Traffic Control

Traffic control systems exist to provide for the safe and orderly movement of
traffic; to resolve conflicts between vehicles, vessels or aircraft; and, to the extent
possible, to minimize the cost of transportation.

The complexity of traffic control varies a great deal depending on the mode of
transportation and the density of traffic. At one end of the spectrum, low-volume
roads and vessels on the open sea operate almost entirely by sets of “rules of the
road” for resolving traffic conflicts. Drivers and operators of vessels are entirely
responsible for detecting one another’s presence, resolving conflicts on the basis of
the rules, and avoiding collisions. As traffic volume increases, highway systems
rely mostly on passive devices such as signs, markings, and traffic signals to
supplement the rules of the road. In the case of signals, these may operate
according to fixed cycles, or may be traffic responsive; also they may be
coordinated with one another to reduce the number of stops required.

The next level of control is one in which control of vehicle motion is at least
partially the responsibility of an external control system. The ground-based air
traffic control system, for instance, is responsible for ensuring that proper
separations are maintained between aircraft and that collisions are avoided. In
addition, ground based navigation aids are used to provide route guidance to
aircraft. In the case of rail systems, separations between trains are almost always
the responsibility (at least in part) to an external block signal control system and
dispatching is the responsibility of a central traffic control system. In addition,
some rapid rail transit systems provide for automatic control of train speeds, train
separations, switch operation, and opening and closing of doors at stations.

Traffic Signals

Definitions

Traffic signals operate by assigning the right of way successively to intersection

approaches. The red, yellow, or green light that is displayed to drivers in a given
movement is called an indication. The time required for one complete sequence of
signal indications is called a cycle; the discrete portion of a cycle during which the

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indications do not change is called an interval; and the portion of the cycle during
which the movements with the right-of-way do not change is called a phase.

To encourage standardization in signal layout and design, the National Electrical

Maintenance Association (NEMA) has devised a standard phase numbering
scheme that has been widely adopted. This is illustrated by Figure 11.1. In the
NEMA scheme, left turns are always given odd numbers, through movements are
given even ones, and right turns are normally not numbered separately. The
designations shown may be rotated, but the relative positions of movements with
particular numbers are always the same: for example, left turn 1 always opposes
through movement 2. Figure 11.2 shows phase diagrams for simple two-, three-,
and four-phase signals. Figure 11.3 illustrates phase sequence options for left turns,
including leading, lagging, and leading-lagging combinations.

Fixed-Time Controllers

There are two basic types of traffic signals: fixed- time (or pre-timed) and traffic-
actuated. Although fixed-time signals may employ different cycles at different
times of the day, they cannot respond to short-term fluctuations in traffic demand.
Traffic-actuated signals, on the other hand, can respond to short term demand
fluctuations. They are capable of altering cycle and phase lengths in response to
changes in traffic demand as detected by various types of actuation devices, such
as tuned-circuit loops, pressure treadles, or photoelectric cells.

Traffic-Actuated Controllers

Traffic-actuated signal controllers vary greatly in complexity, from relatively

simple devices to microprocessors that can record, store and interpret individual
actuations. In all cases, however, they consist of detection devices and a controller
that is set to change the signals in some specified fashion in response to actuations.

There are two types of detection devices: impulse detectors and presence detectors.
Impulse detectors merely register the fact that a vehicle has passed the detector:

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presence detectors, on the other hand, register the presence of the vehicle so long
as it remains within the range of the detector.

Most detector installations involve impulse detectors. At present the most common
type of detector is the tuned-circuit loop. These detectors are set up at the end of a
zone some distance from the signal. The controller is set with an initial green time,
which is at least great enough to allow a vehicle to clear the intersection, and with
a set extension of that green time, which is long enough to allow a moving vehicle
to travel from the detector through the intersection. When the controller receives an
actuation on a given approach, it switches the green to that approach and holds it
for at least the initial interval. If another actuation is recorded within the initial
interval, the controller extends the green. Each subsequent actuation causes an
additional extension, up to some preset maximum for that phase.

Presence detectors almost always consist of large loops or a set of series of smaller
loops. These record the presence of vehicles so long as they are within range of the
detector, and hold the green so long as the detection zone is occupied. As in the
case of impulse detectors, maximum green times are set for each phase.

Traffic-actuated signals under heavy traffic loads will tend to allot the maximum
green to all phases and thus approximate the operation of fixed-time signal
controllers. Consequently, they are usually employed where traffic on one or more
approaches is highly variable. Common situations in which traffic-actuated signals
are employed are main streets crossed by lightly traveled streets that nevertheless
require some sort of signal control and intersections with more or less equal
volumes of traffic but wide or irregular variations in traffic. Because modern
microprocessor controllers are relatively cheap, and traffic-actuated control is more
efficient than fixed-time control, most new signal installations at isolated
intersections involve actuated control.

At intersections of main streets with minor ones, semi actuated signal installations
are often used. Actuators are located on the side street only. The green “rests” on
the main street unless there are actuations on the side street. As soon as actuations
on the side street cease, or the maximum green interval for the side street is
reached, the green is returned to the main street and remains there for a preset
minimum green interval or until another actuation on the side street occurs.

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Where overall traffic volumes are more nearly equal, fully actuated signal
installations may be used. These employ detectors on all approaches. In the
absence of actuations, the green may either rest where it is or be transferred by
means of a recall switch to some particular approach. Also some fully actuated
signals employing presence detectors may rest on red on all approaches.