1. List and describe the layers in the inside of the Earth!

Compositional layers are the outer crust(silicates), middle mantle (silicates) and inner core (iron,
nickel). The mechanical layers are the Lithosphere(rigid) , asthenosphere(soft plastic),
mesosphere(stiff plastic), outer core (fluid) and inner core(solid)
The upper mantle is composed of acid, basic and ultramafic rocks. The lower mantle has silicate
material with increasing ratio of heavy metals. The outer core is liquid metals fermium and nickel
and silicates and the inner core is a solid metal, fermium and nickel.

= silicate crust, silicate mantle, iron nickel inner core. Mechanical layers are rigid lithosphere, soft
plastic asthenosphere, stiff plastic mesosphere, fluid outer core and solid inner core.

2. List and describe the four principles of stratigraphy!

a. Uniformitarianism - the earth must be formed and reformed by natural processes (errosion,
accumulation, heating and folding) that always produce the same resultant material.
b. Actualism - natural processes must have acted in the same general manner for many geological
ages
c. Horizontally - sedimentary rocks are originally horizontal.
d. Subsequent deposition - lower most deposited layers are older than upper layers.

3. What are lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy?

Lithostratigraphy is the classification of sedimentary rocks based on mineralogy and petrology.
Chronostratigraphy is the part of stratigraphy that deals with the relative time relations and ages of
rock bodies.

4. What is the basis of radiometric age determination? Describe three such methods!
Radioactive isotopes enclosed in minerals at the time of their formation disintegrate according to
their half life, which is used to determine time passed since closure. This represents the age of
igneous rocks and the age of the last metamorphism in the case of metamorphic rocks. The half life
of parent elements determine usability of this method. The most widespread methods are
K/Ar - applied mostly to micas, feldspars and pyroxenes. Mainly extrusive rocks.
Ru/Sr - applied to most igneous and metamorphic rocks with minerals of high closing temperatures.
U/Pb - used for zircon minerals with a high closing temperature
U/Th- can be used for dating up to 250 000yrs.
C14 - radiocarbon dating - can be used for up to 60-70 000yrs

5. What is an index fossil?

A fossil that is useful for dating and correlating the strata in which it is found

6. What was the composition of the ancient atmosphere of the Earth?

The ancient atmosphere was rich in methane, ammonia, water vapour and neon but lacked free O2.
CO2, NH3, SO2, CH4, N2 formed by volcanic activity

7. When was the evolution history of hominids started?

Holocene of cenozoic era, homo sapiens, homo Erectus etc.
8. What is the basis of biostratigraphy?
Sedimentary rocks are divided according to the fossils found in them and they are classified into
biozones. Basis is Dollo’s law of irreversibility - once formed and then extinct organisms cannot
return in the same form.

9. Why there is a magnetic field around the Earth?

Flowing of liquid metal in the outer core of the planet generates electric currents, the rotation of the
earth on its axis cases the electrical current to form a magmatic field which is very important to
sustain life on earth.

10. What is the average speed of lithospheric plate movement?

0.60cm/yr to 10cm/yr

11.What rocks are formed along mid-oceanic ridges?

Igneous rocks formed by cooling and crystallisation of molten magma at volcanoes and mid ocean
ridges where new crust is generated.

12. What is a mantle plume and what are hot-spot volcanoes?

A mantle plume is a proposed mechanism of convection of abnormally hot rock within the earths
mantle, the volcanic colours commonly found in Hawaii. Hot spots are stable mantle plumes that
brings basalt material and is in the location for volcanic formation

13. What resources were formed in the Carboniferous period of the Palaeozoic? When was the
Mesozoic? List its subparts!
a. Coal, limestone, sandstone, shale.
B. The Mesozoic was around 250 million years ago and ended around 65million years ago.

14. What rocks are produced by the volcanic activity in mid-oceanic ridges.
Basalt

15.What is subduction and likewise what igneous rocks are produced by its volcanic activity?
Subduction occurs when two tectonic plate converge and at least one of them is an oceanic plate. At
a convergent boundary, 2 plates come together, one plate sinks under the other and is recycled back
into the mantle called the asthenosphere. Subduction volcanism will cause an explosion of sorts.
Basaltic melt moves towards and becomes Silica rich magma That erupt and form steep sided
volcanoes.

16. What is orogenesis (continent-continent collision)?

A process in which sections of the earths crust is folded and deformed by lateral compression to
form a mountain range. An orogeny is an event that leads to both structural deformation and
compositional differentiation of the earths lithosphere at convergent plate margins.

17. Describe The basic processes in plate tectonics , rifting and divergence
a. Rifting - stretching of the lithosphere. Beginning of the formation of the divergent plate
boundary, causing it to thin in the vertical direction. A continental rift is the belt or zone of
continental lithosphere where the extensional deformation is occurring. Rifting leads to
formation of new ocean basins/floors.
- rising currents in the mantle pus solid surface layers up to form a ridge.
-current pulls surface layers apart. Faults form and central block falls
-pressure in mantle drops causing partial melting which creates magma and this rises up the
faults and create new crust. The process repeats.
b. Divergence
- Oceanic = occurs above rising convection currents that lift up the plate. The plate travels in
the direction of flow. The plate is stretched thin, breaks and pulls apart. The magma flows into
the fissure, solidifies and the process repeats.
- Continental - two plates pull apart, faults develop on both sides of the rift; the central blocks
slide downwards. Earthquakes occur, streams and rivers flow into the rift and form a lake.

18. Why a suture is formed in orogenesis and what igneous rocks are produced by the volcanic
activity of orogenesis?
A suture is joining together of separate terranes with different tectonic, metamorphic and
paleogeographical histories,
Plutonic rocks ranging from gabbros to granite and even felsic range rocks are produced during
orogenesis.

19. Name the three orogenic cycles

Caledonian, Variscan, Alpine, in the early, late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic-Recent

20. Name and describe the most important (larger) ages

a. Phanerozoic - have fossils for
b. Cambrian - when fossilisation happened
c. Pre Cambrian - everything before fossilisation. Harden and Archean eons. 4.6bya formation of
earth.
d. Proterozoic
e. Palaeozoic - Caledonian orogenic cycle, Cambrian, ordovician, silurian, older Devonian
f. Carboniferous
g. Permian
h. Mesozoic
i. Cenozoic
j. Holocene