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Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101

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Combined vector control and direct torque control method for

high performance induction motor drives
S. Vaez-Zadeh *, E. Jalali
Advanced Motion Systems Research Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Tehran, North Kargar Ave., P.O. Box 14395/515, Tehran, Iran

Received 22 September 2006; accepted 9 May 2007

Available online 24 September 2007

Abstract

A new control method is proposed for three phase high performance induction motor drives. The control system enjoys the advan-
tages of vector control and direct torque control and avoids some of the implementation difficulties of either of the two control methods.
In particular, the proposed control system includes a current vector control in connection with a switching table. An extensive compar-
ative performance evaluation of a motor under the proposed control method confirms the effectiveness of the method and its partial
superiority over either vector control or direct torque control despite its relative structural simplicity.
Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Induction machine; Motor drive; Vector control; Direct torque control

1. Introduction
Control of high performance AC motor drives has
reached a high level of maturity based on two competing
methods, i.e. vector control (VC) and direct torque control
(DTC), introduced in the early 1970s and mid-1980s,
respectively, [1,2]. Both methods include many different
schemes now and provide excellent performance character-
istics of AC motors in terms of fast dynamics and accurate
steady state operation [3,4]. Despite these similarities, VC
and DTC differ substantially in the way they are imple-
mented. Also, the details of the motor drive performances,
like torque and flux pulsations and inverter switching fre-
quency, are quite different, at least in the original VC and
DTC schemes. More importantly, the principles of the
two methods are far apart. These differences have mainly
been the focus of comparative analysis of the VC and
DTC presented in the literature so far [5–9]. The motor
characteristics, including torque, speed and current, under
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 61114916; fax: +98 21 88778690.
E-mail address: vaezs@ut.ac.ir (S. Vaez-Zadeh).
the two methods and the influences of stator and rotor
resistances variations are compared [5]. The performances
of the two methods in a specific application, electric vehi-
cle, are presented [6]. A comparison of the two methods,
including the effects of inaccuracy in flux estimation, is pro-
vided [7]. The motor characteristics and their pulsations are
also investigated [8,9]. The comparisons of VC and DTC
are performed mostly by focusing on performance analysis.
This paper, on the other hand, is focused on the compar-
ison of VC and DTC by looking for their principle similar-
ities and searching for a fundamental common basis as the
main cause of their performances swiftness and accuracy.
From this common basis, a new control method is pro-
posed for three phase high performance induction motor
drives. A brief overview of VC and DTC is presented in
Section 2 by recalling their operation principles. Then,
the common basis of the two control methods is investi-
gated in this section by an in depth analysis. The proposed
control system and its basic idea are presented in Section 3.
In Section 4, an extensive performance analysis of a typical
induction motor under the three methods is presented com-
paratively by computer simulation. The results confirm the

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.05.010
3096 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101

partial superiority of the new method over either VC or wdr ¼ Lm ids : ð3Þ
DTC. By taking ids = constant, the torque linearly depends on iqs,
providing a torque response as fast as the current (iqs) re-
2. Principles of VC and DTC and search for a common basis sponse. The following stator and rotor voltage and flux
linkage equations also hold for an induction machine
2.1. Vector control
~
~s ¼ Rs~is þ dws ;
V ð4Þ
Vector control is performed in different schemes [10]. dt
However, in all schemes, the machine torque and flux link- ~
dwr
age are controlled through stator current vector control. 0 ¼ Rr~ir þ  jxm~
wr ; ð5Þ
dt
The current vector is decomposed into a torque and flux
producing components in a rotating reference frame, e.g. ~
ws ¼ Ls~is þ Lm~ir ; ð6Þ
ids and iqs, respectively. The former component is along a ~
wr ¼ Lm~is þ Lr~ir : ð7Þ
machine flux linkage vector, and the latter component is
perpendicular to the former as depicted in Fig. 1 in a rotor Fig. 2 shows a block diagram of a typical vector controlled
flux reference frame. This decouples the torque control induction motor drive.
from the flux control as the torque is obtained as
2.2. Direct torque control
3 Lm
T e ¼ nP ðw iqs  wqr ids Þ; ð1Þ
2 Lr dr In a DTC motor drive, the machine torque and flux link-
where np, Lm and Lr represent the number of pole pairs, the age are controlled directly without a current control. The
magnetizing inductance and the rotor inductance. Also, wqr principles of DTC can be explained by looking at the fol-
and wdr stand for the quadratic axis and direct axis rotor lowing torque and current equations of an induction
flux linkage components. Since the d axis flux vanishes, machine:
the torque equation is simplified to 3
3 Lm T e ¼ nP Imf~ ws~is g; ð8Þ
T e ¼ nP ðw iqs Þ; ð2Þ 2
 
