GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE

JOINT SERVICES SPECIFICATION

ON

HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRING

(DS CAT NO: 5360-041 905)

ISSUED BY

JSS 5630-01 : 2011

DIRECTORATE OF STANDARDISATION
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE PRODUCTION
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
‘H’-BLOCK, NIRMAN BHAWAN P.O,
NEW DELHI – 110 011
 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE

JOINT SERVICES SPECIFICATION

ON

HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRING

(DS CAT NO: 5360-041 905)

ISSUED BY

JSS 5630-01 : 2011

DIRECTORATE OF STANDARDISATION
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENCE PRODUCTION
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
‘H’-BLOCK, NIRMAN BHAWAN P.O,
NEW DELHI – 110 011
 MEMBERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE FORMULATIOM OF THIS DOCUMENT

1. This Joint Services Specification has been approved by Shri. K. Tamilmani, Chief
Executive, Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification (CEMILAC), and Chairman,
Aeronautical Stores Standardisation Sub Committee in the Sub Committee meeting held on
26 Aug 2010.

2. The following members have been associated in preparation of this Joint Services
Specification: -

Ser Name & Designation Organisation

No

(1) Shri A Sakthivel, Sc,’E’ RCMA (Engines),

Working Group Chairmen CEMILAC, Bangalore

(2) Dr. V. Arun Kumar, Sc, ‘G’ & Jt. Head Propulsion Div, NAL, Bangalore

(3) Shri G Gouda, Sc, ‘G’ & Regional Director RCMA (Engines), CEMILAC,
Bangalore

(4) Dr. Jana, Sc ‘E’ Propulsion Div, NAL, Bangalore

(5) Shri D Jaganmohan Rao, Engineer HAL (Engine Division), Bangalore

(6) Shri Manikandan, Sc ‘B’ Propulsion Div, NAL, Bangalore

(7) Gp Capt VK Gupta, OIC Def. Stdn Cell, Bangalore

Member Secretary, Aero SSSC

(8) Lt Col SM Kannan Def. Stdn Cell, Bangalore

Assoc. Member Secy, Aero SSSC
 RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

Amendment Amendment Amended by

Signature
Pertains To:
Sl Authority Name & Appointment &
Date Sl.No. / Para No./ Column (IN BLOCK
No. Date
No. LETTERS)
 CONTENTS

0. FOREWORD

1. SCOPE

2. RELATED DOCUMENTS

3. TERMINOLOGY / DESCRIPTION

4. MATERIAL

5. SPECIFICATIONS / DIMENSIONS

6. TOLERANCES

7. WORKMANSHIP AND FINISH

8. MARKING

9. INSPECTION

10. VALIDATION

11. DEFENCE STORES CATALOGUE NUMBER

12. SUGGESTION FOR IMPROVEMENT

APPENDIX-A COMPRESSION SPRING MATERIALS

APPENDIX-B CONSTRUCTION / MANUFACTURE OF SPRINGS

APPENDIX-C DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

0. FOREWORD

0.1 This specification has been prepared by the Aeronautical Stores Standardisation Sub
Committee (Aero SSSC) on the authority of the Standardisation Committee, Ministry of
Defence.

0.2 This specification is approved by the Ministry of Defence and is mandatory for use by
Defence Services.

0.3 This JSS would be used for manufacture, quality assurance inspection and
procurement of the item.

0.4 The Quality Assurance Authority for the item covered by this JSS is Director General
of Aeronautical Quality Assurance (DGAQA), ‘H’ Block, Nirman Bhawan P.O., New Delhi–
110 011. Enquiries regarding this specification relating to any contractual conditions shall be
addressed to the Quality Assurance Authority named in the tender or contract. Other
enquiries shall be referred to: -

The Director,
Directorate of Standardisation,
Ministry of Defence,
‘H’ Block, Nirman Bhawan P.O,
New Delhi – 110 011.

0.5 Guidelines given in the following paragraphs are to present Helical Compression
Spring to assist the designers, Quality Assurance Authority and procurement agencies in
selecting helical compression spring. Different aspects of helical compression spring such as
terminology / descriptions, material, specifications / dimensions, tolerance, workmanship and
finish, marking, inspection, validation tests have been provided in this document. An attempt
has also been made to provide technical details related to construction / manufacture and
design considerations for helical compression springs.

0.6 Enquiries related to any technical matters may be referred to:

The Chief Executive (Airworthiness),
Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification,
Ministry of Defence (R&D),
Marathahalli Colony Post,
Bangalore – 560 037.
0.7 Copies of the JSS can be obtained on payment from: -
The Director,
Directorate of Standardisation,
Standardisation document Centre,
Room No 5,’J’ Block, Nirman Bhawan P.O,
New Delhi –110 011

0.8 This specification holds good only for the supply order for which it is issued.
0.9 Directorate of Standardisation Website. All the approved JSS/JSGs are available
on the Directorate of Standardisation Website www.defstand.gov.in. Defence Organisation
desirous of producing a copy of this document are requested to approach Director,
Directorate of Standardisation for obtaining user id/password to access the website.

