Mathematics II

Chapter 6

Dr. Devendra Kumar

Department of Mathematics
Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 Chapter 6
Residues and Poles

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Singular Point
Let a function f ( z) is not analytic at a point z0, but
analytic at some points in every nbd of z0. Then z0 is
called a singular point or a singularity of f ( z).

Isolated Singularity
A singularity z0 of f ( z) is called isolated, if f ( z) is
analytic in some deleted nbd of z0.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Example
The function
z+1
f ( z) = 2
,
z( z + 1)
has three isolated singular points z = 0 and z = ± i .

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

If z0 is an isolated singularity of f ( z), then f ( z) is
analytic in the deleted nbd 0 < | z − z0| < R for some
R . Therefore, there exists a Laurent series expansion
in 0 < | z − z0| < R of the form
∞ ∞ bn
n
X X
f ( z) = a n ( z − z0 ) + n
,
n =0 n =1 ( z − z 0 )
where
1 f ( z)
Z
an = n + 1
d z, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2π i C ( z − z0 )
and
1 f ( z)
Z
bn = − n + 1
d z, n = 1, 2, . . .
2π i C ( z − z0 )

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

where C is any positively oriented simple closed
contour around z0 and lying in the punctured disk
0 < | z − z0 | < R .
The second expression (having negative powers of
z − z0) in Laurent series is called the principal part
(PP) of the Laurent series i.e.,
∞
X bn b1 b2
PP = n
= + 2
+···
n =1 ( z − z 0 ) z − z 0 ( z − z 0 )

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Residue

Residue
The coefficient of z−1z0 (that is b 1) in the Laurent
series is called the residue of f ( z) at z0 and we
write it as
b 1 = Res f ( z).
z = z0
On putting n = 1 in the formula for b n’s we get
Z
f ( z) d z = 2π i Res f ( z).
C z = z0

Remark The R above formula can be used to evaluate

the integral C f ( z) d z.
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
Q. 1(a), P - 239 Find the residue of f ( z) = z+1z2 at
z=0 .
Sol. Clearly f ( z) = z(11+ z) has two isolated
singularities, z = 0 and z = 1. Since we want to find
residue at z = 0, so we expand f ( z) as a Laurent
series around z = 0. The function f ( z) is analytic in
the annular region 0 < | z| < 1, so can write
1 1 1 1 −1 1 2
2
= − = − (1 + z ) = − (1 − z + z − ···)
z+z z z+1 z z

Hence Res z=0 f ( z) = 1.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Example
R 2 ¡1¢
Evaluate C z sin z d z, where C : | z| = 1.

Sol. Clearly¡z ¢= 0 is an isolated singularity of

f ( z) = z2 sin 1z in C . So, we expand f ( z) as a Laurent
series around z = 0 in the annular region 0 < | z| < 1.
We have
1 1 1 1 1
µ ¶
2
z sin = z − . + . 3 +···
z 3! z 5! z
1 1
µ ¶
Thus, Res z2 sin =− .
z =0 z 3!
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
Hence
1 1
µ ¶ µ ¶
πi
Z
2
z sin d z = 2π i − =− .
| z|=1 z 3! 3

Remark If f is analytic at z0 then Res z= z0 f ( z) = 0.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Let C be a positively oriented simple closed contour.
Suppose that f ( z) is analytic in and on C except for a
finite number of singular points z k , ( k = 1, 2, . . . , n)
inside C . Then
Z n
X
f ( z) d z = 2π i Res f ( z).
C z= z k
k =1

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 2(b), P - 239 Use Cauchy’s residue theorem to
evaluate Z
f ( z) d z,
C
e− z
where f ( z) = ( z−1)2 and C : | z| = 3.