2 Lr dr
~is ¼ 1 ~ ws 
Lm ~
wr ; r¼1
Lm2
: ð9Þ
where rLs rLs Lr Ls Lr
Substituting Eq. (9) in Eq. (8) yields
3 Lm ~ ~
T e ¼ nP jws kwr j sin b; ð10Þ
2 rLs Lr
where b is the angle between the stator and rotor flux link-
age vectors [4]. The derivative of Eq. (10) can be repre-
sented approximately as
dT e 3 Lm ~ ~ db
¼ np jws kwr j cos b: ð11Þ
dt 2 rLs Lr dt
Fig. 1. Principles of vector control.

Fig. 2. Block diagram of a vector controlled induction motor drive.

 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101 3097

Fig. 3. Block diagram of a direct torque controlled induction motor drive.

Eq. (11) shows that the torque dynamics depends on the common basis despite their implementation differences.
variation of b. Therefore, fast torque control can be As the VC is concerned, at constant flux, Eqs. (2) and (3)
achieved by rapidly changing b. This can be done by apply- imply that
ing appropriate inverter voltage vectors to the machine sta- ( ( (
tor windings to rotate the stator flux linkage vector, since j~
w r j ¼ K d id j~
wr j / id Dj~
wr j / Did
) ) ; ð14Þ
the machine voltage equation can be represented and T e ¼ K q iq T e / iq DT e / Diq
approximated in a short interval of Dt as
where D stands for small variations.
d~
ws ~ Recalling the basic theory of DTC, on the other hand,
¼ V s  Rs~is  V~s ) D~
ws ¼ V~s Dt: ð12Þ Fig. 4 shows the rotation of stator flux linkage vector ~ ws
dt
to ~ws1 in an inverter switching period, while ~ wr remains
The rotor flux linkage vector is sluggish in response to a
intact as the rotor time constant is much longer than the
voltage vector during Dt as it is related to the stator flux
inverter switching period. Here, D~ ws is decomposed into
linkage vector by a first order delay as in
its radial component, D~ wF , and its tangential component,
 
d~wr Lm Rr Rr Lm ~ D~wT , where the former contributes to flux magnitude and
þ   jx2 ~ wr ¼ ws : ð13Þ the latter provides flux angle rotation or torque variation.
dt rLs Lr Lr rLs Lr
Fig. 4 in connection with Eq. (10) yields
The six inverter voltage vectors can be properly used to ro-
tate ~
ws in either direction as fast as possible, knowing the DT e ¼ Kj~
wr jðj~
ws1 j sinðb þ DbÞ  j~
ws j sin bÞ: ð15Þ
sector in which ~ws is located. Also, with a good approximation
Fig. 3 shows a block diagram of a DTC induction motor
drive in which the torque and flux errors via hysteresis sinðb þ DbÞ ¼ sin b þ cos b sin Db ð16Þ
comparators provide corresponding flags to decide the best
voltage vector from a switching table presented in Table 1.

