Physics I Laboratories

Handbook
Jana Trojková, Department of Physics

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Information on the Physics I Lab
Dear students,
your Physics I course includes a compulsory practical part, and here are the basic materials for you to study:

1. Introduction to general principles of measurements,

2. Information on experiments,
3. Template of a report to fill in.

You should learn the rules of measurement processing using recommended literature and the provided brief
overview (an estimate of about 10 –15 hours of work) and then measure 5 tasks (30 minutes preparation and
60 minutes measurement of each), evaluate them (90 minutes each) and submit the reports through LMS.

You will do:

1. Measurement of the moment of inertia of the flywheel using the equations of motion
2. Measurement of gravity from the period of a simple pendulum oscillation
3. Frequency determination of a slightly out of tune tuning fork based on beats
4. Measurement of the Earth's magnetic field with a tangent magnetometer
5. Spectral analysis of various types of light sources
The reports will be evaluated by the teacher and if there are serious mistakes or omissions, you may be asked
to correct them.

1
Introduction to general principles of
measurements
To understand basic principles and rules in measurement, please read one of the following guides
(or similar introductory texts):
1. AUTY, Fiona, et. al. Beginner's Guide to Measurement in Mechanical Engineering, NPL,
London, online: http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/beg-guide-measurement-mech-eng.pdf
2. AUTY, Fiona, et. al. Beginner's Guide to Measurement in Electronic and Electrical
Engineering, online: http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/gpg-132-beg-guide-measurement-electronic-
electrical-eng.pdf
Then, when processing your reports, keep in mind the following rules.

Determining the uncertainty in the direct measurement

In direct measurement of a measured value, the measurement is repeated n times (number of
measurement i = 1 ... n) under the same conditions. We gain the values xi . We then calculate the
sample mean
1 n
x  xi
n i 1
and sample deviation. The standard deviation of the mean characterizes the dispersion of values and
is therefore selected as the uncertainty of type A. For 10 and more measurement the standard
uncertainty of type A of the variable X is set equal to the sample standard deviation of the mean s x

n
1
x  x .
2
u x A  sx 
n  n  1
i
i 1

If the number n of repeated measurement is less than 10, this calculation of the standard uncertainty
leads to an underestimation of the impact of uncertainties. In this case the value of the type A
uncertainty should be determined by a qualified estimate based on experience (e.g. based on the
results of previous measurement). If this is not possible, u x A can be approximated by the
relationship

u x A  kS . sx ,

where the value of the k S coefficient depends on the number of measurements (see the table),
following the basic metrological documents valid in the EU countries.

2
The table (on the next page) shows that for n <5, this approach leads to a disproportionate
enlargement of uncertainty and obtained values of the measured values are rather informative.
Therefore, it is recommended to select the number of measurement at least 10, under special
conditions greater than 5.

number of coefficient
We also have to consider the systematic uncertainty of the measurements kS
measurement - u x B - uncertainty of type B (can be estimated from n
manufacturer's data for electrical and digital devices, in mechanical 2 7,0
gauges we usually set
3 2,3
half of the smallest scale interval
uBx  ). The combined 4 1,7
3
5 1,4
standard uncertainty u x
6 1,3
ux u x2 A  u x2B . 7 1,3

The standard uncertainty gives an interval including the true value of 8 1,2
the measured quantity with a relatively small probability (of about 9 1,2
68%). The practice usually requires higher probability, e. g. about 95%.
Therefore, we determine the so-called expanded uncertainty U x

U x  k p . ux ,

where k p is the coefficient depending on a required confidence interval, for 95 % it is k95 %  2 .

The measurement result of X we write in the form X   x  U x  [X].

The values of the uncertainty are rounded up to 1-2 significant digits (during school measurement,
rounding to just one significant digit is preferred). According to the order of the last significant digit
of uncertainty we round the mean value x . Larger number of significant digits (3-4) can be kept
where we continue processing the values, rounding up the final result.
Examples:
l   2,68  0,05  cm … correct
m   81,6  0,003  g … incorrect
U   168,1  10  V … incorrect
The relative uncertainty of the measured quantity is determined as (also given in percent):
𝑢𝑥
𝑢r 𝑥 = .
𝑥̅

3
Determining uncertainty in indirect measurement
Consider the case where the variable Y, the value of which we want to know, is a function of
variables X 1 , X 2 ,  , X m :

Y  f  X 1 , X 2 ,  , X m .

