Key Equations

Matrix Operations
Transpose Scalar Multiplication Addition
t
Am×n = Bn×m, where bi j = aj i kA = C, where ci j = kai j A + D = E, where ei j = ai j + di j

Multiplication Inverse
d −b
 ac db , H  
n
1
Am×nFn×p = Gm×p , where gi j =  aik fk j For H = = 
a if ad ≠ bc
−1

k=1 ad − bc −c

Statistics of One Variable

Population Sample Weighted Mean
∑x ∑x
–x =  ∑wi xi
–x = 
Mean: µ= 
N n w
∑wi
∑(x − µ)2 ∑(x − –x )2
Variance: σ 2 =  s 2 = 
N n−1
∑(x − µ) ∑(x − –x )2
 
2
Standard Deviation: σ=  s = 
N n−1


n∑x − (∑x )
2 2
= 
n(n − 1)
x−µ x − –x
Z-score: z =  z= 
σ s
∑f m ∑f m
Grouped Data: µ =·  i i –x =·  i i
, where mi is midpoint of ith interval
∑fi ∑fi
∑fi(mi − µ)2 ∑fi (mi − –x )2
σ =· 

N 
s =· 
n−1

Statistics of Two Variables

Correlation Coefficient Least Squares Line of Best Fit
sXY n∑xy − ∑x∑y
r=  y = ax + b, where a =  and b = –y − ax
–
sX sY n∑x2 − (∑x)2
n∑xy − ∑x∑y
= 
n∑x 2
−
(∑x)2 n∑y
 2
−
(∑y)2
Coefficient of Determination
∑( yest − –y )2
r 2 = 
∑( y − –y )2

Permutations and Organized Counting

Factorial: n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1

Permutations
n! n!
r objects from n different objects: nPr =  n objects with some alike: 
(n − r)! a!b!c!…
Combinations and the Binomial Theorem
Combinations
n!
r items chosen from n different items: nCr = 
(n − r)!r!
at least one item chosen from n distinct items: 2n − 1
at least one item chosen from several different sets of identical items: ( p + 1)(q + 1)(r + 1) … −1
n
Pascal’s Formula: nCr = n−1Cr−1 + n−1Cr Binomial Theorem: (a + b)n =  nCr a n−rb r
r =0

Introduction to Probability
n(A)
Equally Likely Outcomes: P(A) =  Complement of A: P(A′) = 1 − P(A)
n(S)
P(A) h h
Odds: odds in favour of A =  If odds in favour of A =  , P(A) = 
P(A′) k h+k

P(A and B)
Conditional Probability: P(A | B) = 
P(B)
Independent Events: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
Dependent Events: P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B | A)
Mutually Exclusive Events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Non-Mutually Exclusive Events: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)
Markov Steady State: S (n) = S (n)P

Discrete Probability Distributions

n
Expectation: E(x) = 
i=1
x P(x )
i i

1
Discrete Uniform Distribution: P(x) = 
n
Binomial Distribution: P(x) = nCx p xq n−x E(x) = np
q
Geometric Distribution: P(x) = q xp E(x) = 
p
C × n−aCr−x ra
Hypergeometric Distribution: P(x) = 
a x
E(x) = 
C
n r
n

Continuous Probability Distributions

1
Exponential Distribution: y = ke −kx, where k = 
µ
1 x−µ 2
− 1()
Normal Distribution: y =  e 2 σ
σ  2π
Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution: µ = np and σ = npq  if np > 5 and nq > 5
σ
Distribution of Sample Means: µ x– = µ and σx– = 
n
σ σ p̂(1 − pˆ)
  p̂(1 − pˆ)
 
Confidence Intervals: –x − z α2  < µ < –x + z α2  p̂ − z α2  < p < p̂ + z α2 
n n n n