2.3. The common basis of VC and DTC

In this section, an analogy between VC and DTC is

shown. It is further proved that the VC and DTC enjoy a

Table 1
Switching table
Sector
Dw DT 1 2 3 4 5 6
" " ~2
V V~3 V~4 ~5
V ~6
V V~1
O ~7
V V~0 V~7 ~0
V ~7
V V~0
# ~6
V V~1 V~2 ~3
V ~4
V V~5
# " ~3
V V~4 V~5 ~6
V ~1
V V~2
O ~0
V V~7 V~0 ~7
V ~0
V V~7
# ~5
V V~6 V~1 ~2
V ~3
V V~4
Fig. 4. Flux linkage vector variation during a switching period in DTC.
3098 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101

and stator current vector variation in VC and both are respon-

DwT sible for controlling the motor torque. Therefore, in either
sin Db ¼ ; ð17Þ VC or DTC, two perpendicular variables control the flux
j~
ws j and torque independently, resulting in fast dynamic re-
ws1 j ¼ j~
j~ ws j þ DwT : ð18Þ sponses. In fact, if the number of inverter voltage vectors
had not been limited, then the two methods would have
Substituting Eqs. (16)–(18) into Eq. (15) yields provided the same performance.
" #
~ DwT DwF
DT e ¼ Kjwr j DwT cos b þ DwF sin b þ cos b :
j~
ws j 3. The Proposed control system
ð19Þ
3.1. The basic idea
As the second and third terms in the bracket contain mul-
tiplication of small terms, a good approximation of torque It was shown in the previous section that there was a
variation is obtained as direct relationship between the hysteresis control of flux
linkage in DTC and the direct axis current control in VC.
DT e ¼ K cos bj~
wr jDwT : ð20Þ Also, it was demonstrated that the hysteresis control of
Thus, electromagnetic torque in DTC corresponds closely to the
quadrature axis current control in VC. These facts stimu-
DT e / DwT : ð21Þ
late the idea of proposing a new motor control system
Referring to Fig. 4, it is apparent that the variation in the based on the common fundamentals of both methods by
stator flux magnitude is combining the merits of DTC and VC. By this way, it
may be possible to provide a control system with a desir-
Dj~
ws j ¼ DwF : ð22Þ
able performance and a rather simple implementation.
This equation, in connection with Eq. (13), when the first Equivalently, it may be regarded as a new system without
order delay between ~
wr and ~ws is ignored, yields some of the difficulties associated with either DTC or VC.
It is well understood that DTC may provide a faster tor-
Dj~
wr j ¼ DwF : ð23Þ
que response due to a faster selection of the status of the
Now, comparing Eqs. (21) and (23) with Eq. (14), the fol- power electronic switches. This, in turn, is due to the pro-
lowing interesting results are obtained: vision of a predetermined switching table instead of a much
 more time consuming pulse width modulation (PWM) pro-
DwF / Did
: ð24Þ cedure. Also, the use of rapidly acting hysteresis control-
DwT / Diq
lers, which provides inputs to the switching table,
It means that the radial component of the stator flux link- contributes to the DTC fast dynamics. Therefore, the hys-
age variation in DTC is proportional to the direct axis teresis controllers and switching table are good candidates
component of the stator current vector variation in VC for construction of the new control system.
and both are responsible for controlling the motor flux. In the indirect VC system, the d and q axis currents are
Also, the tangential component of the stator flux linkage controlled instead of the electromagnetic torque and stator
variation in DTC is proportional to the quadrature axis flux. Therefore, there is no need for computation of the tor-

Fig. 5. The proposed control system.

 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101 3099

que and the flux. As such, the d and q axis current control- any means as in VC and compared with their real values
lers may form parts of the proposed control system. obtained from the measured phase currents. Of course, a
reference frame transformation is needed as in VC. The
3.2. The control system structure current errors are used to produce d and q flags as inputs
to the switching table. A third input to the table determines
A motor drive control system, having d and q axis cur- the sector through which the current vector is passing. It is
rent hysteresis controllers as in VC and a switching table produced by having the d and q axis currents and the rotor
as in DTC is introduced schematically in Fig. 5. It is seen position. The switching table provides the proper voltage
that the d and q axis current commands are produced by vectors by deciding on the status of the inverter switches,

a 200
b 200

150 150
speed (rad/s)

speed (rad/s)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time (s) time (s)

c 200

150
speed (rad/s)

100

50

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time (s)

Fig. 6. The motor speed under the three control systems: (a) DTC, (b) VC and (c) proposed method.

a 400
b 400

300 300
torque (Nm)

torque (Nm)

