Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-1

Wheel and tyre

 Structure of wheel and tyre WT-2

1. Structure of wheel
2. Structure of tyre
 Use and maintenance of tyre WT-12
1. Principles for selection of tyres
2. Operating precautions of tyres
 Tyre troubleshooting WT-16
1. Trouble at tyre crown
2. Trouble at tyre shoulder and tyre sidewall
3. Trouble at tyre body
4. Trouble at tyre bead
5. Schedule of common troubles of tyres
 Removal and assembly of wheels and tyres WT-21
1. Safety precautions for removal and assembly
2. Removal and assembly
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 Structure of wheel and tyre

Tyres are mainly used for the following purposes: Firstly, support the weight of the bus; secondly, buffer the
impacts from the road surfaces; thirdly, generate towing forces and brake forces based on the adhesions between tyres
and road surfaces.

1. Structure of wheel

A wheel normally consists of wheel hub, wheel rim and

wheel spokes. Wheel hub is mounted on the shaft or steering
knuckle via tapered roller bearing and is used to install the tyre.
Spokes are used to connect the wheel hub and wheel rim.
Structurally, the wheel hub is a subassembly mounted on the
axle. The wheel hub and wheel spokes are integrated together as
the wheel (steel rim).
Spokes and hub are connected with bolts in two methods, i.e.
spherically aligned connection and center-hole aligned
connection. In the former case, bolts are rotated in two directions;
in the latter case, bolts are rotated only in the same direction.

 Basic structure of wheel hub

The tyre must be mounted on the wheel rim before it can be inflated. For that reason, wheel rim is particularly
important for the use of tyres. Wheel rims of an appropriate model that is commensurate with the tyre must be
provided. Wheel rims’ various parts are introduced as follows:
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 Type and designation of wheel rim

a ) Deep-groove wheel b ) Flat-bottom wheel c ) Divided wheel rim

1) Deep-groove wheel rim (designation DC); semi-deep-groove wheel rim (SDC); wide-deep-groove wheel
rim (WDC);
2) Flat-bottom wheel rim (designation: FB); wide-flat-bottom wheel rim (WFB);
3) Divided wheel rim (designation DT);

 Wheel rim mark (GB2933—82)

1) Expression: wheel rim width (inch) wheel rim type (single or multi-component) wheel rim diameter
(inch) type designation
2) Wheel rim type: ‘X’ indicates single-component wheel rim, i.e. each wheel rim consists of one
component; ‘-‘ indicates multi-component wheel rim, i.e. each wheel rim consists of multiple
components, normally including retainer ring and lock ring;
3) Wheel rim depth: wheel rim height is normally indicated by wheel rim width followed by one Latin

Eg:4.50E×16 （ DC ）
Type
designation
Wheel rim
diameter （ inch ）
Wheel rim
breadth （ inch ）

2. Structure of tyre
Automobiles are normally equipped with inflatable tyres that are elastic and can buffer the impacts on the traveling
automobile and attenuate the vibrations caused thereby together with the suspensions so that the automobile can travel
stably; tyres and road surfaces have very good adhesions to each other so that the automobile won't slip on the road and
the towing and braking ability of the automobile can be improved.

 Tyre makeup
Tyres are made of cover tyre 1, inner tube 2 and lining band 3.
Tyre without inner tube consists of only one
cover tyre.
1) Cover tyre:
Cover tyre is the main part of a tyre and
consists of tyre bead, buffer layer, tyre tread
and ply cord layer.
2) Inner tube:
Inner tube is a circular rubber tube that
is furnished with an inflating valve for
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charging and discharging of air.

3) Lining band:
Lining band is a circular rubber band installed between the inner tube and wheel rim to protect the inner
tube from being damaged by the wheel rim and tyre bead and prevent dusts and vapors from entering the tyre.

 Basic structure of tyre

A tyre consists of tyre crown, tyre shoulder, tyre sidewall, tyre bead and other parts structurally and tyre tread,

buffer layer (belt layer), ply cord layer, etc in layout.

胎侧’ 胎肩 胎冠 Tyre crown
Tyre sidewall Tyre shoulder
胎圈 Tyre bead A 部 放 大 胎面 Tyre tread
Magnification of
Part A
缓冲层（或带束层 Buffer layer (belt 窗 布 层 Ply cord
layer) layer

