, Br, F, SO2CH2 etc

Table 1: Contribution of different components of a reactive dye structure

Chromophore Reactive group Bridging group
 Shade  Fastness of a dye  Links reactive group
 Substantivity  Fixation with the dye
 Migration of  Application  Should be stable
dye/levelness temperature
Examples

1.4) Reactive groups

 Reactive group is a part of a reactive dye which covalently link the dye with the fibre.

 Reactive groups are of two main types:

(1) those reacting with cellulose by nucleophilic substitution of a labile chlorine, fluorine,
methyl sulphone or nicotinyl leaving group activated by an adjacent nitrogen atom in a
heterocyclic ring

(2) those reacting with cellulose by nucleophilic addition to a carbon–carbon double

bond, usually activated by an adjacent electron-attracting sulphone group. This type of
vinyl sulphone group is usually generated in the dyebath by elimination of sulphate ion
from a 2-sulphatoethylsulphone precursor group with alkali
Figure 1: Schematic representation of a nucleophilic substitution

Figure 2: Reaction of a triazine ring based dye with fibre (substitution mechanism)

Figure 3: reaction of a vinyl sulphone based dye with fibre (addition mechanism)
 *Fixed dye: dye which covalently linked to the fibre.

*Hydrolyzed dye: Dye which reacts with water. It is unfixed dye and not desirable. It
can be calculated by determining the amount of the dye present in the dyebath. This can
be calculated by computing the transmittance of the residual dye solution.

Table 2: Reactive groups of some available commercial dyes

Clariant
(Ar Chroma dyes)
DRIMARENE CL MCT/VS
DRIMARENE HX TFP/VS, TFP
DRIMARENE R/K FCP
DRIMARENE X TCP
DRIMARENE P MCT
DRIMARENE S VS
HUNTSMAN
NOVACRON C MCT/VS
NOVACRON F MFT
NOVACRON P MCT
NOVACRON W VS
NOVACRON S VS/VS/VS

1.4.1) Reactivity of different reactive groups

 Reactivity is a special feature of a reactive dye. It is the ability of a dye to link the
fibre covalently OR to form hydrolyzed dye
 Reactivity of a dye is important as it determines the application temperature for
dyeing
 Reactive dyes are classified in three classes based upon reactivity
 High
 Medium
 Low
 Relationship b/w Reactivity and Application Temperature

reactivity

application temperature
for dyeing

REACTIVITY OF TYPICAL REACTIVE GROUPS

VINYL DCT BASED

MFT BASED REACTIVE DYES
SULPHONE (VS) REACTIVE DYES
BASED
MCT BASED REACTIVE DYES
REACTIVE
DYES
DCP BASED
REACTIVE
DYES

 High reactive dyes are known as cold dyeing dyes. These dyes are applied at room
temperature
 Low reactive dyes are known as hot reactive dyes. these dyes are applied at higher
temperature

1.5) Poly functional reactive dyes

 Reactive dyes can have one or more than one reactive group. Similarly, it can have
one or more than one chromophore.
 Dyes with one reactive group is known as monofunctional dyes
 Dyes with two reactive groups are known as bi functional dyes and so on.
 Fixation of reactive dyes can be improved by using poly functional dyes.
 Minimum amount of hydrolyzed dye
TYPICAL REACTIVE GROUPS IN COMMERCIAL DYES
1.6) VARIABLE IN REACTIVE DYEING
 Dye variables
 Process variables

CHROMOPHORE

SUBSTANTIVITY
DYE
VARIABLES REACTIVITY

DIFFUSION CO-EFFECIENT
VARIABLES IN
REACTIVE DYEING
TEMPERATURE

pH
PROCESS
VARIABLES
SALT

L:R

1.6.1 ) Dye variables

Substantivity is more dependent on the chromophore as compared to the reactive system.
Higher dye substantivity may result in:

 a lower dye solubility

 a higher primary exhaustion
 a higher reaction rate for a given reactivity
 less diffusion, migration and levelness
 a higher risk of unlevel dyeing,
 more difficult removal of unfixed dye

An increase in the dye substantivity may be affected by:

 higher concentration of electrolyte,
 lower temperature,
 higher pH (up to 11)
 lower liquor to goods ratio
 Dye Reactivity

 A high dye reactivity entails a lower dyeing time and a lower efficiency of fixation.