200 200

100 100

0 0

-100 -100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time (s) time (s)

c 400

300
torque (Nm)

200

100

-100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time (s)

Fig. 7. The motor developed torque under the three control systems: (a) DTC, (b) VC and (c) proposed method.
3100 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101

the same as in DTC. The switching table is shown in Table fact, the system is a current VC system by means of a volt-
1, which produces all eight voltage vectors including zero age vector selection of the DTC type.
voltages.
The proposed control system of Fig. 5 consists of a VC 4. Comparative evaluation
part and a DTC part. The left side of the figure represents a
VC type of implementation; while the right side of the fig- The proposed control system is applied to the induction
ure is a DTC implementation. The system lacks PI or other motor with parameters as in the Appendix. The motor
type of current controllers, a PWM and a d–q to abc refer- performance is then simulated, and the results are com-
ence transformation usually available in the VC system. In pared with those obtained by the motor performance

a 250
b 250

200 200
torque (Nm)

torque (Nm)
150
150
100
100
50
50 0

0 -50
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
time (s) time (s)

c 250

200
torque (Nm)

150

100

50

-50
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
time (s)

Fig. 8. The motor torque response to a step load under the three control systems: (a) DTC, (b) VC and (c) proposed method.

a 100
b 100
phase current (A)

phase current (A)

50 50

0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100
1.7 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.7 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75
time (s) time (s)

c 100
phase current (A)

50

-50

-100
1.7 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75
time (s)

Fig. 9. The motor phase current under the three control systems: (a) DTC, (b) VC and (c) proposed method.
 S. Vaez-Zadeh, E. Jalali / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 3095–3101
under VC and DTC. A closed loop speed control with
simple PI (proportional integral) controller is applied to
the motor drive with all three control methods to be able
to examine the transient state and the steady state perfor-
mances of the motor. The same loading is used for all the
control systems. After the motor speeds up to the com-
manded speed, a nominal load is applied to the motor
at t = 1.5 s. and removed at t = 2.0 s. Fig. 6 shows the
motor speed under the three control systems. It is seen
that the proposed control system is capable of controlling
the motor speed as well as VC and DTC. Fig. 7 shows the
motor developed torque under the three control systems.
It is seen that the three torque curves are quite similar
except for slightly more pulsations in the case of DTC
and slightly less pulsations in the case of VC. Figs. 6
and 7 prove that the proposed control system can provide
a desirable high performance control of the induction
motor. It justifies the usefulness of the control system in
demanding applications.
In order to evaluate further the control system, a close
up of the motor dynamics is presented in Fig. 8 by showing
the motor torque response to a step load. The figure con-
firms that the torque response under the proposed control
system is slower than that obtained under DTC; but faster
than that achieved under VC. Fig. 9 shows the motor phase
current under the three control methods. It is evident that
the current ripples under the proposed control are less than
those under DTC. In fact, a direct control of the current
vector components in the proposed method provides a bet-
ter current waveform in comparison with that of DTC.
This, in turn, results in less torque pulsations as reported
in Fig. 7. The simulation results presented above and more
results such as d and q axis currents and flux linkages (not
presented here) confirm that the proposed control system
provides motor performances that are better that the
results under either DTC or VC.
5. Conclusion
By referring to the common basis of vector control and
direct torque control of induction motor drives, a novel
control system is proposed with implementation simplicity
with regards to either DTC or VC. The system uses a cur-
rent vector control scheme together with a DTC type
switching table. The comparison of motor performance
under the proposed control system with respect to those
3101
obtained under DTC and VC confirms a faster dynamics
than that of VC and less system variable pulsations than
those under DTC.
The proposed control system is presented here with a
conventional switching table as in DTC. It is expected that
the motor performance can be further improved by the
proposed control method if an optimized switching table
is used.
Appendix A
Motor data
Stator resistance = 0.087 X,
Stator resistance = 0.087 X,
Rotor resistance = 0.228 X,
Magnetizing inductance = 34.7 mH,
Stator leakage inductance = 0.8 mH,
Rotor leakage inductance = 0.8 mH,
Number of pole pairs = 2.
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