Sol. Clearly f ( z) has an isolated singularity z = 1

within C . So to find the residue at z = 1, we expand
f ( z) in 0 < | z − 1| < 2 in terms of z − 1. We have
e− z
f ( z) =
( z − 1)2
e−( z−1+1)
=
( z − 1)2
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
 e−1 −( z−1)
f ( z) = 2
e
( z − 1) " #
−1 2 3
e ( z − 1) ( z − 1)
= 2
1 − ( z − 1) + − +···
( z − 1) 2! 3!

Thus Res f ( z) = − e−1. Hence, by residue theorem

z =1
Z
f ( z) d z = −2π ie−1.
C

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 2(d), P - 239 Use Cauchy’s residue theorem to
evaluate Z
f ( z) d z,
C
+1
where f ( z) = z2z− 2z
and C : | z| = 3.

Sol. Clearly f ( z) has two isolated singularities z = 0

and z = 2 within C . So, we’ll find the residues at both
of these singularities. To find the residue at z = 0, we
expand f ( z) in 0 < | z| < 3 in terms of z.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

We have
z+1
f ( z) = 2
z − 2z
3 1
= −
2( z − 2) 2 z
¶ −1
3 1
µ
z
= − 1− −
4Ã 2 2z !
3 z z2 1
= − 1+ + +··· − .
4 2 4 2z

Therefore Res f ( z) = −1/2.

z =0

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Now to find the residue at z = 2, we expand f ( z) in
0 < | z − 2| < 1 in term of z − 2. We have

z+1
f ( z) =
z2 − 2 z
3 1
= −
2( z − 2) 2( z − 2 + 2)
3 1
= − ¡
2( z − 2) 4 1 + z−2
¢
2
¶−1
3 1 z−2
µ
= − 1+
2( z − 2) 4 Ã 2 !
2
3 1 z − 2 ( z − 2)
= − 1− + +··· .
2( z − 2) 4 2 4
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
Therefore Res f ( z) = 3/2.
z =2
Hence by residue theorem
Z
f ( z) d z = 2π i (−1/2 + 3/2) = 2π i.
C

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Theorem
If a function f is analytic in the finite plane except
for a finite number of singular points interior to a
positively oriented simple closed contour C , then
1 1
Z · µ ¶¸
f ( z) d z = 2π i Res 2 f .
C z =0 z z

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Let we solve the previous problem by using above
theorem:
Q. 2(d), P - 239 Evaluate
Z
f ( z) d z,
C
+1
where f ( z) = z2z− 2z
and C : | z| = 3.

1
Sol. We have 1/ z2 f (1/ z) = z(1z+
−2 z) . To find the residue
at z = 0, we expand f ( z) in 0 < | z| < 1/2 in terms of z.
We have

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 z+1
f ( z) =
z(1 − 2 z)
1 3
= +
z 1 − 2z
1
= + 3(1 + 2 z + 4 z2 + · · · ).
z

Therefore Res f ( z) = 1. Hence by above theorem

z =0
Z
f ( z) d z = 2π i (1) = 2π i.
C

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 6, P - 240 Let the degrees of the polynomials
P ( z) = a 0 + a 1 z + a 2 z2 + · · · + a n z n , (a n , 0),
and
Q ( z) = b 0 + b 1 z + b 2 z2 + · · · + b m z m , ( b m , 0),
be such that m Ê n + 2. Show that if all of the zeros of
Q ( z) are interior to a simple closed contour C , then
P ( z)
Z
d z = 0.
C Q ( z)

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 P ( z)
Sol. Let f ( z) = Q ( z) . Clearly, the singularities of f ( z )
are the zeros of Q ( z). Since we don’t know the
singularities of Q ( z) explicitly, so instead of finding
the residues at all the singularities we find the
residue of f ( z) at z = 0 and then the value of the
integral is given by previous theorem.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

We have
1 1 a 0 z m −2 + a 1 z m −1 + · · · + a n z m − n −2
µ ¶
2
f = m m − 1
.
z z b0 z + b1 z + · · · + bm
Since m Ê n + 2 so the numerator is a polynomial of
degree m − 2, also since b m , 0 so we can write (by
taking 0 < | z| < ε and choosing ε such that
¯ ¯
¯ b z m + b z m −1 + · · · + b ¯
¯ 0 1 m −1 ¯
¯ ¯<1
¯ bm ¯