 Reactivity of a dye can be modified by altering the pH or temperature, or both

DIFFUSION CO-EFFECIENT
Dyes with higher diffusion-coefficients usually result in better leveling and more rapid dyeing
An increase in the diffusion is affected by:
 increasing temperature,
 decreasing electrolyte concentration,
 adding urea in the bath
 using dyes of low substantivity

PROCESS PARAMETERS
Effect Of Temperature On Dyeing
A higher temperature in dyeing with reactive dyes results in:
– a higher rate of dyeing
– lower colour yield
– better dye penetration
– rapid diffusion
– better leveling
– a higher risk of dye hydrolysis
– lower substantivity

Effect of pH on dyeing
pH influences primarily the concentration of the cellusate sites on the fibre.
•Raising the pH value by 1 unit corresponds to a temperature rise of 20 °C.
•The dyeing rate is best improved by raising the dyeing temperature once a pH of 11
–12 is reached.
•Further increase in pH will reduce the reaction rate as well as the efficiency of fixation
Different types of alkalis, such as caustic soda, soda ash, sodium silicate or a combination
of these alkalis, are used in order to attain the required dyeing pH.
•The choice of alkali usually depends upon thedye used, the dyeing method as well as
othereconomic and technical factors

Effect Of Salt Addition

The addition of electrolyte results in:
–increase in the rate and extent of exhaustion,
–increase in dye aggregation
–decrease in diffusion.
•The electrolyte efficiency increases in the order: KCl < Na2SO4 < NaCl

Approaches for Uniform Rise in Rate of Fixation

Controlling the temperature of the dyeing process suitably (possible for hot dyeing dyes only);
•Adding alkali in stages (it is virtually impossible, however, to prevent a sharp rise in fixation
rate whenever alkali is added);
•Starting with a weaker alkali such as soda ash, and following this with a stronger alkali, but
only after a higher degree of fixation has been achieved;
•Progressive metering of alkali

Processes for reactive dyeing:

 Batch process
 Semi continuous.
 Continuous
Batch process
SERF Profile
Semi continuous Process
CPB PROCESS (COLD- PAD- BATCH PROCESS)
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
THE ECONTROL PROCESS

The ECONTROL process was developed jointly by Monforts and Zeneca. In contrast to
thePDPS process , ECONTROL is characterized by the fact that no ancillary substances such as
urea, water glass, soda, sodium hydroxide solution or salt are required.
In this process, the reactivity of the dyestuffs is exploited together with the drying behaviour of
the fabric in such a way that optimum colour yields can be achieved without the use of large
and aggressive volumes of alkalis.
ECONTROL is a combination of a continuous batch process and a drying process. Apart from
the dyestuffs, only 10g/l of sodium bicarbonate is used as an ancillary substance.
The urea, water glass, soda, sodium hydroxide solution or salt used in other dyeing processes
are replaced in the ECONTROL process by a controlled steam content during drying.
Only reactive dyestuffs with high reactivity can be used for the ECONTROL process.
Dichlorotriazine (Procion MX) dyestuffs were employed in the development of this process and
are used in practice. These are commercially available and also used in other dyeing processes.

Dyestuff fixation
In the ECONTROL process, the dye liquor is padded onto the textile web. In addition to the
dyestuffs, the liquor also contains 1-2g/l of wetting agent and 10g/l of sodium bicarbonate.
After a short air passage, the wetted and uniformly squeezed fabric web is. Transported directly
to the dryer (hot flue) where the fabric remains in the chamber continuously for 2 minutes at
approx. 25 vol.% steam content. These conditions are quite sufficient to fix the dyestuff.

In general, reactive dyestuffs require alkali and long dwell times for fixation, e.g. in the cold
pad-batch process; akali, urea and high temperature in the pad-dry thermofixing process; or,
salt, steam and temperature in the pad-steam process. However, since highly reactive dyestuffs
are used in the ECONTROL process, even a weak alkali (sodium bicarbonate), a short dwell
time (2 minutes) and a low fabric temperature (6ST = cooling limit temperature) are sufficient
for dyestuff fxation. The dwelling chamber is a hot flue in which the fabric dwells under
controlled conditions
Advantages of ECONTROL

Advantages for the fabric include:

 Softer hand.
 Less dyestuff migration.
 Pile articles are not pressed.
 Better through dyeing with dense articles.
 No ‘bar marts’ on terry goods
 Dead cotton is covered better
 No frosting effect’ on viscose
 Advantages for the fabric

Advantages in chemicals consumption:.

