Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Numerical simulation of cooling performance of wind tower (Baud-Geer)

in hot and arid region
Vali Kalantar
Mechanical Department of Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present study, an attempt is made to study the cooling performance of a wind tower in a hot and
Received 15 April 2007 dry region, Yazd, in Iran. For the relevant experiments and numerical studies, at first, the temperature
Accepted 3 March 2008 and wind velocity inside and outside of the wind tower measured. Based on four-day measurements
Available online 30 June 2008
during last summer, a computer program was designed with language Cþþ to solve the equations. Also in
the study the effects of parameters including wind tower height, variety of the materials used in the
Keywords: wind tower walls, the amount of vaporized water, the temperature of input and output air, the wind
Ventilation
velocity and the relative humidity were investigated.
Water vapor
Wind blowing
Furthermore, to develop, a natural flow of air, for days without blowing a wind the role of solar chimney
Natural cooling was considered.
Airflow Finally, to evaluate the method of integral view and take information about streamlines of airflow in
Evaporative cooling wind tower (Baud-Geer), velocity, pressure, humidity, temperature and density profile of fluid, Fluent
software is applied to analyze the air flow in the wind tower in differential view for three-dimensional
and steady state conditions with water spraying at the top of wind tower.
The results indicate that the evaporative cooling is very effective in a hot and dry region. The temperature
decreases considerably, if the wind towers are equipped with the water vaporization system. This causes
the air becomes heavier and a natural motion of air through downside of wind tower to be produced.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In hot and dry countries, there is a huge dependency on elec-
tricity to run air conditioners to provide human comfort in urban
areas. In these regions, using conventional wind towers (Fig. 1) to
achieve comfort is a well-known traditional technique. The wind
towers maintain natural ventilation through living spaces due to
wind as well as buoyancy effects (see, e.g., [1,2]) in order to reduce
the building heat load. In rural and in non-electrified areas, wind
ventilation and passive or natural convection cooling play a more
dominant role. Evaporative cooling is one of the oldest methods
used for air conditioning in dry climates. This model was used in old
Middle Eastern cities and Persian Gulf States. The application
ranged from having the walls and the floor of a room sprayed with
water by the occupants to building special structures to bring cold
and humid air to the living space. Bahadori [1] gives a good
description of these structures. In Iran, these building elements
are called Baud-Geer. The simplest form of this structure pro-
vides sensible cooling only. When water is injected into the
system, evaporative cooling occurs. In many of these structures,
E-mail address: vkalantar@yazduni.ac.ir
groundwater seeps through the inside of the basement wall of the
structure so that the evaporative cooling is done in the air passing
over those walls. In these designs, natural downdraft is utilized to
produce the necessary airflow from the outside to the inside of the
living space. Bahadori [2] performed analysis of the design of cool
towers. He applied his analysis to several locations, among which
Amman in Jordan is the one. He considered several design criteria,
such as wind speed, temperature, etc.
Yaghoubi et al. [3] found that the wind towers were effective not
only in strong wind but also in calm weather by providing a certain
air circulation to provide comfort in dwellings. At downside, they
found that when the tower was subject to strong solar radiation
and the tower structure was heated up, the circulating air was
heated up by hot surfaces causing discomfort.
Experimental studies [4] and a case study [5] on wind tower
cooling performance have been reported. Studies on wind tower
combined with the solar chimney [6,7] for ventilation has been also
reported. The results of these studies showed that ventilation by
solar chimney was possible; the mass flow rate can increase the
function of the chimney surface temperature, reverse flow was
observed for certain channel sizes and the ventilation increased
with increasing inlet port size. Results show that the effect of solar
chimney is more important than that of wind and the combined