Values X 1, X 2 ,  , X m are obtained by direct measurement with certain uncertainties. The

measurement is repeated n times for each variable and the series x1 i , x2 i ,  , xm i  i  1, 2, , n of
measurement values are obtained.
The result y represents a value that generally can be calculated in two ways:

a) by substituting sample averages of directly measured quantities

y  f  x1, x2 ,  , xm  ,
b) as the sample average of the values obtained for each series of readings

yi  f ( x1 i , x2 i ,  , xm i)
n
1
y
n

i 1
yi .

Note:
1. The calculation referred to in point b) is more accurate for nonlinear dependence. For linear
dependence the two calculation methods are equivalent.

2. Calculation under point a) is possible even if you consider X 1, X 2 ,  , X m measurement that has
been performed in the series where the number of repeated measurement for each variable was
different.

If the values of X 1, X 2 ,  , X m were determined by independent measurement, the standard

uncertainties u x1 , u x 2 ,  , u x m of directly measured values are transmitted to the standard uncertainty
of the calculated result according to the Gauss' law of uncertainty propagation:

m  2
f 
u y  
Xj
ux j  .

j 1  

Note :
1. The relationship above is in mathematical statistics derived for random uncertainty (uncertainty of
type A), but it is commonly transmitted to the systematic uncertainty (type B), too.
2. In case that the input values are stochastically dependent (correlation exists between them), it is
necessary to use a more general relationship.

4
Measurement error can be determined if the actual value of the measurable is known (from the
tables of constants, from the functional dependence on the variables known with high accuracy, etc.).
It is the deviation of the measurement result from the actual value.

Guidelines for the preparation of graphs

Often the goal of an experiment is to find the relationship between two variables (current and
voltage, temperature and resistance etc.). As one variable changes, so does the other. Graphing is a
useful way to visualize and describe these relationships and can also provide useful quantitative
information. When preparing graphs as part of your physics lab reports, it is recommended to use
some suitable software, like Excel or Matlab, and keep the following guidelines in mind:
1. Use the x-axis for the independent variable (that which is experimentally varied, you
deliberately change it, usually in certain steps) and the y-axis for the dependent variable (that which
is a function of the independent variable and its value therefore responds to the change of the first).
2. Decide on the limits of the graph (maximum and minimum values) and select the axis. They
should reflect the range of measured values, do not have to include zero on either axis unless you
have data in this region.
3. Select equidistant divisions on the axes which are easy to read. They should reflect the
uncertainty of the plotted data (4.0, 6.0, 8.0 being more accurate then 4, 6, 8).
4. For good accuracy, select scales so that the graph is not too small, it is often the best if the
graph nearly fills the page.
5. Label both axes with both quantity and units.
6. Mark the data points with a small dot, cross and the like, so that their position is clearly
visible.
7. Do not connect data points with lines. If the relationship should be linear, plot a straight
regression line (when designing a graph, linearize data to get a straight-line relationship unless
otherwise called for). Visualize also the regression formula.
8. Otherwise, if the relationship should not be linear, represent it with a smooth line which
reflects the physical relation between variables. The curve should pass as close as possible to each of
the points but should not be connected point-to-point. Do not extend the line past the range of the
measured values.
9. It is also recommended to mark the error bars of each of the points in the graph.

Questions
1. What is the difference between the error of a measurement and its uncertainty?
2. A digital ammeter operating at 200 mA range shows the value 44.21. The manufacturer gives an
uncertainty of ± 0.5% of the set range ± 1 digit. What is the absolute uncertainty of the measured
value? Round to 2 significant digits.
3. What is the angle measured by the Vernier scale in the picture bellow?

5
3. An author of the graph bellow violated three important rules. Identify them!

5. We determined the thickness of a steel plate with the type A uncertainty 𝑢𝑑A = 0.035 mm and
the type B uncertainty 𝑢𝑑B = 0.022 mm. What is the combined uncertainty of this measurement?

References:
KOPEČNÝ, Jan, Vilém MÁDR, Jaromír PIŠTORA, Alois FOJTEK a Jaroslav FOUKAL. Fyzikální
měření. 2. vyd. Ostrava: VŠB - Technická univerzita Ostrava, 2007. ISBN 978-80-248-1653-1.

6
Information on experiments
Here is some brief information on the tasks that you will measure and evaluate in the lab. It is not
intended to substitute for the theory which you should learn at lectures and by own study, it only
contains the main points necessary for the measurement itself. It is necessary that you become
acquainted with the theory and the instructions before you come to the lab!