 No urea, no salt, no water glass, no sodium hydroxide solution and no anti-reduction
chemicals.
 Stability of the liquor (approx. 8 hours).

Machine advantages:
 No Infra-red (IR) pre-dryer, no steamer, and no two-component metering Pump.
 range can be used as a normal dryer.
 No dwell station (pad-batch) is necessary.
 ideal for short batches and large batches.
 Minimum energy consumption through exhaust air monitoring.

Advantages for the process:

 The process and the recipe are simple.
 No batching, no steaming process.
 One-bath process with PES/viscose is possible.
 One-bath process with PES/cotton with excellent surface image.
 fastness as with the hot air fixing process.
DISPERSE DYEING
 These non-ionic dyes are relatively insoluble in water at room temperature and have only
limited solubility at higher temperatures. They do, however, possess substantivity for
hydrophobic fibres such as nylon and polyester, in which they are quite soluble.

 As their name implies, these dyes are present in the dyebath as a fine aqueous suspension
in the presence of a dispersing agent. The water dissolves a small amount of the dye in
monomolecular form. The hydrophobic fibres then absorb the dye from the solution.

 Dyeing isotherms, graphs of Cf (concentration of dye in the fibre) as a function of Cs

(concentration of dye in solution) at a given constant temperature, are of the linear Nernst
type
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTIONS OF DISPERSE DYES
 The majority of disperse dyes are low molecular weight, non-ionic mono-azo and
anthraquinone derivatives.
 Polar substituents are usually present in the dye molecule so that the dye has the slight
solubility in water required for dyeing.
 Hydroxyethylamino groups (NHCH2CH2OH) are typical of such substituents.
 Dipole forces and hydrogen bonds, as well as dispersion forces, also bind the dye
molecules to polar groups in the fibres.

DYEING OF POLYESTER WITH DISPERSE DYES

 Not possible at temp. lower than 80C

 Rate of dyeing is slower than nylon and acetate fibres
 Lowest colour yield at boil
 Rate of dyeing is higher with dyes of very low molecular size
 Satisfactory wash, light, crocking fastness on polyester
 Dyeing Processes

 Carrier dyeing
 High temp. dyeing
 Thermosole dyeing
Carrier dyeing:
 Most suitable with simple azo dyes of relatively low molecular size
 Carrier is an organic compound which is soluble or emulsified in the dye bath. Common
dyeing carriers include
o Di phenyl
o O. phenyl phenol
o Di chloro benzene

 The overall effect seems to be a lowering of the polymer glass transition temperature
(Tg), thus promoting polymer chain movements and creating free volume. This speeds up
the diffusion of the dye into the fibres Alternatively, the carrier may form a liquid film
around the surface of the fibre in which the dye is very soluble, thus increasing the rate of
transfer into the fibre.
 A typical carrier dyeing procedure involves running the goods in the bath 60C and adding
dilute dispersing agent, emulsified carrier and lastly the dispersed dyes. The temperature
is then gradually raised to the boil and dyeing continued at this temperature.

 Any carrier remaining in the fibres:

o Decreases the light fastness of the dyeing.
o Residual amounts of carrier vaporise during subsequent drying of the scoured
fabric.
o Some carriers are quite volatile, have unpleasant odours and are toxic.
o Polyester dyeing carriers pose a serious environmental threat if present in the
effluent or exhausted air

 The role of the dispersing agent is to coat the surface of each dye particle with a
monomolecular layer of adsorbed dispersant. Since these chemicals are invariably
anionic polymers, the more hydrophobic sections of the polymer chain adsorb onto the
hydrophobic dye particle surface with the anionic groups of the polymer exposed to the
surrounding water. The overall negative charge on the surface of each particle prevents
their coalescence and aggregation

 Many commercial dispersants for dyeing are mixtures of non-ionic and anionic
compounds.

 No electrolyte is added to the dyebath since it will not influence the dyebath exhaustion.
Disperse dyes are non-ionic and the negative water–fibre boundary charge does not
influence adsorption. Salt addition often affects the layer of anionic dispersant on the
surface of the dye particles, resulting in undesirable particle aggregation.

 Some dyes react with traces of metal ions such as iron or copper and give shade changes.
HIGH TEMPERATURE PRESSURE DYEING OF POLYESTER

 The activation energy for diffusion is quite high and raising the dyeing temperature from
100 to 130 °C considerably increases the rate of dye diffusion. Dyeing at this higher
temperature under pressure, without a carrier, considerably increases the rate of dyeing

 Dyeing is then also possible using higher molecular weight dyes, whose rates of diffusion
at 100 °C are unacceptable.