1) Tyre crown:
Tyre crown is the part between two shoulders of the cover tyre and specifically includes tyre tread, buffer layer
(belt layer), ply cord layer, etc. Tyre tread is where the crown directly contacts the ground and characterized by high
wear resistance, high adhesion with the ground and sound mechanical properties; the buffer layer is a layer of
adhesive tapes located below the tyre tread and working to buffer vibrations; the ply cord layer is a fabric layer
consisting of adhesive tapes in parallel in the tyre body. It is the basic frame of the tyre body and mainly supports
the strains from the air inside.
2) Tyre sidewall
Tyre sidewall is the rubber layer on the side walls of the tyre body between tyre shoulder and tyre bead. It
mainly works to connect and support the tyre body and protect the tyre body from mechanical damages.
3) Tyre bead
Tyre bead is the tyre part installed on the wheel rim and mainly works to prevent the tyre from being detached
from the wheel rim.
4) Tyre tread
Tyre tread is the tyre part in direct contact with the ground. Tyre tread has different types or forms of patterns
to accommodate different road surface conditions. Tyre tread patterns are used for driving, towing, braking, water
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discharging, anti-skidding and turning purposes. It includes central part in contact with the ground and tyre
shoulders.
5) Ply cord of tyre body
Tyre body is the frame of a tyre. It mainly creates an air cavity shrouding the inside of the tyre and bearing tyre
loads. Full-steel-cord radial tyres are furnished with steel ply cords and diagonal tyres are furnished with high-
performance nylon ply cords.
6) Inner liner
For tubeless tyres, one special layer of rubber materials with sound sealing effects which is called inner liner is
furnished inside the tyres. It works to prevent air leakage.
7) Belt layer
Steel cord belt layer is a special structure of a radial tyre. It is located between tyre body and tyre tread and
covers the whole traveling surface of the tyre. It consists of steel cords and can bear a high load. It helps to
intensify the strength of the tyre tread, buffer impacts from road
surfaces and increase the traveling speed and puncture resistance
of the tyre.

 Tyre classification
1) Tyres are divided into tube-containing tyre and tubeless tyre
based on makeup;
2) Tyres are divided into diagonal tyre and radial tyre
structurally; Radial tyre and diagonal
tyre
3) Tyres are divided into high-pressure tyre, low-pressure tyre
and ultralow-pressure tyre based on the air pressure inside;
4) Tyres are divided into cotton ply cord tyre, synthetic yarn tyre, nylon tyre, steel cord tyre, polyester tyre, etc
based on the materials of ply cords.

 Radial tyre and diagonal tyre

The ply cords of radial tyres are arranged in the way the meridian lines of the earth are arranged. The belt layer
of the tyre crown consists of circumferentially arranged steel ply cords that can hardly be stretched. These cords are
just like the extension of tank tracks on the road. This structure gives the fullest rein to the ply cords. It saves oils and
resists wear and tear with highly limited circumferential and lateral slips. It features excellent performance and is
applicable for expressways or ordinary highways with sound surface conditions. As radial tyres have a thin tyre
sidewall that is easily punctured, they are not applicable for traveling on roads with poor surface conditions for the
long term.
Diagonal tyres are made of nylon ply cords. Their ply cords constitute a certain angle (30~45°) to the tyre
circumference. This type of tyres are applicable for a wide range of roads. They sink only slightly under heavy loads
and can satisfy the working requirements at a moderate speed. They can be easily repaired and maintained.

 Tube-containing tyre and tubeless tyre

Tubeless tyre has one special rubber layer on the inner liners of the tyre and a layer of airtight materials at the
tyre bead. The tyre bead is closely engaged with the wheel rim to seal the air inside the inner cavity of the tyre. It is
not different from tube-containing tyres in other aspects.
1) Tubeless tyres have the following advantages:
a) Tubeless tyres are light in weight;
b) The pressure of tubeless tyres decrease slowly in case of punctures and thus the tyre bead is not easily
detached from the wheel rim base.
c) It can be repaired easily;
d) Such problems as tyre damage arising from non-conformity or frictions between inner tube and cover tyre
WT-6 Wheel WT-6127J-01

can be avoided.
2) Tubeless tyres have the following disadvantages:
a) It is difficult for the driver to notice punctures because the tyre leaks air slowly and air pressure changes
slowly.
b) Severe damages on the tyre tread and tyre sidewall can't be repaired;
c) If the tyre bead is deformed, air will leak easily. Therefore, it is not applicable for road surfaces of poor
conditions.

The inner tube is smaller than the cover tyre and it will expand by 10%
to 20% upon inflation until it clings to the inside of the cover
tyre comfortably. The inner tube shrinks and air leaks into the
cavity between the inner tube and the cover tyre in case of a
nail puncture. Then the air would rapidly leaks out from the
inflating valve so that the cavity between inner tube and cover
tyre gets bigger and bigger and the tyre properties change
sharply due to lack of air, thus leading to severe accidents.

Tyre w/inner tube

In case of a nail puncture for a tubeless tyre, the air will leak out
slowly through the small clearance between tyre rubber and nail so that
the tyre pressure will fall slowly. Even if the nail is removed, air can
only leak through the small puncture hole and therefore sharp pressure
drop can be avoided. Meanwhile, the tyre bead is more closely
engaged with the wheel rim in the absence of an inner tube so that the
tyre rim won’t be detached from the wheel rim within a short period in
case of air leakage when the bus is traveling (the tyre may be detached
from the wheel rim if the steering wheel is turned vehemently when
the tyre is at a low-pressure state). For that reason, air leaks slowly
from a traveling tubeless tyre when it is punctured by a sharp object so
that the driver may have sufficient time to settle the problem.
Tyre w/o inner tube

 Tyre pattern and wear mark

There are various types of patterns on the surface of a tyre and these patterns are designed according to the
working conditions of the tyre and the bus and the road conditions. Patters are mainly used to increase the frictions
between tyre and the ground, reduce bus sliding, increase the towing forces of the bus and guarantee traveling safety
on the one hand and help the tyre to discharge water and reduce or preclude water films on the tyre on the other hand.
Reasonable adjustment of pattern layout and size can reduce noises of the tyre during traveling and make the driver
more comfortable. Meanwhile, good pattern design can enhance the overall profile of the bus and make the bus more
fashionable.
There are transverse patterns, strip patters, block patters and mixed patterns. Patterns can also be divided into
ordinary patterns and winter patterns according to the climatic conditions. Different pattern designs are closely
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related to different types of vehicles and different purposes of uses.