1. SCOPE
1.1 This JSS gives the methodology to select a suitable Helical Compression Spring as
per the requirement. It consists of related documents/ standards, terminology / description,
material, specification / dimensions, tolerance, workmanship and finish, marking, inspection,
validation tests, etc.

2. RELATED DOCUMENTS

2.1 The following specifications have been referred in this JSS: -

(a) MIL-STD-29A, Springs, Mechanical: Drawing requirements for.

(b) IS: 10716 (Part3): 1999: Technical Product Documentation - Springs

(c) Springs: materials/ design/ manufacture– Spring Research Association,

Sheffield, UK, 1968.

(d) A.M. Wahl, Mechanical Springs, Mc-Graw Hill Inc., 1963.

(e) “Manual on Design and Application of Helical and Spiral Springs”, SAE,
1997.

(f) IS: 7906 (Part I): 1997: Design and Calculations for springs made from
circular section wire and bar.

(g) IS: 7906 (Part II): 1975:

2.2 Copies of the Indian Standards are obtainable on payment from:

Bureau of Indian Standards,

Manak Bhawan
9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg,
New Delhi – 110 002.

2.3 Copies of the American Society for Testing Material and Miscellaneous References
can be obtained on payment from: -

Book Supply Bureau,

A-68 South Extension (Part 1),
New Delhi – 110049

3. TERMINOLOGY / DESCRIPTION.
Wire Diameter, d Outer Diameter, Do
Inner Diameter, Di

Mean Diameter, Dm

Fig. 1
Pitch,m

Free Length, Lo

3.1 For the purpose of this specification the following definitions and abbreviations have
been used:

(a) Spring: Mechanical device designed to store energy when deflected and to
return the equivalent amount of energy when released.

(b) Compression Spring: It is a spring that offers resistance to a compressive force

applied axially.

(c) Helical Compression Spring: It is an open coil helical spring that offers
resistance to a compressive force applied axially. In general they are made from wire
of circular, square, or rectangular cross section.

(d) Load (P): The force exerted upon or by a spring in order to achieve the desired
movement in a mechanical component or to maintain force system in equilibrium.
The load can be static or dynamic in nature.

(e) Deflection per Coil ( ): The total deflection of the spring is divided by the
number of active coils.
(f) Active Coils: The number of coils that are considered for supporting the loads.
This does not include the ground flat three-quarters of the coil at each end.

(g) Total Coils: It is the number of active coils plus the part of coils forming the
ends, which are ground flat.

(h) Free Length (Lo): The overall length of a compression spring in the unloaded
position (Fig. 1).

(j) Solid Length (Lc): The overall length of a compression spring when all coils
are completely compressed and are in contact.

(k) Total Deflection: It is the movement of a spring from free position to its
maximum operating position.

(l) Outside Diameter (Do):It is the maximum diameter of the spring coil (Fig. 1).

(m) Inside Diameter (Di):It is the minimum diameter of the spring coil (Fig. 1).

(n) Mean / Pitch Diameter (Dm):It is the average diameter of the spring coil (Fig.
1).

(o) Pitch (m): The distance between centers of adjacent active coils of a spring in
the unloaded position (Fig. 1).

(p) Spring index (w): The ratio of the mean spring diameter to the diameter of the
wire (spring index = Dm/d, Fig. 1).

(q) Spring Stiffness / rate (k): The load required to deflect a compression spring
by one unit length. It is also referred to as “Spring constant”, “Gradient” or
“Load factor”.

(r) Spring Tolerances: The allowable variations are from a given dimension.

(s) Load Margin Factor: The ratio of the applied load to the load required to
compress the spring to its solid length.

(t) Direction of Helix: The direction of helix is right hand when the coil recedes
in a clockwise direction as viewed from one side and left hand when it recedes
in a counterclockwise direction.

(u) Stress Relief: Removal of residual stresses caused during the forming
operation by applying a low-temperature heat treatment.
4. MATERIAL

4.1 There is a wide range of spring materials available. The selection of material for a
particular application can be made based on the distinctive characteristics of the materials
such as corrosion resistance, high temperature operation, good electrical properties, fatigue
etc. A few of the mostly used spring materials are mentioned in Appendix A.

5. SPECIFICATIONS / DIMENSIONS

5.1 The following are the guidelines for specifying the dimensional and load data on
engineering drawings, which satisfy specific design requirements:

(a) No Load Specified: Load capacity of the spring is not specified. However, the
free length, coil diameter and the total number of coils are specified with the
tolerance. The manufacturer is required to furnish a spring, meeting these
dimensional data. It is designer’s responsibility to satisfy the required load capacity
of the spring.

(b) One Load Specified: This is applicable where the spring is required to
develop a particular load within a specified tolerance. The manufacturer is required to
meet the load requirement, the free length and the total number of coils is not
restricted. This type of spring is generally used where the spring develops the
specified load in initial assembly and is not subjected to further deflection.

(c) Two Loads Specified: This is applicable where the spring is required to
develop a particular load, within a specified tolerance at each of two different
compressed lengths. The manufacturer is required to meet the load requirements, the
free length and the total number of coils is not restricted.