1. Measurement of the moment of inertia of the flywheel using the equations of

motion

Objectives of measurement
Determine the rotational moment of inertia of the body about a fixed,
horizontal axis.

Measuring devices
A flywheel – a circular plate on the shaft (see figure), scale, stopwatch,
caliper, meter, a set of weights

Compendium of the theory

The rotating body has inertia, which depends not only on the weight of the
body, but also on the distances of weight of elements from the rotation
axis. Assume that the distribution of mass in the body is continuous.
Moment of inertia J is:

J   r 2dm   r 2  dV (1)

Vc

dm the weight of an infinitesimal element of the body,

r the distance of particular dm from the axis of rotation,
 the density of the body,
Vc the total volume of the body.
If the body has irregular shape and varying density, the calculation of its moment of inertia is
practically impossible. In this case, J is to be determined by measurement.

If the vector sum of the moments of the forces acting on a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is
M , its angular acceleration is  , where:

d 2
M  J  J 2 (2)
dt

7
(  is the angular path). In (2), all the vectors point in the direction of a rotation axis, which is rigid.
Therefore we can write

d 2
M  J  J 2 . (3)
dt
Of the known moments and angular acceleration, we can calculate the moment of inertia. The
flywheel rotates on the horizontal shaft. The weight of mass m acts on the flywheel with the force
FN, on the radius R. It holds (here a is the acceleration of the weight):

ma  mg  FN (4)

Its momentum ML:

M L  mR  g  a  (5)

The acceleration of the weight is a  2h  R , so we get

t2

 gt 2 
J  mR  2
 1 (6)
 2h 
The friction in the shaft yields the unknown momentum MT. Suppose we make two measurements
with two weights of different masses m1 and m2. We get two equations:

a1
m1R  g  a1   M T  J (7)
R
a2
m2 R  g  a2   M T  J (8)
R
Subtracting (8) from (7), we get for J:

  2h   2h  
R 2  m1  g  2   m2  g  2  
R  m1  g  a1   m2  g  a2  
2
 t1   t2  
J   (9)
a1  a2 1 1
2h  2  2 
 t1 t2 
Alternatively, if we have more weights to measure with, we can re-write the equation (8) for the i-th
weight as:
𝑎𝑖
𝑚𝑖 𝑅(𝑔 − 𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝐽 + 𝑀B
𝑅
and plot the function
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), (10)

8
 𝑎
where 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑅(𝑔 − 𝑎𝑖 ) and 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 , which should be linear (it is actually a function 𝑀 = 𝑀(𝜖). If
we fit the regression line to the measured data, the moment of inertia sought is its directive and the
absolute member represents an unknown torque due to friction.

Instructions for the measurement

1) Measure the distance of the horizontal bars that are attached to the rack. Specify the quantity h.
Estimate the uncertainty of type B.
2) Measure the masses of weights. Uncertainty B of the used scale is 0.01 grams.
3) Use a Vernier calliper to measure the diameter 2R of the shaft.
4) Ten times determine with a stopwatch the time that weights m1 and m2 need to pass the track h
with zero initial velocity.
5) Alternatively, determine the time for 10 different weights, for each of them 5 times.
6) Determine the moment of inertia J of the flywheel including its uncertainty UJ.
7) To check the result in the order of magnitude, measure both height and the diameter of the steel
flywheel and in the approximation of homogenous cylinder calculate its moment of inertia (which is
in this case J = 1/2 mr2). Compare with the measurement result.

References:
KOPEČNÝ, Jan, Vilém MÁDR, Jaromír PIŠTORA, Alois FOJTEK a Jaroslav FOUKAL. Fyzikální
měření. 2. vyd. Ostrava: VŠB - Technická univerzita Ostrava, 2007. ISBN 978-80-248-1653-1.

2. Measurement of gravity from the period of a simple pendulum oscillation

Objectives of the measurement

Measure the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum. Analyse the relation between its
length and period.

Measuring devices
A simple pendulum of changeable length, stopwatch, calliper, meter.

9
Compendium of the theory

The gravity of Earth, which is denoted by 𝑔⃗, refers to the acceleration that is imparted to free falling
bodies on Earth. The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies depending on a location. The forces
acting on an object include the gravity force due to the distribution of mass within Earth (given by
the Newton's law of universal gravitation) and the centripetal force, the cause of which is the rotation
of the Earth around its own axis. Their resultant is called the gravity force.
Because the shape of the Earth and the fact, that the magnitude of the centripetal force varies with
the latitude, gravity slightly changes along a meridian, from 9.780 m s-2 at the equator to 9.833 m s-2
at the poles, a normal gravity acceleration gn = 9.80665 m s-2.