 Usually jet dyeing machine is used for this process

 The concentrated dye dispersion is added to the bath at 50–60 °C. The bath may already
contain a small amount of dispersant (0.5 g l–1) The temperature of the bath is then
slowly raised to 130 °C. A typical heating rate is about at 1.5 °C min–1. Dyeing
continues at the maximum temperature for about 60 min.

 During dyeing, particularly of deep shades, there will invariably be some dye particles
that adhere to the fibre surfaces, or are retained by yarns without penetration into the
fibre. These mechanically held particles result in decreased
 fastness to washing, rubbing, sublimation and dry cleaning. Their presence also tends to
dull the shade.

 Deep dyeings with disperse dyes on PET fibres will invariably require treatment by
reduction clearing to give satisfactory crocking fastness. This process involves treatment
with alkaline hydros (2 g l–1 NaOH, 2 g l–1 Na2S2O4.2H2O) and a surfactant ( 1 g l–1)
for 20 min at 70 °C. The reduction clearing temperature is well below the glass transition
temperature of the polyester. The ionic compounds do not therefore penetrate into the
fibres and only reduce the dye on the fibre surface.
Thermosol process

The dye undergoes a process of dissolution into the fibres due to the thermal
effect from which the name"Thermosol process" comes.

Stages of a thermosoling process

1. Pretreated white fabric

2. Padding with disperse dye and auxiliaries
3. IR pre drying
4. Hot flue pre drying
5. Thermosoling
6. Reduction cleaning/wash off
7. drying
 DRYING 100-110C THERMOSOLING 200-210C
IR PREDRYING 30-35%
MOISTURE

 The Thermosol process is a continuous dyeing process introduced by Du Pont in

1949
 There should be no alkaline traces in the bath. Acetic acid has to be added to maintain
acidic PH
General Properties of Microfibers :
 Ultra-fine linear density (less than 0.1 dtex/f), finer than the most delicate silk.
 Extremely drapeable.
 Very soft, luxurious hand with a silken or suede touch.
 Washable and dry-cleanable.
 Shrink resistance.
 High strength.
 Insulates well against wind, rain and cold.
  Anti-microbial agents help to protect both family members and work staff from the
dangers of the bacteria that cause odour and mildew.
 Microfibre is hypoallergenic, and so does not create problems for those suffering from
allergies.
 Microfibre is non-electrostatic.
 Microfibres are super-absorbent, absorbing over 7 times their weight in water.
 Microfibre dries in one-third of the time of ordinary fibres.
 Microfibres refer to staple fibres, or individual filaments within yarns, which have
fineness less than 1 decitex ( 1 grams per 10,000 meters) and For any fiber to be
classified as microfibre yarn, the weight per 10,000 metres of yarn (dtex) is divided by
the number of filaments (f), the result must be below 1.

Benefits of Microfibers :
 Comfortable - very soft, texture like silk, lightweight
 Due to its fineness and superior fiber surface area making deep, rich and bright colors
achievable.
 Less "sweaty" in warm weather than usual synthetics
 Quickly cleanable - clean just with water
 Highly intense and shrink-resistant
 Presents insulation and breathability
 Change without help - to establish lovely drape
 Very fine - finer than the most precise silk
 More reusable for cleaning alternative - compared to other mops more efficient and long
life .
Dyeing of Polyester Microfibers :
 Due to their fineness, the total surface area of microfibre yarn or fabric is far greater than
ordinary fibres. Therefore,
 Due to its special structure ,micro fibers has much larger quantity of size ,oil agents and
wax on warp yarns.
 Since microfibres have very small interstitces, with consequent difficulties of size
accessibility and duffusibility, desizing becomes quite difficult and costly.
 Microfibres have greater absorption area resulting in a dyeing rate four times higher than
that of normal, which can cause unlevelness in dyeing.
 They also require more dyestuff than standard fibres to obtain the same depth of shade.
 Larger external surface means an increase in number of threads exposed to light which,
on destruction of dye, is expressed as lower light fastness rating.
 Wash fastness and color fastness to rubbing is also poor.
 Staple microfibres offer difficulty in carding.
Heat setting

Heat setting is a heat treatment applied to the fabrics made up of thermoplastic fibres to impart dimensional
stability