There is also one “small platform” or “small bulge” at the depth of the pattern. It indicates the wearing conditions
of the pattern, i.e. the tyre must be replaced once the pattern is worn out to that position. Otherwise, the tyre may risk
sliding during traveling. Such indicator is marked with “TWI” or “△” on the side of the tyre close to the pattern, as is
shown in the following Figure:

 Key parameters of the tyre

1) Maximum load:
Maximum load is the rated load of the tyre under the maximum allowable atmospheric pressure and can be
indicated as load index (LI). Load index and load are matched together based on certain relations. Please see the
following table for some of the data.
LI （kg） LI （kg） LI （kg） LI （kg） LI （kg） LI （kg）
50 (190) 60 (250) 70 (335) 80 (450) 90 (600) 100 (800)
52 (200) 62 (265) 72 (355) 82 (475) 92 (630) 102 (850)
54 (212) 64 (280) 74 (376) 84 (500) 94 (670) 104 (900)
56 (224) 66 (300) 76 (400) 86 (530) 96 (710) 106 (950)
58 (236) 68 (315) 78 (425) 88 (560) 98 (750) 108 (1000)

2) Maximum traveling speed

Maximum traveling speed is the ultimate speed of the tyre based on standard traveling conditions and can be
indicated as speed symbol (GSY). The correlations between speed symbol and maximum traveling speed can be
expressed as follows:
GSY（kg/h GSY（kg/h） GSY（kg/h） GSY（kg/h） GSY（kg/h） GSY（kg/h）
）
B (50) E (70) J (100) M (130) Q (160) T (190)
C (60) F (80) K (110) N (140) R (170) U (200)
D (65) G (90) L (120) P (150) S (180) H (210)
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 Specifications and marks of tyre

The main dimensions of a tyre are illustrated in the figure. The section breadth (B) and height/breadth ratio
(H/B) are the key parameters of tyre dimensions.
1) BS specifications and marks:
BS specifications and marks are normally adopted for trucks as
follows:
Tyre section breadth (B) has inch as the unit;
Tyre structure: ‘R’ indicates radial tyre and ‘-’ indicates diagonal
Tyre; Wheel rim diameter (b) has inch as the unit;
外直径 Outer diameter 轮辋宽度 Wheel rim breadth 断面高度 Section height
Eg: 9.00—20
断面宽度 Section breadth Wheel
总宽度 rimTotal
diameter (20inch ）
breadth 轮 辋 名 义 直 径 Nominal diameter of
Tyre structure: Diagonal tyre wheel rim
Section breadth （ 9inch ）
Tyre dimensions marked

2) Metric specifications and marks: metric specifications and marks are normally adopted for radial tyres as
follows:
Nominal section width of tyre has mm as the unit;
Nominal height/breath ratio of tyre has the fraction of H/B as the unit;
Speed symbol (km/h);
Symbol of tyre structure;
Nominal diameter of wheel rim (inch);

Eg:195 ／ 60 H R 14
Nominal diameter of wheel rim （ 14inch ）
Tyre type: radial tyre
Speed symbol, Maximum speed: 210kg/h
Height/Breadth （ H ／ B≈0.60 ）
Nominal section breadth: 195mm
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 Tyre sidewall mark

1) Radial tyre sidewall mark

层级代号 Ply rating code 生产厂家 Manufacturer 轮胎产地 Place of origin

美 国 交 通 部 DOT 编 码 US 轮 胎 规 格 Tyre 欧 洲 经 济 委 员 会 认 证 ECE 代 码
Department of Transportation DOT specifications ECE certification code
code
中文：全钢丝载重子午胎 Chinese: 轮胎骨架材料结构介绍 层级 Ply rating
full-steel-cord radial tyre Tyre frame material
structure introduction
单 胎 最 大 充 气 压 力 Maximum 花 纹 可 重 刻 标 记 Pattern 铭牌 Nameplate
inflating pressure of single tyre can be re-engraved
单 胎 最 大 充 气 压 力 Maximum 轮辋代号 Wheel rim code 全天候越野花纹标志 Weatherproof
inflating pressure of single tyre cross-country tread pattern mark
安全警告标志 Safety alarm mark 花纹代号 Pattern code
WT-10 Wheel WT-6127J-01

2) Diagonal tyre sidewall mark

3) Schedule of Chinese and English marks on tyre sidewall

序号 No. 英文字母 English 所示内容 Chinese

1 ALL STEEL RADIAL 全钢丝子午线轮胎
2 REGROOVABLE 花纹可再刻轮胎（可翻新）
3 STANDARD RIM 标准轮辋
4 TREAD 5PLIES STEEL CORD 胎面五层钢丝
5 SIDEWALL 1PLY STEEL CORD 胎侧一层钢丝
6 E* ******* ECE 证号
7 DOT** ** *** *** DOT 证号
8 RR100（RR9、RLB1……） 花纹代号
9 TUBELESS TYPE 无内胎
10 MAX LOAD SINGLE***AT***COLD 单胎最大负荷及相应气压
11 MAX LOAD DUAL***AT***COLD 双胎最大负荷及相应气压