If a point mass 𝑚 is suspended on a non-intangible massless thread of length 𝑙, it composes a

mechanical oscillator, which we call a mathematical pendulum. We can approximate it with a small
ball on a string. If the amplitude of such a simple pendulum is small (less than 5° approx.), then the
oscillation period does not depend significantly on its magnitude and can be calculated from the
relationship

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (1)

and the gravity acceleration can be calculated as:

𝑙
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑇 2 . (2)

Instructions for the measurement

1) Measure a diameter of the ball using a Vernier calliper, calculate its radius.

2) A string of a pendulum is attached to the mount in such a way, that its length can be easily
changed. For each position of a shifter, measure the distance from the hinge point to the bottom of
the ball using the scale on the mount and subtract the radius of the ball to get the length to its centre
of mass (the length of the simple pendulum).
20𝑇
3) Determine the pendulum period as an arithmetic mean of twenty-period measurements (𝑇 = ),
20
which you repeat five times. Record the values obtained to the table.

Note
Start the measurement of time when the pendulum ball passes the equilibrium position. From this
point on, measure 20 passes of this position from the same side (for example, from the left). To
better determine the ball's passage through the equilibrium position, place behind the pendulum a
paper sheet and mark the equilibrium position on it by a vertical line.

4) Repeat the steps 2 and 3 for the next four different pendulum lengths (from the maximum length
to approx. half of it.

10
5) Plot the graph of the function 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑙). Draw also the theoretical relation,

6) For each length 𝑙, determine the gravitational acceleration 𝑔 and its uncertainty.

7) Find the arithmetic mean (resulting gravity acceleration) of the four results so obtained and
compare it to the real value. Discuss the result.

References:
KOPEČNÝ, Jan, Vilém MÁDR, Jaromír PIŠTORA, Alois FOJTEK a Jaroslav FOUKAL. Fyzikální
měření. 2. vyd. Ostrava: VŠB - Technická univerzita Ostrava, 2007. ISBN 978-80-248-1653-1.

3. Frequency determination of a slightly out of tune tuning fork based on beats

Objectives of the measurement

Determine the frequency of slightly out of tune tuning fork using the other source with the exactly
known frequency.

Measuring devices
Metal stand with two symmetrically opposite mounted tuners (chamber "a1", 440 Hz) and sensing
microphone, rubber appendage, changing the frequency of one of the tuning forks, rubber hammer
for striking the two tuning forks, oscilloscope to view the variable amplitude of the superimposed
signal from the two tuning forks.

Compendium of the theory

Superposition of the harmonic waves of two acoustic sources with amplitudes, frequencies and
phases y10 , 1 , 1 and y20 , 2 ,  2 , given by

y  t   y1  t   y2  t   y10 sin(1t  1 )  y20 sin(2t   2 ) , (1)

can under certain circumstances cause a phenomenon called "beats", which manifests as intermittent
louder and softer composite sound.

Suppose y10  y10  y0 a 1  1  0 , we then obtain

 1  2   1  2 
y  t   2 y0 cos  t  sin  t . (2)
 2   2 

11
If 1  2 , the arithmetic mean of the two frequencies can well be approximated by 1 and we get

relatively simple formula of harmonic oscillations with slowly changing amplitude Y0  t 

 1  2 
y  t   Y0  t  sin(1t ) kde Y0  t   2 y0 cos  t (3)
 2 

Time evolution of such oscillations is depicted here:

5

1
y (μm)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

t (s)

According to the equation (3), the maximum amplitude of Y0  t   2 y 0 is reached when

 1  2    
cos  t   1   cos  1 2  t  TR   , (4)
 2   2 

TR is the period of beats.

Therefore it holds:
1  2 1
TR     f R  f1  f 2 , (5)
2 TR

here fR is the frequency of beats and f1 and f2 are the frequencies of the two harmonic waves in Hz.