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 1 1 a 0 z m −2 + a 1 z m −1 + · · · + a n z m − n −2
µ ¶
2
f =
z z b 0 z m + b 1 z m −1 + · · · + b m
a 0 z m −2 + a 1 z m −1 + · · · + a n z m − n −2
= ³ m m − 1
´
b m 1 + b0 z +bb1mz +···
a 0 z m −2 + a 1 z m −1 + · · · + a n z m − n −2
=
bm
à !−1
m m −1
b0 z + b1 z +···
× 1+
bm
= c 0 + c 1 z + c 2 z2 + · · · .

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 1 1
·
µ ¶¸
Which gives Res 2 f = 0. Hence, by previous
z =0 z z
theorem
P ( z)
Z
d z = 0.
C Q ( z )

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Three types of isolated singularities

Pole
If there are finite number of terms in PP i.e., b m , 0,
for some m and b n = 0 for all n > m, then z0 is called
a pole of order m. Thus if
b1 b2 bm
PP = + 2
+ · · · + m
,
z − z0 ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 )
then z0 is a pole of order m.
If m = 1, then z0 is a pole of order 1 and is called a
simple pole.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Examples
+1
1. For f ( z) = z2z− 2z
, we have
à !
2
3 z z 1
f ( z) = − 1 + + + · · · − .
4 2 4 2z
Since there is only one term in PP so z = 0 is a simple
pole.
2. For f ( z) = z2 (11+ z) , we have

2 1 1
f ( z) = 1 − z + z + · · · − + 2 .
z z
Since there are two terms in PP so z = 0 is a pole of
order 2.
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
Essential Singularity
If there are infinitely many terms in PP i.e., b n , 0,
for infinitely many values of n, then z0 is called an
essential singularity of f ( z). Thus if
b1 b2 bn
PP = + +···+ +··· ,
z − z 0 ( z − z 0 )2 ( z − z0 ) n
then z0 is an essential singularity of f ( z).

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Examples
1. We have
1 1 1 1 1 1
µ ¶
sin = − . 3 + . 5 +···
z z 3! z 5! z
Since there are infinitely many terms in PP so z = 0
is an essential singularity.
2.
1 1 1 1 1
1/ z
e = 1+ + . 2 + . 3 +···
z 2! z 3! z
Since there are infinitely many terms in PP so z = 0
is an essential singularity.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Removable Singularity
If there is no term in PP i.e., b n = 0, for all n, then z0
is called a removable singularity of f ( z).
Examples
1. We have
sin z z2 z4
= 1− + +···
z 3! 5!
Since there is no term in PP so z = 0 is a removable
singularity.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

2. We have
1 − cos z 1 z2 z4
= − + +···
z2 2! 4! 6!
Since there is no term in PP so z = 0 is a removable
singularity.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 1(a), P - 243 Find the singularity and type of
singularity of ze1/ z .
Sol. We have
1 1 1 1
ze1/ z = z + 1 + . + . 2 + · · ·
2! z 3! z
Since there are infinitely many terms in PP so z = 0
is an essential singularity of ze1/ z .