Mechanism of heat setting

Important points
 When fabrics of PET are heated in water at the boil there is often considerable shrinkage as the tensions
in the filaments relax. The shrinkage may be even greater at higher temperatures
 Heat setting changes the morphology of the polyester fibres. The effects on the dyeing rate and the
extent of dyeing are variable depending upon the particular dye, the setting temperature and heating
time, and the tension imposed.
 Fibres of the most common polyester, polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PES), are quite crystalline and
very hydrophobic. Hot water does not swell them
POLYESTER COTTON DYEING
flow chart for polyester cotton blend dyeing

Reduction Washing
desizing
clearing and drying

Polyester
Scouring singeing
dyeing

Cotton
Drying caustisizing
dyeing

Heat Washing
Bleaching
setting and drying
Possible Dyeing Combination
For Polyester Portion For Cotton Portion
Disperse Direct
Disperse Reactive
Disperse Vat
Disperse Sulphur

Possible Dyeing Processes

TWO BATH PROCESS

BATCH ONE BATH PROCESS

PROCESS (TWO STEP)

ONE BATH PROCESS

PC DYEING (ONE STEP)

PAD THERMOSOLPAD STEAM

PROCESS
CONTINUOUS
PROCESS
PAD THERMOSOL PAD BATCH
PROCESS

BATCH PROCESS
Two bath dyeing
  Two separate baths for individual fibre dyeing
 Complete dyeing of the polyester fibre first using the recipe given
 Disperse dye x% owf
 Dispersing agent 0.1-0.2% owf
 Acetic acid 3-5ml/l (to adjust PH at 4.5-5.5)
 Reduction clearing of the blend using hydro and caustic at 70C for 10min
 Complete dyeing of the cotton fibre using the recipe given
 Reactive dye
 Alkali (sod. Carbonate)
 Salt
 Washing and drying

Dyeing profile of reactive dyes on cotton

Dyeing profile of disperse dyes on polyester

Advantages And Disadvantages

 All types of reactive and disperse dyes are applicable
 Long process. The overall process can take as long as 10–12 h.
 Excellent depth of shade
 No staining on cotton portion
 Provision of reduction clearing
One bath dyeing two step process
 Both of the dyes will be introduced in the same bath.
 Only dispersing agent and acetic acid has to be added in the initial stage. Bath PH is maintained
at 6.5
 Dye polyester fibre first by raising the temp .of the bath to 130C
 Reduce the temp. to 60-70C and add salt and alkali
 Dye cotton portion and finally rise and wash

Dyeing profile of PC dyeing using one bath two step process

Recipe
 Disperse dye
 Reactive dye
 Dispersing agent
 Salt
 Alkali (sodium bi carbonate/sodium carbonate)

Advantages and disadvantages

 Short process as compared to two bath process. This process only takes 7–8 h.
 Those disperse dyes which can be removed by alkali from cotton portion has to be used
 Range of reactive dyes can be applied. Reactive dyes must be stable at 130C at neutral dyebath
conditions
 Good light shade and medium shade dyeing.
 Difficult to achieve good fastness values for deep shades
 No reduction clearing is required. Cost effective process
One bath dyeing one step process
 Both of the dyes will be introduced in the same bath.
 Only dispersing agent has to be added in the initial stage
 Heat the bath to 80C and add glauber salt to increase the exhaustion of reactive dyes to cotton
 Dye polyester fibre first by raising the temp .of the bath to 130C
 Reduce the temp. to 60-70C and add alkali
 Dye cotton portion and finally rise and wash
 Alkaline rinse is required

Advantages and disadvantages

 Short process. Only takes 5 hrs
 Those disperse dyes which can be removed by alkali from cotton portion has to be used
 Reactive dyes must be stable at 130C at neutral dyebath conditions
 Good light shade and medium shade dyeing.
 Difficult to achieve good fastness values for deep shades.
 No reduction clearing is possible so chances of cross staining.

All in one dyeing process

 Selected reactive and disperse dyes will dye cotton/polyester fabrics using a. single dyebath initially
buffered at pH 9.0–9.5 and then heated to 125 °C.
 The dyeing pH is lower than is usual for fixation of the reactive dyes but the method uses a high dyeing
temperature to compensate for this.
 Not many disperse dyes arestable at 125 °C in a dispersion with a pH above 9. The overall dyeing time
is just over 5 h.