Denote f 0 the exact frequency of the calibrated tuning fork and f the unknown frequency of the

other. If we measure the frequency f R of beats, from (5) it follows that the unknown frequency f is
given by

12
 1
f  f0  f R  f0  (6)
TR

Instructions for the measurement

1) Put the appendage to the distance of 30 mm from the end of a tuning fork. Hit the two tuning
forks with equal power by rubber hammer (phase shift of strokes plays unimportant role in
monitoring the effect of beats, while striking with the same force provides the best ratio of highs and
lows), the amplitude of the superimposed tone will vary with the period TR  1/ f R .
2) Measure the period TR as 1/10 of the time of 10 beats. Repeat 10 times for the same position
of the appendage.
3) Repeat the steps 1 and 2 for the 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm distances from the end of a
tuning fork. Calculate the means TR1 , TR 2 , TR 3 , TR 4 , TR 5 .

4) Calculate the five unknown frequencies  f1, f 2 , f 3 , f 4 , f5 from the eq. (6), based on the

known frequency of the calibrated fork 𝑓0 = 440 Hz and the means  TR1 , TR 2 , TR 3 , TR 4 , TR 5 
5) Determine the uncertainties 𝑢𝑓𝑖 of the frequencies fi .
6) Discuss the result.

References:
DVORSKÝ, Richard. Fyzikální měření. VŠB – Technická univerzita Ostrava, 2008

4. Measurement of the Earth's magnetic field with a tangent magnetometer

Objectives of the measurement

Measure the horizontal magnetic field induction component of the Earth's magnetic field in Ostrava,
determine its tilt and total size.
Measuring devices
Tangent galvanometer, turnable around a horizontal axes, ammeter, adjustable DC power supply,
connecting cords, tape meter, Helmholtz coils.
Compendium of the theory
The Earth's magnetic field can be measured by superposing it with a known additional field created
by, for example, the coil system. The magnet needle then rotates in the direction of its resultant, and
the magnitude of the original field can be calculated from the angle of rotation. Its direction can be

13
determined by the magnet itself rotating about the vertical axis and then about a horizontal axis
oriented perpendicular to the original direction of the equilibrium orientation of the magnet.
Earth's magnetic field
As a result of the flow of the semi-liquid outer Earth's core, a magnetic field is formed around the
Earth, which has a dipole character near its surface (see picture). These magnetic poles are close, but
not identical to the geographic north and south poles lying on the axis of the Earth's rotation. The
north and south poles in geography are named opposite than in physics, so the north pole of the
magnet points to the Earth's north magnetic pole. This field changes
slowly over time and is different in different places on earth. It can be
represented by the magnetic induction vector. We can measure its
horizontal and vertical components, the declination (angle between the
horizontal component and the direction of true north), an inclination
(angle to the horizontal plane) and other parameters. The individual
components found by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) for Ostrava at the beginning of 2017 are listed in the
table.

Magnetic induction components in Ostrava at the beginning of 2017 under NOAA; current data can
be obtained by a calculator on the site https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/#igrfwmm

Helmholtz coils
Since we use a larger magnet needle to get readings with better
accuracy, it is important to ensure that the additional field is in the
used volume almost homogeneous. We can achieve this with good
accuracy using a pair of Helmholtz coils with the same electric
current 𝐼. They have large radius 𝑅, their centres lie on the same
axis of symmetry and are also spaced apart by 𝑅.
Calculation of magnetic induction at the general point is difficult,
but it is ea sy to calculate the magnetic field on the common axis
using the Biot-Savart law. For one circular coil, it follows that magnetic induction 𝑩 has the
direction of the axis and a magnitude:

14
 o IR 2 , (1)
B 3

2 h R 2 2
 2

where 0 is the permeability of vacuum (0 = 4𝜋10−7 TmA−1 ), 𝑅 the radius of the coil, 𝐼 the
current and ℎ the distance from the coil centre. In order to create a sufficiently strong and
approximately homogeneous field, we use instead of one coil two thin inductors, each of which has
N coils. We set them to have the same symmetry axis and the distance 𝑑. Magnetic induction at point
𝑥 on the axis between the coils, where 𝑥 = 0 is in the center of the system, then will be approximately
equal to

o NIR 2 o NIR 2
B  B1  B2  3
 3
. (2)
d 
2
 2 d  2 2
2    x  R 2  2    x  R 2 
2   2  
   
d ∂𝐵(𝑥) ∂2 𝐵(𝑥)
It can be easily shown that if  R , it holds at 𝑥 = 0 that = 0 and ∂𝑥 2
= 0. Similar
2 ∂𝑥

result can be shown also in perpendicular direction.