0960-1481/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.03.007
 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254
Nomenclature
Cp specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg  K)
DH2 O diffusion coefficient of water vapor into air (m2/s)
Ecv instantaneous energy inside the control volume (J)
fi external body force in jth direction (N/m3)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h sensible enthalpy (J/kg)
he the enthalpy of the exit humid air (J/kg)
hf enthalpy of liquid water (J/kg)
hfg the increase in enthalpy during vaporization (J/kg)
hi the enthalpy of the entering humid air (J/kg)
Jj diffusion flux of species j (kg/m2 s)
K turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s2)
Mcv instantaneous mass inside the control volume (kg)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s)
m_a mass flow rate of dry air (kg/s)
m_e instantaneous rate of flow leaving the control volume
(kg/s)
_i
m instantaneous rate of flow entering the control volume
(kg/s)
m_v mass flow rate of water vapor (kg/s)
P static pressure (Pa)
Pv partial pressure of water vapor in the air (Pa)
Pg saturated pressure of water vapor in the air (Pa)
Q_ cv the rate of heat transfer to the control volume (W)
RH relative humidity (%)
Sm mass source term (kg/s m3)
SH2 O water vapor added to or removed from the air
(kg/s m2)
Sct turbulent Schmidt number
t time (s)
T temperature (K)
system may be more effective in ventilating living quarters by
increasing the mass flow rate of air by several times.
Using wind tower combined with solar chimney (Fig. 2) for
evaporative cooling reduces its energy consumption and polluted
gases in atmosphere.
In this work, the design and performance of cool towers are
investigated based on weather conditions and comfort criteria for
Yazd in Iran. This criterion is different from that previously adopted
[2–5], where higher-than-actual input data such as wind speeds,
ambience properties and tower configuration were assumed. In the
present study for natural cooling of a building considering special
tower with spraying water at the top of it, full numerical simulation
is done in steady state, three-dimensional flow fields and fully
turbulent flow. The results show that we can also save a consider-
able amount of energy.
2. The cooling operation of a wind tower
The mechanism of functioning and operation of wind towers
depends on some elements including (a) the time of operation,
night or daytime, (b) the availability of wind, i.e. windy or not
windy periods and (c) the type of wind towers.
In addition, they are only used in summer time and closed down
in winter. Description and operation of various cases are described;
advantages and operational problems are discussed [1]. The major
factor of airflow in a wind tower is the gravity force without the use
of a fan [9]. In the case, we use the fan, the size of wind tower
decreases. Usually there are some wet cooler pads on the top of the
wind tower. The dry air vaporizes the water droplet; therefore,
the air becomes cool and heavy. The cool air is heavier than the
247
Tdf dry temperature of the humid air (K)
u x-direction velocity (m/s)
Vi, Ve the velocity of matter entering and exiting the control
volume (m/s)
W_ cv the power output or input the control volume (W)
x, y, z Cartesian coordinate (m)
Y mass fraction of species
Zi, Ze the height of matter entering and exiting the control
volume (m)
Greeks
g porosity
3 turbulent dissipation rate (m2/s3)
l thermal conductivity (W/m K)
m dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
mt turbulent viscosity (Pa s)
r density (kg/m3)
n specific volume (m3/kg)
y kinematics viscosity (m2/s)
u humidity ratio (kg of water vapor/kg of dry air)
G diffusion coefficient
Subscripts
a dry air
cs control surface
cv control volume
f saturated liquid
fg changes from saturated liquid to saturated vapor
i, e enter and exit
i, j coordination directions
i0 , j0 different species
m mass
v vapor
warm air, so it moves downward. Consequently, there will be
a natural flow of air in the wind tower even without blowing
a wind. In the case where we have wind blowing, this operation is
faster [9].
The natural ventilation system is based on the movement of air
through buildings to equalize pressure. This pressure difference is
mostly the result of wind blowing or the buoyancy effect created by
stratified warm air. Buoyancy results from difference in air density.
The density of air depends on temperature and humidity. In an
equal humidity, cool air is heavier than the warm air; therefore,
dropping of the heavy air and the force at the back start airflow and
light air make the warm air exit from another channel [10].
In either case, the amount of ventilation will depend critically on
the size and placement of openings in the building. The case shown
in Fig. 1 is more common. The higher is the wind tower (which
means the more distance from entrance of air to exit of air) the
more is the pressure difference, similar to water column.
The wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and
a negative pressure on the leeward side of tower; therefore, there
will be fresh air entering from any windward opening and warm air
will go out from any leeward opening. If we have the suitable cooler
pads for vaporizing water in the entrance, the air will be humid. As
cool and heavy air comes into the building; at the same time, the
warm air has to exit from another side [11,12].
When there is no suitable and reliable wind, the ventilation will
be problematic. In these cases, a solar chimney as shown in Fig. 2 is
a good solution [6,9]. The solar chimney is completely isolated from
the surrounding. By radiation or solar energy, the air within the
channel becomes hot and moves upward, and creates suction at the
bottom, which is used to extract indoor air.
248 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254