No. English Chinese

1 ALL STEEL RADIAL Full-steel-cord radial tyre
2 REGROOVABLE Tyre pattern re-gravable (recappable)
3 STANDARD RIM Standard wheel rim
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4 TREAD 5PLIES STEEL CORD Tyre tread with five layers of steel
coil bed
5 SIDEWALL 1PLY STEEL CORD Tyre sideweel with 1 layer of steel
coil bed
6 E* ******* ECE certification code
7 DOT** ** *** *** DOT certification code
8 RR100（RR9、RLB1……） Pattern code
9 TUBELESS TYPE W/o inner tyre
10 MAX LOAD SINGLE***AT***COLD Maximum load and inflating pressure
of single tyre
11 MAX LOAD DUAL***AT***COLD Maximum load and inflating pressure
of twin tyres
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 Use and maintenance of tyre

1. Principles for selection of tyres

 The tyres selected must satisfy relevant state rules. The tyres recommended by the automobile manufacturer
are normally adopted for different automobiles.
 Tyres of an appropriate type (including specification, ply rating, speed level, etc) are selected according to the
working conditions (automobile, load, route, road conditions and tyre position).
 As different patterns have different characteristics and purposes, it is necessary to choose appropriate patterns
as the case may be.

2. Operating precautions of tyres

The use and management of a tyre is an important factor that determines its service life in addition to the
manufacturing conditions. In order to ensure safety (reduce tyre trouble, improve cost effectiveness and prolong the
service life of the tyre), it is necessary to pay attention to the proper use and reasonable management thereof.
 Internal pressure of tyre
1) Influence of insufficient internal pressure
a) Excessive deflection and deformation will cause the temperature inside the tyre to rise and reduce the
strength and bondage of tyre materials so that the tyre tread and tyre body or tyre body layer are detached
from each other and the tyre may even explode.
b) Excessive deflection will easily cause crazing (mainly where the tyre tread and tyre sidewall join
together) as well as fatigue and breakage of ply cords:
c) Excessive tyre deformation will increase the friction between tyre bead and wheel rim and thus damage
the tyre bead;
d) Excessive deformation will reduce the critical speed of standing waves of tyre, cause the tyre to heat up
easily and result in early damage;
e) In case of low atmospheric pressure, the tyre may suffer irregular wear and tear (e.g. tyre shoulder
abrasion) and its service life may be reduced;
f) Low internal pressure will increase the delay loss of the tyre upon turning and increase oil consumption;
g) Reduce the times of recapping of the tyre;
2) Influence of excessive internal pressure
a) Excessive strain of the tyre tread will easily cause tyre tread degumming and crazing at the bottom of the
tyre patterns;
b) Excessive strain of the ply cord will reduce its strength so that it will be easily damaged by blasting and
external forces;
c) Increased strains at tyre bead will easily snap the steel wire of the bead and thus cause the tyre to burst;
d) Projection in the middle of the tyre tread will increase tyre load per unit area and lead to irregular wear
and tear (crown abrasion);
e) The performance of elastic media of tyre is reduced and passenger comfort is affected;
3) Standard atmospheric pressure
a) The charging pressure of tyre must satisfy relevant state standards on the charging pressure of different
types and specifications of tyres;
b) The charging pressure for front and rear wheels as recommended by the tyre manufacturer may be
adopted;
c) New tyres may have size changes (expansion) some time after use and their internal pressure may also be
reduced. For that reason, it is necessary to check tyre pressure before startup, and check the tyre pressure
and charge tyres to standard pressure after a traveling a distance of 2,000 to 3,000km.
d) The internal pressures of double tyres shall be the same if they are adopted;
e) The internal pressure had better be increased by 10% or so during high-speed traveling;
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f) The internal pressure of tyres may increase due to heating during traveling but will resume the original
pressure after cooling down. For that reason, do not discharge air from the tyres when the internal
pressure is increased (tyre heating);
g) Measure the internal pressure of tyre at room temperature;
h) As the tyres have a leakage rate index and the relative equilibrium will be achieved 3 months after
leakage, frequent measurement is essential (at least once a month under normal circumstances);
i) Check if the inflating valve leaks with soap water after each charging and fasten the cap of the inflating
valve;
j) The backup tyre shall be kept readily available;

 Load
1) Influence of excessive load
a) Load and internal pressure are interrelated. In case of normal atmospheric pressure, overloading is
equivalent to low pressure for a tyre. For that reason, the troubles that may occur in case of low internal
pressure will also take place in case of high load. It is necessary to pay special attention thereto;
b) Excessive load will easily lead to excessive wear and tear of the tyre and thus reduce its service life. The
service life of a tyre will be reduced by 20% to 50% if it is overloaded frequently;
c) The rated loading capacity of a tyre may be exceeded in case of overloading and the durability and high-
speed performance of the tyre may be affected so that it will be damaged earlier than expected;
2) Erroneous loading
Erroneous loading mode may also overload the tyres within the scope of the bus body in addition to
endangering traveling safety.