An example of a magnetic field distribution between Helmholtz coils, the x axis is the axis of
symmetry. Left: The course of magnetic field lines, on the right: a typical magnitude of the induction.
The field in the volume around the centre of the system is therefore approximately homogeneous and
equal to

8 o N
B I . (3)
5 5R
Tangent magnetometer principle
Measurement is carried out in the
arrangement shown in the figure.
The Helmholtz coils are connected
in such a way that the current flows
in the same direction after switching
on. The initial position of the
assembly is such that the magnetic
needle can rotate around a vertical

15
axis and, if there is no current through the coils, it is perpendicular to the axis of the coils in the
equilibrium position. It points in direction of the horizontal component of the magnetic field 𝐵EH .
When the current is switched on, the additional magnetic field of induction 𝐵 perpendicular to it is
generated and the new equilibrium direction of the magnet will change by the angle α for which it
will apply:

𝐵 = 𝐵EH tan 𝛼 . (4)

When the power is turned off, the needle returns to its original position. By turning the axis of
rotation of the magnetic needle so that it is horizontal, we determine the inclination of the magnetic
induction 𝜗 (the angle that it holds with the horizontal direction). For the total magnitude of the Earth
magnetic field 𝐵𝐸 it then applies
𝐵EH
𝐵E = . (5)
cos 𝜗

Instructions for the measurement

Attention: Do not touch the needle at any stage of measurement! It is very sensitive and can easily
be damaged. In case of abrupt changes in position or current by coils, it will oscillate and you will
have to wait for it to stabilize in the equilibrium position. If all steps are performed smoothly and the
current is changed slowly, you will prevent the needle from oscillations and the measurement will be
faster.
1) Determine and write down the necessary parameters of Helmholtz inductors (radius, number
of coils).
2) With the power off, set the assembly to the starting position so that the needle rotation axis is
vertical and the needle in a steady position is perpendicular to the coil axis.
3) Turn on the power supply and slowly increase the current through the coils until the magnetic
needle deflects at an angle of approximately 60°. Round the current to a suitable approximate value
𝐼max , read the angle and write them down.
4) Reduce the current by reasonable equal steps (at least 5) up to an angular displacement of 0°,
change the polarity from the power supply and again increase the current by the same steps. Thus,
you obtain at least 10 current values from 𝐼max to −𝐼max and the corresponding angular deflections.
5) Draw a graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑦𝑖 = tan 𝛼𝑖 and 𝑥𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖 , construct the regression
line and from its directive and the formulas (3) and (4) calculate the value of 𝐵ZH . Also plot the error
bars of the measured points in both directions.
6) Slowly reduce the current back to zero and turn off the power supply. Once the needle
stabilizes, turn the holder by 90 degrees sensitively so that the axis of rotation of the magnet needle
is now horizontal. After steadying, read the magnet inclination. This measurement is rather
indicative, yet we can repeat it 1-2 times to avoid major errors.
7) Using the equation (5), calculate the magnitude of the induction of the Earth's magnetic field.
8) Compare all the results with the table value and determine the errors and the relative
measurement errors.
References:
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz_coil

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 https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5204840
 Šimberský, M.: Měření magnetického pole (VUT, Fakulta elektrotechniky a komunikačních
technologií, 2012)

5. Spectral analysis of various types of light sources

Objectives of the measurement

Measure the spectrum of a mercury discharge lamp using a diffraction grating spectrometer with a
reading telescope. On a USB 650 RedTide Spectrometer, measure the spectrum of different light
sources and analyse them taking into account spectral sensitivity of the spectrometer.

Measuring devices
• Manual spectrometer with diffraction grating 600 lines per mm and Vernier scale
• SpectraSuite USB650 RedTide Spectrometer with optical fibre.
• Optical bench with a holder for attaching the optical fibre and a housing for 4 standard E27 light
sources
• Light sources: 60W classical bulb, LED cold white Greenlux 38SMD 4W and LED warm white
Greenlux 38SMD 4W, compact fluorescent lamp; with separate power supply and housing: mercury
arc lamp.
• Diametral AC250K1D power supply.

Compendium of the theory

Light is an electromagnetic wave from a certain limited wavelength interval. The light source
spectrum then represents the distribution of light intensity between individual wavelengths. Light
sources are commonly characterized by the so-called colour temperature. This is expressed in kelvins
and represents the temperature that would have an absolutely black body if it emitted the light of the
same colour.