1. Conservation of mass
For steady state, steady flow condition we have
X X
_i ¼
m _e
m (1)

For wind tower (as the control volume) at entrance and exit
place, we can write

_ ¼ rAV ðkg=sÞ
m (2)

2. Conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics)

X   X  
Q_ cv þ _ i hi þ 1=2v2i þ gZi ¼ W
m _ cv þ _ e he þ 1=2v2e þ gZe
m
(3)

3.1.1. Air specifications

Comfort condition in different environments can be achieved by
adjusting air temperature and humidity and reducing harmful
gases and compounds. To achieve optimum comfort it is necessary
to understand how these parameters interact.
The related formulas are presented here [14]:

Pv
RH ¼ (4)
Pg
Fig. 1. Wind tower (Baud-Geer).

Pv
u ¼ 0:622 (5)
P  Pv
3. Theoretical analysis      
y ¼ 1=r ¼ 0:37  Tdf þ 460 = P  RH  Pg (6)
The basic governing equations of the fluid flow are formulated in
two forms: integral and differential views, which are explained
in the following parts.
Table 1
3.1. Integral view The details of input and output data of computer program (Integral view Cþþ)

Part 1: physical Height of wind tower

In these equations, a part of the fluid, which needs to be conditions of Kind of the cross-section of wind tower (triangle or rectangular)
examined and occupies the cool tower, is considered as the control the wind tower Dimensions of the cross-section of wind tower
volume and the governing equations are as follows [13]: Area of tower under sunshine

Part 2: data of the Dry temperature of entering air

entering air Relative humidity of entering air
Entering air velocity

Part 3: data of The mass flow rate of injected water

injected water The temperature of injected water
The height of the injected water

Part 4: calculation The rate of heat transfer from sun to wind tower (QT)
The partial pressure of the entering dry air (Pa)
The partial pressure of the vapor in the entering air (Pv)
The humidity ratio of the entering air (ui)
The density of the entering air (rI)
The enthalpy of the entering humid air (hi)
The mass of the entering humid air (m)
The mass of the entering dry air (ma)
hf and hfg for injected water considering the water temperature
The mass of water (humidity) in the entering air (mvi)
The relative humidity of the exit air (fo)
The mass of the exit humid air (mo)
The enthalpy of the exit air (ho) by applying first law of
thermodynamics
The dry bulb temperature of exit air (Tdfo)
The partial pressures of the exit dry air (Pso)
The partial pressure of the vapor in the exit air considering the
achieved (Pvo)
The humidity ratio of the exit air (uo)

Part 5: output The dry temperature of the exiting air from the wind tower
results The relative and ratio humidity of the exiting air from the wind
Fig. 2. Natural ventilation and evaporating cooling using wind tower and solar
tower
chimney [9].
 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254 249

Table 2
The results of running program Cþþ

Parameter Run 1 Run 2 Run 3

Input data
Height of the wind tower (m) 10 10 10
Length of the cross-section (m) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Width of the cross-section (m) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Area of the tower under sun shine (m2) 40 40 40
Dry temperature of inter air ( C) 40 40 40
Relative humidity of interning air (%) 10 10 10
Velocity of inter air (m/s) 5 5 5
Amount of injected water (kg/s) 0.05 0.073520 0.0820
Temperature of injected water ( C) 20 20 20
Height of injecting water set (m) 9.8 9.8 9.8

Output data
Temperature of exit air 22.836 13.84 Outside air
Relative humidity of exit air (%) 46.5 99.3 has been
Humidity ratio of exit air (kg of 0.008549 0.01 saturated
water/kg of dry air)
The exit condition of wind tower Pleasant High
condition humidity

Fig. 4. The experimented wind tower (case study).

m m þ ma m
6 ¼ v 06 þ 1 ¼ v ¼ (7) 3.1.3. Run the program
ma ma ma
This program has been performed for some common conditions
and the results are shown in Table 2.