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 2(c), P - 243 Show that the singular point of
e2z
f ( z) = ( z−1)2 is a pole. Determine the order of the pole
and the corresponding residue.
Sol. Clearly z = 1 is a singular point for f ( z). To find
the type of the singularity z = 1, we expand f ( z) in
terms of z − 1.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

We have
e2 z e2 z−2+2
2
=
( z − 1) ( z − 1)2
2( z−1)
2 e
=e
( z − 1)2
2
2 4
· ¸
e 3
= 2
1 + 2( z − 1) + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) +···
( z − 1) 3
e2 2 e2 2 4 2
= 2
+ + e + e ( z − 1) + · · ·
( z − 1) z − 1 3
Thus z = 1 is a pole of order 2 and Res z=1 f ( z) = 2 e2.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 Q. 3, P - 243 Suppose f ( z) is analytic at z0, and write
f ( z)
g( z) = z− z0 . Show that
(a) if f ( z0) , 0, then z0 is a simple pole of g, with
residue f ( z0).
(b) if f ( z0) = 0, then z0 is a removable singular point of
g.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Theorem
An isolated singular point z0 of a function f ( z) is a
pole of order m iff f ( z) can be written in the form
φ( z)
,
f ( z) =
( z − z0 ) m
where φ( z) is analytic and φ( z0) , 0. Moreover,
Res f ( z) = φ( z0) if m = 1,
z = z0

and
" #
m −1
1 d
Res f ( z) = m − 1
φ( z) if m Ê 2.
z = z0 ( m − 1)! d z
z = z0

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 Log z
Q. 2(b), P - 248 Show that Res z= i ( z2 +1)2 = π+82 i .

Log z/( z+ i )2 φ( z)
Sol. Here f ( z) = ( z − i )2
is of the form ( z − z0 ) m where
2
φ( z) = Log z/( z + i ) is analytic and nonzero at z = i .
Therefore z = i is a pole of order 2. Also,
z+ i −2 z Log z
d
Res z= i f ( z) = dz φ( z)| z= i = z( z+ i)3 | z= i = π+82 i .

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 3(a), P - 248 Find the value of the integral
3 z3 + 2
Z
2
d z,
C ( z − 1)( z + 9)
taken counterclockwise around the circle | z − 1| = 2.
3 φ( z) 3
Sol. Here f ( z) = ( z−31)(
z +2
2
z +9)
= z −1 where φ( z ) = 3 z +2
( z2 +9)
is
nonzero and analytic at z = 1. So f ( z) has a simple
pole at z = 1 and so Res z=1 f ( z) = φ(1) = 1/2. Hence,
by residue theorem
3 z3 + 2
Z
2
d z = π i.
C ( z − 1)( z + 9)

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 3(b), P - 248 Find the value of the integral
3 z3 + 2
Z
2
d z,
C ( z − 1)( z + 9)
taken counterclockwise around the circle | z| = 4.

Sol. Here
3 z3 + 2 3 z3 + 2
f ( z) = 2
= ,
( z − 1)( z + 9) ( z − 1)( z + 3 i )( z − 3 i )
has three singularities z = 1, 3 i, −3 i within C . Note
that all these singularities are simple pole. So

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

 " #
3
3z + 2 1
Res f ( z) = =
z =1 ( z + 3 i )( z − 3 i ) 2
" # z = 1
3
3z + 2 75 + 245 i
Res f ( z) = =
z =3 i ( z − 1)( z + 3 i ) 60
" # z = 3 i
3
3z + 2 75 − 245 i
Res f ( z) = = .
z=−3 i ( z − 1)( z − 3 i ) 60
z=−3 i

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Hence, by residue theorem
3 z3 + 2 1 75 + 245 i 75 − 245 i
Z · ¸
2
d z = 2π i + +
C ( z − 1)( z + 9) 2 60 60
= 6π i.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Aliter.

Here
1 1 3 + 2 z2
µ ¶
2
f = 2 2
,
z z z (1 − z)(1 + 9 z )
has a pole of order two at z = 0. So
" #
1 1 d 3 + 2 z2
· µ ¶¸
Res 2 f = 2
= 3.
z =0 z z d z (1 − z)(1 + 9 z )
z =0
Hence,
3 z3 + 2
Z
2
d z = 2π i (3) = 6π i.
C ( z − 1)( z + 9)

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 4(b), P - 248 Find the value of the integral
1
Z
3
d z,
C z ( z + 4)
taken counterclockwise around the circle | z + 2| = 3.