SEMI CONTINUOUS DYEING OF PC BLENDS

Two bath process with semi continuous technique

polyester is dyed using pad thermosole process

cotton dyeing will be carried out using pad batch process

Or

polyester is dyed using pad thermosole process

cotton dyeing will be carried out using jigger machine

 Recipe for disperse dyeing using Recipe for reactive dyeing using pad
thermosol process batch process

 Disperse dye  Reactive dye

 Dispersing agent  Alkali (sod. Carbonate)
 Acetic acid  Salt
 Urea  Sodium silicate
 Migration inhibitor
Process flowchart for thermosol process

pad on two dry on hot thermosoling reduction

bowl padder dry on IR
flue dryer at on stenter at clearing and
dryer 110-120C 180-200C washing
70% PU

Process flowchart for pad batch process

pad on two bowl batching at room

padder temperature for 12-16 washing and drying
70% PU hrs

Continuous Dyeing Of PC Blends Using Disperse/ Reactive System

Pad-Dry-Thermosol-Pad-Steam Process (PDTPS)
 This method is used to dye the cellulosic fibres with either vat or reactive dyes.
 When using reactive dyes process is shorter as compared to reactive with excellent fastness
rating.
 The method is useful for the dyeing of large lots of material, usually well in excess of 10 000 m
 Chemicals Required For The PDTPS Process (Guide Recipes):

Bath No. 1 Disperse Bath 2 Reduction Clearing Bath 3 Reactive Dyeing Bath 4
Dyeing
Dispersing Agent Sodium Hydrosulphite Reactive Dyes Sodium carbonate
Anti-Migrating Agent Caustic Soda Anti Migrating Agent Caustic
Wetting Agent Salt
Sodium Carbonate Sodium silicate

*Various continuous fixation routes for reactive dyes are possible

PS, PDS, PDPS, PPS

Advantages

 Separate process steps permit the use of a wide range of reactive and disperse dyes.
 Economical recipe costs.
 Reductive clearing means that very brilliant shades can be dyed.

Disadvantages

 Time-consuming.
 Very expensive process when calculating total cost.
 Labour-intensive.
 Very high water consumption.
 Very high energy requirements.
 Very high chemical requirements.
 Very high investment costs.
 Prone to errors.
 High environmental impact.

Alternative process
 Disperse/vat system
 Pigment dyeing
 Single stage process (pad-econtrol-dry-thermofix-wash)
MERCERIZATION

Target of mercerization

 Increase in colour depth

 Increase in tensile strength
 Increase in lustre
 Increase in dimensional stability
 Removal of dead fibres

CHANGES DUE TO MERCERIZATION

 Chemical  Physico-chemical  Structural

Controlling factors of mercerization

 Time  Temp.  Conc.  tension

Based on time and temp., mercerization is divided into:

 Hot mercerization
 Cold mercerization

Mercerization with hot caustic soda at a temperature between 60-70C with a dwelling period of 20-25sec has
become known as hot mercerization.

In classical cold mercerizing, processing takes place at temperatures of 15 to 18C with 31 to 35% caustic soda
solution with a dwelling period of about 50 seconds.

Based on conc., this alkaline treatment is divided into

 Mercerization
 Caustisization

Key features of hot and cold mercerization

Cold mercerization Hot mercerization

 Intense swelling but slow  Swelling is not very intense

 Core swelling is a problem  Even swelling
 Good lustre  Less lustre
 Less diffusion  High diffusion
 Cooling device is necessary  No cooling device is required

MERCERIZATION MACHINES

 Chain mercerization
 Chainless mercerization

Chainless mercerization

The chainless mercerising machines are so-called, because the is no fabric stretching by clip-chains in this type
of machines. The underlying principle in these machines is to apply tension to the fabric before and during the
mercerising process and not to allow the cloth to shrink, till it reaches their stage when shrinking does not take
place,
Machine features:

The features of chainless cloth mercerising machines are:

1. Fabric entrance: This consists of the entrance scaffolding, automatic cloth guiders, tension bars and a fabric
pre-tensioning system. These parts take care of their ceaseless cloth passage to the mercerising section with
sufficient tensioning, so that the possible shrinkage during the action of mercerising lie can be almost
eliminated. The pre-tensioning system consists of three curved rubber covered expanding rollers, in which
necessary tension can be developed by their proportional displacement of the middle curved roller. At the end of
the pre-tensioning section, the fabric is introduced the into the mercerising impregnating compartment.