3.1.2. Numerical simulation (analyzing the operation of the wind

3.1.4. Experimental study
tower in integral view)
During summer and sunny days, in the Dolatabad garden of
In order to measure the effect of different parameters such as
Yazd, Iran, by choosing the wind tower shown in Fig. 4, at first,
wind velocity, height of wind tower, the amount of humidity of air
ground surface has been irrigated; therefore, walls of the basement
or water consumption and the atmosphere conditions, the opera-
under the wind tower got wet, and then the experiment was done.
tion of the clay wind towers is discussed through programming
By measuring temperature, relative humidity and the velocity of
language Cþþ. Software was developed as detailed in Ref. [8].
wind outside at the entrance of wind tower at different hours of the
This program gives us the conditions of air at the exit in the
day and measuring these properties inside at the exit of wind tower
bottom of tower by taking the physical conditions of the wind tower,
(in the smaller underground room) decreasing of temperature was
the conditions of the entering air and water to the wind tower, by the
evident which can be seen in Fig. 5.
use of the equations mentioned in Sections 3.1 and 3.1.1.
The designed computer program was run for different hours of
In this program, one can make a comparison between different
day based on measured properties at the entrance and some
forms of a wind tower, or analyzing performance of special wind
information about wind tower; the results are shown in Fig. 6.
towers by changing the input parameters and obtaining the con-
Presented results demonstrate the accuracy and stability of the
ditions of air at the tower exit.
model.
Details of the program process are shown in Table 1.

3.2. Differential view

To obtain information about streamlines of airflow, and to cal-

culate velocity, pressure, humidity, temperature and density profile

Fig. 5. Numerical simulation performance of a wind tower with considering data

Fig. 3. The effect of vaporizing of water on temperature and relative humidity. about tower (as shown in Fig. 4) and outside properties ambient air in a summer day.
250 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254

2. Momentum equation

The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations governing the

flow take the form:
" !#
v  vp v vui vuj v 
rui uj ¼ þ m þ þ  ru0i u0j þ fi (9)
vxj vxi vxj vxj vxi vxj

The Reynolds stresses ru0i u0j are related to the mean velocity
gradients by employing the Boussinesq hypothesis [15].

3. Energy equation

For the temperature distribution calculations, the energy

equation can be written as
2 3
 
Fig. 6. Comparison of the predicted and measured temperatures at the exit of wind v v4 cp mt vT X
½u ðrE þ PÞ ¼ lþ  hj Jj 5 þ Sh (10)
tower. vxj i vxj prt vxj j

in the wind tower, furthermore to evaluate the result of integral view, where l is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, Jj is the diffusion
Fluent software is applied to analyze the airflow in the wind tower in flux of species j, and Sh is any volumetric energy source. The
three-dimensional and steady state conditions. Also spraying water term E in the previous equation is defined as follows:
drops at the top of wind tower to the airflow is considered.
X u2
3.2.1. Governing equations E ¼ hj Yj þ (11)
2
The basic assumptions for the CFD simulation include a three-
dimensional, fully turbulent, non-isothermal, incompressible flow.
The industry standard for turbulence simulation is the k–3 model
because of its robustness at a relatively low computational cost. The
transport equations for incompressible turbulent flow in tensor
notation, take the following form [15,16]:

1. Continuity equation

vðrui Þ
¼ Sm (8)
vxi
The mass source term, Sm, is added to or removed from the
continuous phase due to evaporation or condensation of the
liquid droplets.