Correct loading Erroneous loading

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 Speed – influence of high-speed traveling on a tyre

1) Higher speed will increase driving force, braking force and eccentric force so that the tyre will be more likely
to skid on the road and become worn out more rapidly with reduced service life;
2) Higher traveling speed will apparently increase the chance of tyre deformation, increase the heat value and
cause troubles more easily;
3) Higher speed will increase air resistance, heating and delay loss and thus waste energies;
4) Higher speed will increase braking distance. Therefore, sufficient distance from the previous vehicle must be
guaranteed for the convenience of braking if the traveling speed is increased in order to avoid unnecessary or
frequent braking and reduce damages to the tyre;

 Influence of coaxial twin tyres

1) In case of twin tyres, the one with a bigger outer diameter will be worn out more. For that reason, tyres of the
same brand and specifications (preferably of the same manufacturing period) must be used in this case. For
tyres with a section breadth of over 9 inches, the tolerance of outer diameters of the twin tyres shall normally
be less than 7mm; for tyres with a section breadth of below 8.25 inches, the tolerance of outer diameters of the
twin tyres shall normally be less than 5mm
2) If the outer diameters of the twin tyres are different, the one with a lower outer diameter shall be installed on
the inner side;
3) The differential pressure of twin tyres shall be kept within 20kpa (0.2kg/cm2).
4) Low internal pressure and high load will easily shorten the distance between twin tyres and even bring them in
contact. In this case, the tyres will rub against each other to generate heat and cause troubles;

 Tyre interchange
1) Normally, the front wheels have a greater tendency to suffer deviated wear and tear due to the braking unit and
the rear wheels are normally overloaded to suffer even greater abrasions particularly when they are the driving
wheels. For that reason, it is very important to interchange the tyres in order to minimize such deviated wear
and excessive abrasion, give full rein to each and every tyre and finally prolong the service life thereof. Timely
interchange of the tyres will enable early detection of obliquity and other faults of the bus;
2) Please see the following Figure for tyre interchange:

 Use of tyres during traveling

1) New tyres have a certain running-in period that is normally a traveling distance of 200km;
2) Stop to take a rest and check the tyres some time after high-speed traveling (normally one to two hours);
3) Do not discharge the tyres even if their pressures increase after high-speed traveling;
4) Avoid sudden startup, emergency braking, emergency turning, etc;
 Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-15

5) Preclude overloading and overspeed;

6) Travel with care and at a low speed in special weather or environment (e.g. rainy, foggy, snowy, muddy and
alley);
7) Try to avoid severe impacts on the tyres when the bus is traveling on a road with poor surface conditions;
8) Slow down before getting around a corner;
9) Keep an appropriate distance from the previous vehicle during traveling;
10) Check, maintain, interchange and repair tyres frequently;
11) Repaired tyres shall not be used on any front wheel;
12) Tyres that have been worn out to the wear mark must be replaced.
13) Immediately replace any tyre that is in trouble;
14) Keep tyres always readily available.

 Tyre charging
1) Tyres shall be charged in two steps. Charge a small quantity of air firstly, confirm that the tyre has been
correctly installed on the bus and then continue charging it to the standard atmospheric pressure. The wheel
rim lines on the tyre sidewalls shall be all exposed beyond the wheel rims;
2) The pressure data as shown in the pressure gauge of the air source do not represent the actual pressure of the
tyre;

 Storage and custody of tyres

1) Avoid direct exposure to the sunshine during storage;
2) Avoid excessive rainwater and humidity;
3) Avoid proximity to or frequent contact with equipment that generate ozone easily;
4) Avoid placing a tyre in a particularly hot place;
5) Avoid contact with organic solvents;
6) Tyres shall be kept on a shelf or in an independently erected state;

 Tyre installation
1) Tyres must be installed by trained professionals;
2) Tyres must be installed with the help of dedicated instruments or be installed mechanically;
3) Tyre/wheel rim assembly must undergo a balance correction (improper installation of a tyre or imbalance of
tyre/wheel rim assembly will cause vibrations and noises, reduce comfort, lead to irregular abrasions and
reduce the tyre’s service life);
4) Deformation and mismatch of wheel rims will lead to irregular abrasion and bursting of tyre beads;

 Selection, use and management of tyres for high-speed transportation

1) Radial tyres shall be adopted for traveling on an expressway. Tubeless radial tyres had better be adopted for
high-grade passenger buses;
2) Take special care of the speed rating of a tyre;
3) Strip patterns that feature fast heat radiation and sound lateral stability had better be adopted for a tyre;
4) Tyres traveling at a fast speed must undergo a balance test and counterweight correction.
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 Tyre troubleshooting

Other than the good driving habits of the driver, some of the most important factors that determine the soundness of
the tyre include tyre pressure, load and speed. Various types of tyre faults and damages are caused by these three factors.
In addition, improper operation of the frame, suspension and axle systems may also cause tyre faults. For that reason,
tyre faults shall be considered from two perspectives.
1. Trouble at tyre crown
◆ Crown bursting
1) Phenomena: x, Y, / and other irregular bursting at tyre crown.
2) Cause: crown bursts when the over-pressurized tyre is subject
to heavy impacts by an obstacle upon fast and overloaded
traveling of the bus.
3) Precautions: keep an appropriate pressure. Preclude
overloading.Reduce traveling speed on a road with poor surface
conditions, remove the stones embedded in patterns and repair any damage upon discovery.