Sol. Here z = 0 is a pole of order 3 and z = −4 is a

pole of order 1 (both lie inside C ).

2
1 d 1 1
· ¸
Res f ( z) = 2
=
·2! d¸z z + 4 z=0 64
z =0
1 1
Res f ( z) = 3 =− .
z=−4 z z=−4 64
Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II
Hence,
1 1 1
Z µ ¶
3 ( z + 4)
d z = 2π i − = 0.
C z 64 64

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Zeros of an analytic function

Zeros of an analytic function

Let f ( z) be analytic in a domain D . If f ( z0) = 0 for
some z0 ∈ D , then z0 is called a zero of f ( z).

If f ( z0) = f ′( z0) = f ′′( z0) = · · · = f (m−1)( z0) = 0 and

f (m)( z0) , 0, then z0 is a zero of order m.

A zero of order 1 is called a simple zero.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Theorem
Let f ( z) be analytic at a point z0. Then z0 is a zero of
f of order m if and only if f ( z) can be written in the
form
f ( z) = ( z − z0)m φ( z),
where φ is analytic and φ( z0) , 0.

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Example
The entire function f ( z) = z( e z − 1) has a zero of order
m = 2 at the point z0 = 0 since
f (0) = f ′(0) = 0 and f ′′(0) = 2 , 0.
So, we can write
f ( z) = ( z − 0)2 g( z),
where g is analytic and g(0) , 0. Note that here g is
defined by means of the equations
( z
e −1
z z,0
g( z) =
1 z=0

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Zeros and Poles

Theorem
Suppose that
(a) two functions p and q are analytic at a point
z0 ,
(b) p( z0) , 0 and q has a zero of order m at z0.
Then the quotient p( z)/ q( z) has a pole of order m at
z0 .

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 1, P - 255 Show that the point z = 0 is a simple
pole of the function
1
f ( z) = .
sin z

Sol. Here both p( z) = 1 and q( z) = sin z are analytic

at z = 0. Also, p(0) , 0 and q( z) has a simple zero at
z = 0 (as q(0) = sin 0 = 0 and q′(0) = cos 0 = 1 , 0).
Therefore, by above theorem z = 0 is a simple pole of
f ( z).

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Q. 4(a), P - 255 Evaluate the integral
Z
tan z d z,
C
where C denote the positively oriented circle | z| = 2.

sin z
Sol. Here f ( z) = tan z = cos z . Clearly the only
singularities of f ( z) are the zeros of cos z which are
given by nπ + π2 , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (see p-107). Only
z = −π/2 and z = π/2 lie in C . It is easy to see that
these two are simple poles of f ( z).

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Now
sin z
Res f ( z) = lim ( z + π/2) f ( z) = lim ( z + π/2) = −1
z=−π/2 z→−π/2 z→−π/2 cos z
sin z
Res f ( z) = lim ( z − π/2) f ( z) = lim ( z − π/2) = −1.
z=π/2 z→π/2 z→π/2 cos z

Hence,
Z
tan z d z = 2π i (−1 − 1) = −4π i.
C

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Theorem
Suppose that
(a) two functions p and q are analytic at a point
z0 ,
(b) p( z0) , 0, q( z0) = 0 and q′( z0) , 0.
Then z0 is a simple pole of the quotient p( z)/ q( z) and
p ( z ) p ( z0 )
Res = ′ .
z = z0 q ( z ) q ( z0 )

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II

Example
For the function
cos z
cot z = ,
sin z
both p( z) = cos z and q( z) = sin z are analytic at
z0 = 0. Also, p(0) = cos 0 = 1, q(0) = sin 0 = 0 and
q′(0) = cos 0 = 1. Therefore by above theorem z0 = 0 is
a simple pole of cot z. Also,
p(0)
Res cot z = ′
= 1.
z =0 q (0)

Devendra Kumar BITS, Pilani Mathematics II