Fig. 7. Computational domain with boundary condition. Fig. 8. Schematic diagram representing the wind tower with grid regions.
 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254 251

3.2.2. Numerical method (solution domain and boundary

condition)
The numerical solution of the transport equations was carried
out with a user-enhanced, structured, finite-volume-based pro-
gram FLUENT 6.1 with a segregated solver, good robustness, and
rapid convergence. FLUENT 6.1 employs an unstructured control
volume mesh with rectangular meshes on the surface of the
geometry.
Fluent is a general-purpose CFD code. The code has been used to
solve the steady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations
closed with the standard k–3 turbulence model with buoyancy
terms and injection water included. The semi-implicit method for
pressure-linked equations (SIMPLE) was employed with second
Fig. 9. Comparison of the predicted and measured temperatures in the test wind tower. order upwind discretisation employed for the spatial derivatives. A
segregated implicit solver was used.
The tower was subdivided into eight zones; each zone was first
4. Species transport equation assigned an unstructured grid with near wall refinement tech-
niques. The segregated solver was used until the solution con-
The species transport equation of water vapor into air is written verged. The solution grid was then refined based on the velocity
in the form gradient, and the problem was then resolved. This process con-
"  # tinued until the maximum velocity gradient inside the domain
v  v mt vYH2 O was less than 0.0001.
rYH2 O ui ¼ rDH2 O þ þ S H2 O (12)
vxj vxj Sct vxj Fig. 7 shows the solution grid for a total of 275,200 cells,
840,960 face and 290,813 nodes. Further refinements were also
where SH2 O is the water vapor added to or removed from the air tested and found not to change significantly the simulation. The
due to evaporation or condensation. The constant DH2 O is the convergence criteria for an acceptable level of error are the nor-
diffusion coefficient of water vapor into air, which is equal to malized residuals, which provide a way of establishing how
2.88  105; Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number, which is equal well conservation has been maintained. For this study, if the
to 0.7. normalized residuals for all variables were below 1.0E4, then the
5. Scalar quantities solution was assumed to be converged. The solution was per-
formed on a regular PC, and 14 h were enough to reach a con-
The rest of the transport equations could be modeled as verged solution.
follows: Computational domain with boundary condition at different
! regions is summarized and shown in Fig. 8.
v v vf
ðgrfui Þ ¼ gG þ gSf (13)
vxj vxj vxj 3.2.3. Validation of results
The mathematical and physical models were developed and the
where f is the scalar property, under consideration (k, 3, or numerical solutions have been validated by using field test data
YH2 O ). obtained from the literature [4].