◆ Crown peeling
1) Phenomena: tyre surface becomes coarser and peels off in
blocks;
2) Cause: tyre travels on a sand and stone paved road for a long
term so that tyre tread is damaged by sharp stones.Bus brake
control system is in trouble so that tyres are kept in a rolling and
skidding state. Skidding and idle running of the bus;
3) Precaution: keep appropriate tyre pressure, preclude
overloading, reduce traveling speed on a road with poor surface
conditions, remove the stones embedded in patterns and repair any
damage upon detection. Correctly, safely and reasonably steer the bus and avoid abnormal braking (e.g. emergency
braking), or select tyre patterns and tyres in a reasonable way.

◆ Crown scratch
1) Phenomena: the crown is scratched tidily and peripherally.
2) Cause: tyres travel on a dry muddy road so that they skid and
tyre treads are tidily scratched by sharp objects.
3) Precaution: pay special attention and slow down when the bus
travels on a muddy road. Preclude overloading, keep a standard
pressure, steer the bus in a correct and reasonable manner and
foster good driving habits.

◆ Crown perforation
1) Phenomena: the crown is perforated by a sharp object. In this
case, the ply cords of the belt layer will be loosened and detached
and one or multiple strands of the ply cords of the tyre body are
broken for full-steel radial tyres. The tyre shoulders will be
penetrated so that the ply cords are loosened and the tyre may burst
in severe cases for diagonal tyres.
2) Cause: traveling on a dry and damaged road or muddy road
where the crown is perforated by a sharp object.
Precaution: overspeed is forbidden; keep a standard pressure;
 Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-17

prevent tyres from rolling over any sharp object. Check if the tyre is perforated by any sharp object regularly
and repair in a timely manner upon detection of any damage. A reinforcing mat must be added where the ply
cords are snapped in order to maintain the strength of the tyre body.

◆ Crown deformation and abrasion

1) Phenomena: the crown takes a wavy shape or a toothing shape.
2) Cause: bus parts are loosened; front and rear shafts are not even
enough; wheels are not balanced; eccentricity of wheel rims will
lead to deformation and abrasion of tyre patterns.
3) Precaution: check the bus conditions in a regular manner. Keep
the tyre in an appropriate pressure, replace the tyre in a frequent
and timely manner and drive properly without overloading. Install
the tyre in a correct manner to balance the components. Twin tyres
must be installed in a matching manner (including designation,
pattern, specification, ply rating, pressure, etc).

◆ Eccentric grinding of crown

1) Phenomena: one-sided excessive abrasion of tyre crown.
2) Cause: tyre is not replaced regularly; toe-in of the bus does not
satisfy relevant standards so that the tyre is excessively worn out
on one side.
3) Precaution: keep a standard tyre pressure and interchange the
tyres regularly. The bus toe-in must be adjusted if the front wheels
are changed from diagonal tyres into radial tyres. Drive properly
without overloading.

◆ Worn-out crown
1) Phenomena: middle of the crown is severely worn out.
2) Cause: tyre pressure is too high so that the middle part of the
crown is projected and the contact area of the tyre with the ground
is reduced. As a result, the load on the unit area of the tyre is
increased and the middle part of the crown is worn out in an
accelerated manner.
3) Precaution: keep a standard tyre pressure and preclude
overloaded traveling.

2. Trouble at tyre shoulder and tyre sidewall

◆ Lateral bursting
1) Phenomena: tyre sidewalls are burst in a “zipper manner” with
a big scar and snapped steel ply cords.
2) Cause: the tyre is severely overloaded or under-pressurized so
that the tyre sidewall ply cords burst due to fatigue. Tyre sidewall
is subject to an external impact during traveling so that the tyre
bursts.
3) Precaution: keep an appropriate tyre pressure, drive correctly
and avoid overloading.
WT-18 Wheel WT-6127J-01

◆ Damage of tyre shoulder and sidewall

1) Phenomena: tyre shoulder or tyre sidewall is cut and damaged.
2) Cause: tyre shoulder or tyre sidewall is damaged by a sharp
object.Tyres are cut and damaged by a sharp stone embedded
between twin tyres.Tyre sidewall is scratched by any machinery of
the bus itself.
3) Precaution: take care to ensure proper driving and prevent the
bus from scratching or squeezing any obstacle or projecting object
during traveling or parking (e.g. staircase, rock wall, pit, etc).Take
care of the road conditions during routine driving. Check the tyre
frequently or regularly (particularly between twin tyres) and repair the damaged parts in a timely manner.

◆ Tyre shoulder bursting

1) Phenomena: tyre shoulder has X, Y or / shaped ruptures.
2) Cause: tyre hits against a sharp object and bursts upon a high
tyre load and traveling speed.
3) Precaution: pay special attention and slow down when the bus
travels on a road with poor surface conditions. Preclude
overloading and maintain a standard pressure. Properly and
reasonable steer the bus and nurture a good driving habit.

3. Trouble at tyre body

◆ Ply cords are loosened and cracked internally.
1) Phenomena: tyre ply cord layer has a 1-shaped rupture.
2) Cause: the tyre is subject to external impacts and damaged
during loaded traveling. Cause: overloading or improper driving so
that the tyre body is excessively deflected and the ply cords are
loosened and snapped.
3) Precaution: take care to ensure proper driving, prevent collision
with any obstacle or projecting object during traveling or parking
and avoid traveling on a road with uneven and poor surface
conditions. Maintain standard tyre pressure and strictly avoid
overloading.Take care of road surface conditions during routine traveling and check the tyre frequently or regularly.