Incandescent light sources

Every object heated to a specific temperature 𝑇 emits electromagnetic radiation. The spectrum of this
radiation is continuous and depends on the temperature of the light source and the emissivity of the
surface of the body. The ideal source of radiation is the so-called black body whose distribution of
spectral intensity of radiation is described in Planck's law. There are two important consequences for
this law.

1. By differentiation of Planck's law by wavelength we get Wien's displacement law (where 𝑇 is the
thermodynamic temperature, measured in kelvins)

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 𝜆max 𝑇 = konst. = 2.898 10 m K −3 , (1)

which determines the wavelength corresponding to the maximum spectral intensity of the radiation.
It explains how the colour of the hot bodies changes depending on their temperature.

2. On the basis of the integration of Planck's law over all wavelengths, Stefan's-Boltzmann's law can
be expressed, which indicates the dependence of the overall radiation intensity 𝑀 on the
thermodynamic temperature
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑇 4 , (2)
where Stefan-Boltzmann constant 𝜎 = 5,6704 ∙ 10−8 W m−2 K −4 .
Classical and halogen bulb
The incandescent light bulb is a simple device for converting electrical energy into light. It works on
the principle of heating a thin, usually tungsten conductor with the electric current flowing through
it. At the high temperature of the filament of the light bulb, radiation occurs mainly in the infrared
region, partly in the visible area. In terms of optics, the filament lamp does not behave like a true
black body radiator, tungsten is a selective radiator with a spectral-dependent emissivity value, so it
appears several hundred kelvin warmer. A halogen bulb work at the same principle, but it achieves
higher fibre temperatures (i.e. higher luminous efficacy and whiter light) and a longer lifetime thanks
to a halide compound (halogen, e.g. bromine or iodine) to the atmosphere added inside the flask. In
the bulb, the so-called halogen cycle takes place, when the evaporated tungsten reacts, for example,
with bromine. Due to tungsten vapour pressure close to the fibre, evaporation is limited, resulting in
longer life and higher luminous flux. In conventional vacuum bulbs, the fibre is incandescent at 2200
K to 2700 K, in halogen bulbs the fibre temperature reaches 3000 K to 3400 K.
LED
The abbreviation LED stands for Light-Emitting Diode. The principle of LED operation lies in the
emission of photon energy when the electric current passes through the semiconductor junction. In
power diodes, materials based on GaN (gallium nitride) or InGaN (indium-gallium nitride) are
mostly used as the base. Diodes work only in one direction, so the DC voltage is ideal for powering
the system. There are diodes that can work with alternating voltage, thanks to the use of a rectifier.
Otherwise, the diode always radiates only half of the period when it is connected in a permeable
direction. The advantage of diodes is that they can blink at a much higher frequency than the human
eye can see, so it does not disturb.
When designing a larger light source, which could replace a conventional incandescent bulb, a large
number of diodes need to be assembled. It is clear from the principle of LED functioning that they
cannot emit white light, but only light of a certain colour. Usually they contain a semiconductor
junction, on which blue light is produced, or UV radiation, it is then transformed into white light by
means of a thin layer of luminophores on their surface. For common applications, the most
commonly used colour versions are "warm white" (light colour temperature around 3500 K) and
"neutral" or "cold white" (with a colour temperature of about 5000 K - 6500 K).

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Gas discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps and compact fluorescent lamps
In the arc lamps – gas discharge lamps, radiation is generated by an electric discharge in the gas. It
has a typical line spectrum, which is characteristic of every element. It corresponds to the electron
transitions between the energy levels in the atom. Fluorescent lamps and compact fluorescent lamps
are low-pressure mercury lamps, filled with mercury vapour and argon, reducing the ignition
discharge voltage. The tube is still covered with a luminophore layer, which transforms part of the
radiation generated in the UV area into visible light.
Measuring Spectra
When measured with a spectrometer, light is first diffracted by diffraction grating. The interference
maxima of the k-th order appear at angles k that meet the condition

d  sin  k  k   , k  0, 1, 2, ... , (3)

where 𝑑 is the distance between the grating lines and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light. These maxima
can be either seen directly through an optical telescope or detected via CCD sensors as in USB
spectrometers with PC output. The spectral sensitivity of the spectrometer must be taken into account
when analysing the spectral intensity of the light sources. A sample table:

Hg lamp known spectral lines Measured and calculated values

colour intensity (nm) k α1 α2 (nm) (nm)
red medium 690,7 1

red medium 623,4 1

red weak 607,3 1

red weak 600,1 1

yellow very strong 579,1 1

yellow very strong 577,0 1

green strong 546,1 1

cyan medium 491,6 1

blue-violet strong 435,8 1

violet medium 407,8 1

violet medium 404,7 1

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Instructions for the measurement

1) Switch on the mercury discharge lamp. On a manual gauge spectrometer with a telescope, verify
that the plane of the grid is perpendicular to the incident light beam, and measure the angles (on both
sides of the zero-order maximum) of the first and second order maxima resulting from light
diffraction on the grating. Read the angles with accuracy to angle minutes, use vernier and
magnifying glass. Calculate the appropriate wavelengths using the formula (3) and compare the
results with the tabulated values.
2) Perform the measurements on the USB spectrometer.
HANDLE THE FIBER OF THE USB SPEKTROMETER VERY CAREFULLY, IT CAN BE EASILY DAMAGED!

a) Create a new folder on the PC desktop to store your recorded spectra.

b) Start SpectraSuite . You see a moving red line at the bottom of the graph area, the

spectrometer works automatically in the mode „Scope“ .

c) When the light source is off, save the "Dark" spectrum using the icon. Do not touch the end
of the fibre by hand! Switch the spectrometer to "Scope Minus Dark" using the icon.
d) Turn on the power supply. Press the buttons on the front panel to enter the desired value of 210 V,
confirm by pressing ENTER and press OUT to turn on the output.
e) Set the spectrometer fibre input holder to a suitable distance from the bulb (for a conventional and
halogen bulb approximately 7 cm, for LEDs about 17 cm).
f) Use the switch to light up the first bulb and point it directly to the input of the spectrometer fibre.
g) Set the appropriate integration time in the "Integration Time" window so that the maximum
spectrum intensity reaches approximately 3500 counts. Always write down the set integration time.
h) Test the "Scans to Average" parameter and set it appropriately.

i) Save the spectrum in the form of a table into your work folder using the icon. Select "Tab
Delimited, No Header" as "File Type". When saving, choose a name so that you can identify the
spectra when you finish the measurement!
j) At power supply, reduce the voltage to 150 V and record the appropriate spectrum as described in
points (e) to (i) above.
k) Similarly, measure the spectrum of other sources.

3) The measured spectra must be adjusted with respect to the spectral sensitivity of the spectrometer,
based on the relationship
measured spectrum
true spectrum =
sensitivity ∙ integration time

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Process the measured spectra in Excel. Spectrometer sensitivity data are available in a separate
Sensitivity file. Work only at wavelengths in the range of 400 nm to 780 nm (delete lines ranging
from 350 nm to 399 nm and 781 nm to 1000 nm in measured files).

4) Create charts to draw and compare the following spectra

 Graph 1: A classical bulb at two different voltages (comment on Planck's law and light
efficacy)
 Graph 2: A high-pressure mercury lamp and a compact fluorescent lamp (compare for
individual lines)
 Graph 3: Cold and warm white LED bulbs with a power input of 4 W (compare the light
output and explain the effect of the spectra on the colour temperature).

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Attachment: USB650 RedTide Spectrometer
• The Ocean Optics USB-650 RedTide Spectrometer is used to measure the spectral characteristics
of various light sources.
• Its advantage is that it measures the entire spectrum in
the range of 350 nm to 1000 nm at once, across the
entire wavelength range.
• The resolution of the spectrometer is 1 nm.
• The intensity of the spectral lines is measured in
relative units (counts). This unit can be understood as
the number of pulses the device records at a given wavelength.
• To get true spectra, it is necessary to perform a correction using a sensitivity curve that describes
how the spectrometer reacts at different wavelengths. The sensitivity curve of the USB650 RedTide
spectrometer is in the picture, and it is provided on PC in the lab in the form of a data file.

References:

KADULOVÁ, Miroslava. Měření spekter zdrojů světla (unpublished supportive material,

Department of Physics). VŠB – Technická univerzita Ostrava, 2012

Template of a report to fill in

On the following page.

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 VŠB – Technical University of Ostrava
Department of Physics
Group Student Co-laborators Points/out of

Number and Title of the Task

Date Notes Temperature Pressure

Task:

Measuring Devices:

Physical Principle:

Method of Measurement:

Measurement Procedure:

Data Tables:

Evaluation, Uncertainties:

Summary and Conclusion (incl. the comparison with the real value, if known)

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