Fig. 10. Streamlines and vortex due to airflow inside the wind tower.
252 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254
Fig. 9 shows the computed temperature profiles that have been
compared with the experimental data of Pearlmutter et al. [4].The
mean static temperature at the tower plotted against the distance
from up to down for both the numerical and experimental results.
The difference between the predicted and measured temperature
varies between 0.1  C and 1.1  C in some cross-section. Due to the
uncertainty of the field test data and the approximation of the
models, this agreement is considered good. Presented results
demonstrate the accuracy and stability of the model. In addition,
the predicted global and local quantities are self-consistent and
physically plausible.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Results of integral view
The results obtained from performed program Cþþ in different
condition are summarized in Fig. 3.This figure shows that, by using
the logical amount of water in the evaporating system of wind
tower, the temperature decreases a lot and the relative humidity
increases, both of which are suitable for hot and dry regions of a city
like Yazd in Iran.
If the walls of the wind tower are insulated, the temperature will
decrease more at the exit of tower, and as a result, there will be
a considerable decrease in the usage of water.
The higher the wind tower, the more wind velocity will be at the
entrance of wind tower, consequently the performance and the
negative buoyancy due to heavy air will increase which causes
a more powerful airflow downward.
The kind of the wind tower’s materials is important because
heat transfer and saved energy in the walls of tower depend on
Fig. 11. Injected water system to the airflow inside the wind tower and following the
concentration.
Fig. 12. The variation of relative humidity of airflow from entering to exiting.
materials. The walls store the heat in them during the day and they
leave it free at night. Therefore, the air moves upward in the wind
tower and the suction happens; or in other words, there will be the
natural ventilation. In summer, this phenomenon is very pleasant.
In integral method, the results of the running program are
similar to the experiment’s results, as you can see in Fig. 6. The
difference between the predicted and the measured temperature is
due to the uncertainty of the field test data and the approximation
of the models that is acceptable.
4.2. Results of differential view
The following typical results from the performed simulations
are presented and discussed.
Fig. 10 shows flow pattern and its streamlines inside the wind
tower for a three-dimensional turbulent flow. As it is seen, vortex
and recirculation regions can be found at separation points. In order
to observe the real behavior of fluid we should consider a very
smaller mesh and it makes calculations much more time-con-
suming. The size of mesh in this simulation is considered small
enough to have acceptable results.
The place of water injection into the airflow is shown in Fig. 11.
Extract of water is equal and uniform along the injection surface.
Because the passing air is dry, water would vaporize quickly and its
concentration can be seen at a very small part of the wind tower.
This shows again that vaporizing systems are useful and suitable for
hot and dry regions.
In Figs. 12–17, the behavior of humid air on a line which passes
exactly through the center of the wind tower can be observed. As
it is clear in the differential view, the behavior of fluid is not the
same across a cross-section and it differs from one node to the
other.
Fig. 13. The variation of density of airflow from entering to exiting.
 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254
Fig. 14. The variation of temperature of airflow from entering to exiting.
By injection, water into airflow relative humidity of air increases
which is shown in Fig. 12. The inlet air is dry and increase of relative
humidity up to 50% is suitable for air-conditioning systems in hot
and dry regions.
In Fig. 13, as the water in the airflow is sprayed, air would
become heavier and flows downward. Therefore, the density of air
increases.
It can be seen there is a sufficient decrease in air temperature
(Fig. 14). It comes from the absorption of heat in evaporative
cooling. Therefore, after spraying water in the air, temperature
would decrease very fast and then it slightly increases because the
walls of wind tower are not isolated against heat transfer and they
are capable of releasing conserved heat.
In Fig. 15, the velocity of a fluid particle is shown from top to
bottom of wind tower. The increase of velocity is due to the
absorption of water by the air and it is in a heavier state. In
other words, the negative buoyancy force is getting stronger.
On the other hand in upper and lower turns of wind tower
the streamlines get nearer to each other (the cross-section of
airflow decreases due to vortex formation) so the velocity
increases.
A change of pressure for a fluid particle, inside the wind tower,
from top to bottom, along the middle line is shown in Fig. 16. Based
on Fig. 15 by increasing the velocity of fluid particles, their pressure
would decrease at the inlet of tower and then by decreasing ve-
locity, its pressure would increase.
Fig. 17 shows the mass fraction of water vapor (H2O) of the
airflow in the wind tower, this increases highly after water injection
to air.
5. Conclusion
In this study, a numerical technique has been presented to
simulate the performance of natural evaporative cooling tower
system. A general mathematical model applicable for mechanical
Fig. 15. The variation of velocity of airflow from entering to exiting.
253
Fig. 16. The variation of static pressure of mixture of dry air and water vapor inside the
wind tower.
downdraft towers flow has been described. The model is applicable
for geometries of rectangular as well as circular or triangular cross-
section. This has been embodied into a computer code that can be
used for performance evaluations as well as for design optimization
studies.
The results obtained from integral and differential views, as well
as experimental study show that the addition of water in the way of
dry airflow has a considerable effect on different parameters such
as temperature, relative humidity, fluid velocity, density, etc.
The cooling system is capable of decreasing air temperatures by
10–15  C at the peak of its performance, depending on configura-
tion and ambient conditions. The majority of this reduction (8–
12  C) is achieved within the top 2 m of the tower, even when
sprayers are spaced evenly throughout its height.
From the investigation, it is found that a wind tower with the
height 10 m and cross-sectional area of 2 m2 and wind velocity 3 m/
s was operated during a summer season. The system produced
a peak cooling output of just over 100 kW with a water consump-
tion rate of approximately 0.025 kg/s, without using mechanical
force or consuming any fuels. This cooling load is sufficient for air-
conditioning floor space of building about 700 m2 areas in a city
like Yazd in Iran.
It can be concluded that the mathematical and physical models
and the computer program developed in this study can be treated
as a tool for the design and performance evaluation of cooling
tower (Baud-Geer).
Fig. 17. The variation of mass fraction of water vapor of airflow from entering to
exiting.
254 V. Kalantar / Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 246–254

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