◆ Tyre damage due to underpressure and grinding on the road

1) Phenomena: tyre sidewall is severely deformed; tyre ply cords
are loosened and snapped; squeegee and ply cord layer are
detached.
2) Cause: the tyre is punctured by a sharp stone or nail so that it
leaks and is ground to damage due to under-pressure. Long-term
under-pressure and overloaded traveling causes the tyre body to
deform and the ply cords to loosen and snap. Improper assembly of
new tyres so that the inflating valve leaks; presence of foreign
matters in the inner tube so that it is ground to damage due to
under-pressure.
 Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-19

3) Precaution: it is necessary to be highly alert during traveling and take reasonable and effective measures upon
detection of any anomaly. Overspeed is forbidden.

4. Trouble at tyre bead

◆ Tyre bead is damaged and ground.
1) Phenomena: tyre bead is damaged by external objects.The
lips of tubeless tyre bead are damaged. The tyre bead may be
partially or fully damaged and even its internal structure may be
damaged in severe cases so that the tyre is scrapped or bursts.
2) Cause: improper wheel rim is used for the tyre so that the rim
does not fit in with the curve of tyre bead seat and the tyre bead
becomes deformed for the long term. Partial deformation of
wheel rim may also damage the tyre bead. Long-term under-
pressure or overloading may aggravate the deformation of tyre
bead, cause it to rub against the wheel rim and damage the tyre
bead. Improper handling of the tyre or failure to use a proper
tool to install or remove a tubeless tyre will also damage the tyre bead. Other external factors may also scratch and
damage the tyre bead.
3) Precaution: wheel rims that fit in with the tyres must be used. Do not use deformed wheel rims. Maintain
standard tyre pressure and strictly avoid overloading. Properly remove and install the tyre. Proper tools must be
used for the installation and removal of tubeless tyres.

◆ Toe rupture
1) Phenomena: peripheral rupture of toe.
2) Cause: overloading or improper driving so that the tyre body
is excessively deflected and the ply cords are loosened and
snapped. Tyre is severely overloaded; tyre pressure does not fit
in with load; tyre sidewalls are excessively deformed and the
stress point moves downward so that the toe is severely
ruptured.
3) Precaution: wheel rims that fit in with the tyres must be used.
Do not use deformed wheel rims. Maintain standard tyre
pressure and strictly avoid overloading. Keep a good driving
habit and forbid frequent braking or sharp turning.

◆ Toe bursting
1) Phenomena: toe bursting, big scar, bursting from inside out,
normally in a sector shape.
2) Cause: overload and overspeed upon turning so that the tyres
on one side are excessively loaded and burst. The toe is worn
out for the long term and the wrapping fabrics and ply cords are
broken so that the toe bursts.
3) Precaution: wheel rims that fit in with the tyres must be used.
Do not use deformed wheel rims. Maintain a standard
pressure.Forbid overloading, keep a good driving habit and
forbid frequent braking or sharp turning.
WT-20 Wheel WT-6127J-01

◆ Burnt toe
1) Phenomena: toe adhesives are burnt.
2) Cause: wheel rim breadth is too small. The tyre is working
with an under-pressure, high load and high speed for the long
term and the brake drum is overheated so that the toe adhesives
are heated up, deformed and burnt and the toe bursts.
3) Precaution: wheel rim that matches the tyre must be used. Do
not use deformed wheel rim. Maintain an appropriate tyre
pressure and strictly avoid overloading. Keep the brakes in a
sound condition.

◆ Toe breakage
1) Phenomena: the ply cords on the inner side of the toe are
peripherally snapped.
2) Cause: sharp turns upon overload, under-pressure and
overspeed of the bus so that the wheel rim presses against
the tyre toe and the ply cords are broken.
3) Precaution: maintain standard tyre pressure and strictly avoid
overloading.Keep a good driving habit and forbid frequent
braking or sharp turning.

5. Schedule of common troubles of tyres

Crown
1 Crown bursting
2 Crown peeling
3 Crown scratch
4 Crown perforation
5 Deformation and
abrasion
6 Eccentric grinding of
crown
7 Worn-out crown
Shoulder and tyre sidewall Body Bead
Tyre sidewall bursting Ply cords are loosened Tyre bead is damaged and
and cracked internally. ground.
Shoulder and sidewall are Tyre damage due to Toe rupture
externally damaged. underpressure and
grinding on the road
Tyre shoulder bursting Toe bursting
Burnt toe
Toe breakage
 Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-21

 Removal and assembly of wheels and tyres

Warnings
Violation of operating regulations may cause displacement of the tyre and/or wheel hub and thus
explosion of the assembly. Such explosion may cause heavy casualties.