2. Lye impregnation: The lye impregnation section consists of cylindrical metal rollers, partially immersed in
the mercerising alkali lye, having a specific gravity of 56° TW. Rubber covered cylindrical metal rollers rest
above and between the metal rollers. These roller restrict the weft wise shrinkage by means of fabric traction,
through the machine. There is an arrangement to spray the lie over the fabric in the impregnation
compartment.

3. Adjustable squeezing devices: At the end of each section of the chainless mercerising machine, provision is
made for an effective adjustable squeezing device. In the case of longer impregnating compartments, it
becomes necessary to arrange for an additional squeezing device within the impregnation section. This is
necessary in order to complete the lye impregnation at that pre-determined speed and to cope up with the
production target.

4. Adequate number of top and bottom rollers: With a view to obtain a perfect mercerising effect, it is
necessary that the cloth should be in contact with the lye for the predetermined lye acting time. It can be
understood that the more the number of rollers, the longer the dwelling time. The idea is that the lye acting time
of 50 seconds can be arranged by designing the impregnation compartment to suit the ideal level, by adjusting
the number of rollers in the impregnation compartment as correctly as possible.

In some chainless mercerising machines, there may be an additional set of metal and rubber covered rollers,
which help in covering up the lye acting time. For higher dwell times , the machine speed to be reduced.
Similarly for Shorter lye acting time, the speed is to be increased.

5. Stabilization of the mercerising effect: there will be an uncontrollable shrinkage in the fabric, if the
mercerising lye contents are very quickly reduced from the mercerising cloth. In order not to allow this
shrinkage to take place, the initial treatment of the cloth should be with a weak lye solution. The stabilizing
action is obtained in the stabilizing section. In some cases, the stabilization is brought about by passing the
mercerised fabric over a set of an expanding system consisting of three or more rows of metallic segmented
curved revolving rollers. . This stretching device exercises a widthwise stretching effect, thus giving a much
better width control over the lye impregnated fabric. The strength of the week lye splayed is generally about
half the strength of the mercerising lye strength.

6. Recuperation of the mercerising lye: The mercerising lye picked up by the cloth during the process and
which is still on the fabric after the stabilization is required to be recovered, ie., recuperated, to a great extent in
the recuperation section. This section comprises a tank, with top and bottom rollers. The fabric passes over the
top and bottom rollers, during which passage it is treated with hot water, maintained at the temperature of 90°
Celsius are slightly above. Heating of the water and maintaining the temperature are carried out by means of
steam coil.

7. Neutralizing the lye on the cloth: After coming out of the recuperation, the mercerised and hot water
washed fabric is passed through a squeezing device into the neutralizing section. This section is provided with
an arrangement to wash the fabric with a weak acid solution. Neutralizing with an acid solution is necessary
only when there is no further alkali boiling process or any other wet process which requires the use of alkali
containing solutions.

8. Washing Zone: The purpose of the washing zone, which may consists of one, two or more washing
compartments, is to wash the mercerising fabric free from alkalinity.

Chain mercerization

Chain mercerising range: In this machine the mercerising lye causes fabric shrinkage, it is necessary to
arrange the machine compliments in such a manner that the finished fabric satisfies the dimensional
requirements in all respects.

a . Fabric entrance section: The fabric is passed through a set of automatic cloth guiders, guide rollers and
tension bars.

b. Impregnation section: In the case of the chain type mercerising machines, impregnation with the
mercerising lye is carried out in suitably dimensioned padding mangles. The mercerising lye having an
optimum concentration of caustic soda is continuously fed to the trough of the padding mangle. the Single Web
of fabric gets a dip in the lye and is then passed through the padding mangle, where the excess lye is squeezed
out from the impregnated cloth. Small machines have one padder whenever more mercerising production is
required, but the passage through one padder is not sufficient to make up the lye action time. A second
impregnation is, therefore introduced in the system.
c. Width stretching and stabilizing section: The lost in width due to shrinkage at padding mangle is recovered
by stretching the impregnated cloth in at the stenter .A weak lye is sprayed on the fabric, while it is being
stretched in the stenter frame.

d. Steam recuperation zone: After squeezing the fabric at the end of the stenter through the squeezing mangle,
the fabric is introduced into the lye recuperation section, where steam heated water, near boil, in the
recuperation washing compartment with top and bottom rollers, recovers the major quantity of lye.

e. The washing section: The remaining portion of the lye is washed out of the cloth in the washing section
having the requisite number of washing compartments.