1. Safety precautions for removal and assembly

◆ Deflation and disassembly
1) Be sure to check if various parts of the assembly are correctly positioned before removal of the tyre/hub
assembly from the bus.
2) Be sure to remove the inflating valve and deflate the tyre before removal of the wheel or disassembly of wheel
parts from the bus.
3) Do not stand in front of the wheel hub during deflation.
4) Use a plummet, copper rod or plastic hammer instead of iron stabber to assemble or disassemble wheel hub
parts.
◆ Check the wheel hub.
1) Select tyres of an appropriate specification and structure that match the specification and size of the wheel hub
or wheel.
2) Do not use damaged, worn out or rusted wheel hub, wheel or fixture.
3) Be sure to clean and repaint slightly rusted wheel hub.
4) Do not use wheel hubs and wheels of uncertain specifications.
◆ Assembly and inflation
1) Be sure to check if the removable retainer ring is installed in place before inflation.
2) Be sure to inflate a tyre within a safety railing or use a retainer ring protector and remotely controlled check
valve so as to keep a proper distance from the tyre during inflation.
3) Do not install the retainer ring after the tyre is fully or partially inflated.
4) For a deflated or insufficiently inflated tyre, do not recharge or replenish the tyre before checking if the retainer
ring is installed in place and if the wheel hub is damaged.
5) Check the tyre pressure in a cold state. Do not deflate the tyre at a hot state to avoid insufficient charging.
Insufficiently charged tyres may be easily overheated and suddenly damaged due to excessive deformation and
thus there is difficulty in operation.
6) Do not use the tyre assembly with excessively wide retainer ring clearance and wide opening or without terminal
clearance.
7) Do not use a hammer to strike the parts of fully or partially inflated assembly.
WT-22 Wheel WT-6127J-01

2. Removal and assembly

◆ Remove the wheel and tyre
1) Loosen wheel nuts but do not remove them;
2) Jack up the bus until the tyres are lifted off the ground;
3) Remove the wheel nuts and tyres from the wheel hub and brake drum. Remove the inner wheel nuts together
with the inner tyres.
Caution: stop the wheels with a wedge.
◆ Disassemble the wheel and tyre (with inner tube).
1) Place the wheels and tyres on the ground with the retainer ring facing upward;
2) Be sure that the tyre has been fully deflated and the inflating valve has been removed;
3) Use a dedicated tool, insert its hooked end between the retainer ring and tyre sidewall, press it downward and
loosen the tyre bead from the retainer ring;
4) Gradually pry around the tyre until the tyre bead is fully removed from the retainer ring;
5) Use a dedicated tool to pry around the tyre gradually until the retainer ring is fully removed from the wheel hub
groove;
6) Turn the tyre assembly around so that the tyre bead on the other side is detached from the wheel hub and then
lift up the wheel hub from the tyre. Remove the lining belt from the tyre if any.
◆ Assemble the wheel and tyre (with inner tube).
1) Place the inner tube and lining belt into the tyre and inflate the tyre until it becomes round;
2) Apply rubber lubricants on the inner and outer surfaces of tyre beads on both sides and the inner tube and lining
belt between tyre beads;
3) Lay the wheel hub horizontally on the ground with the inflating valve groove facing upward and insert the
inflating valve into the groove;
4) Place the retainer ring on the wheel hub and align the opening of the retainer ring to the inflating valve;
5) Place the guide end of the retainer ring into the groove of the wheel hub;
6) Gradually step on the retainer ring starting from the inflating valve until the retainer ring is installed in place.
Check and ensure that the retainer ring has been fully installed into the groove;
7) Place the tyre assembly into the safety railing and inflate it according to the previous chapter. Slightly hammer
the retainer ring to check if it has been correctly positioned after inflation. Check if the tyre bead is in the original
position and fully deflate the inner tube to avoid creasing thereof. Charge the tyre with the recommended pressure
again and check the tyre assembly.
◆ Wheel and tyre installation
1) Check all components and replace excessively worn out and damaged components. Clean foreign matters from
wheel hub bolts, wheel nuts and the side of the wheel facing the brake drum.
2) Apply lubricants on the threads of wheel hub bolts and wheel nuts (engine oil or lubricating greases);
3) Rotate the wheel if necessary and check if the wheel hub bolts are in the middle of the wheel hub bolt holes and
then slightly fasten the wheel nuts;
4) Use a wheel nut wrench and fasten the wheel nuts with the required torque in a cross-fastening manner.
Caution: fasten the nuts repeatedly in the required sequence and increase the torque to the required
level in a gradual and even manner.
◆ Install twin tyres according to the following sequence and instructions:
1) Install inner wheel nuts;
2) Install outer wheel nuts;
3) If only the outer wheels are to be replaced, fasten all inner wheel nuts with the required torque firstly and then
install the outer wheels and fasten all outer wheel nuts with the required torque.
Caution: Install twin rear tyres to the extent the inflating valves of the twin tyres are 180 degrees to each
 Wheel WT-6127J-01 WT-23

other for the convenience of inflation.

Fasten all inner nuts and outer nuts in the foregoing method.

Warnings
● Fasten the wheel nuts with the required torque. Improper fastening torque of the wheel nuts
will cause the wheels to be detached and launch the bus out of control during traveling so that
heavy casualties and/or property losses will be resulted.
● If new wheels or wheel nuts are used, please check the wheel nuts for every traveling distance
of 50 to 100km (30 to 60 miles) and fasten with the required torque because the bolts and nuts
may not have been fully engaged. Use an appropriate torque wrench to check the fastening
torque.