(d) Spring Stiffness/ Rate Specified: This type of specification is applied where the
spring rate is the most significant characteristic, for example in calibrated scales. The
manufacturer is required to meet the prescribed spring rate but the free length and the
total number of coils are permitted to vary.

(e) Coil Diameter: In this type of springs it is required to specify any one of the
following dimensions with tolerance value such as, inner diameter, outer diameter.

(f) Direction of Helix: Specify the direction of helix as “LEFT HAND” (LH), or
“RIGHT HAND” (RH) as applicable otherwise specify as “OPTIONAL”.
 (g) Types of Ends:

(i) Plain Ends (Open ends not Ground): This type of ends results in largest
eccentricity of loading and is used only when accuracy of loads is not
important (Fig 2.a).

(ii) Squared Ends (Closed ends not Ground): In this case, load eccentricity is
less. It is used on light wire spring and heavier wire where the spring index
exceeds 13 (Fig 2.b).

(iii) Plain Ends Ground (Open Ends Ground): Have High eccentricity of
loading and tangle during shipping. They are sometimes used where the solid
height is very limited and it is necessary to have as many active coils as
possible in the least space (Fig 2.c).

(iv) Squared and Ground (Closed Ends Ground): It provides a level seat and
reduces the tendency to buckle (Fig 2.d).

a) Open, not b) Closed, not

Fig. 2

6. TOLERANCES

6.1 Cold-Wound Springs: Tolerances on the wire diameter, coil

diameter, and free length for cold-wound helical compression springs of average quality as
given by SAE c) Open,
Spring ground are listed in Table 1,d)
committees 2&Closed, ground These tolerances
3 respectively.
arise from normal manufacturing variations.
Table: 1 Wire Diameter Tolerances
Type of wire Wire Diameter, mm Tolerance, mm, ±
Up to 0.6604 0.00762
Music Wire Above 0.6604 to 1.6002 0.01257
Above 1.6002 to 6.35 0.0254
Carbon steel wire- Up to 1.905 0.0254
hard drawn or oil Above 1.905 to 9.525 0.0508
tempered Above 9.525 0.0762
Up to 3.7592 0.0254
Valve-spring-quality Above 3.7592 to 4.4958 0.0381
and alloy steel wire Above 4.4958 to 9.525 0.0508
Above 9.525 0.0762

Table: 2 Coil Diameter Tolerances

 Diameter Tolerances, mm, ±
Mean coil Diameter, mm D/d = 3 to 3.9 D/d = 8 to 15
up to 3.175 0.0762 0.1016
3.175 to 6.35 0.1016 0.1524
6.35 to 12.700 0.1524 0.254
12.700 to 25.400 0.254 0.4064
25.4 to 50.8 0.4064 0.635
50.8 to 101.6 0.635 1.0668
101.6 to 203.2 1.0668 1.6002
These tolerances are due to manufacturing variations only and do not take into
account changes in coil diameter as the spring deflects.

Table: 3 Free Length Tolerances

Free Length Tolerance, mm, (±)

Free length, mm.
D/d = 3 to 3.9 D/d = 8 to 15
Up to 12.7 0.635 1.016
Above 12.7 to 25.4 0.889 1.524
Above 25.4 to 50.8 1.270 2.032
Above 50.8 to 101.6 2.032 3.048
Above 101.6 to 203.2 3.048 4.826
Above 203.2 to 406.4 5.588 7.620
Above 406.4 to 812.8 8.890 11.430

6.1.1 Load and spring rate tolerances for cold-wound helical compression springs are listed
in Table 4. The spring rate is taken as the average load increase per unit length of deflection
between 20 to 60 percent of the total deflection of the spring without exceeding the elastic
limit.

Table: 4 Load and Rate Tolerances-Coil-Wound Compression Springs

Load tolerance, Spring rate tolerance, %,

No. of active coils
%, ± ±
Up to 3 15 10
3 to 9 10 8
9 to 15 8 6
Above 15 7 5
 6.2 Hot-Coiled Springs: Normal manufacturing tolerances on bar diameter and coil
diameter for hot-coiled compression springs are listed in Table 5 and 6 respectively. Closer
tolerance may be obtained if necessary at additional cost. The solid height tolerances of table
6 apply when nominal solid height is specified.

Table: 5 Bar Diameter Tolerances

Table: 6 Coil Diameter Tolerances

Inside or Outside diameter tolerances, mm, ±

Outside For Free Spring Height, mm

diameter, mm

Up to 254 254 to 457.2 457.2 to 660.4 660.4 to 863.6 863.6 to 1066.8

Up to 152.4 1.588 2.381 3.175 3.969 3.969

152.4 to 203.2 2.381 3.175 4.763 6.350 6.350
203.2 to 304.8 3.175 4.763 6.350 6.350 6.350

Table: 7 Solid Height Tolerances

Maximum deviation of solid height

Nominal solid Height, mm.
above nominal solid height, mm
Up to 177.8 1.588
Over 177.8 to 254 2.381
Over 254 to 330.2 3.175
Over 330.2 to 406.4 3.969
Over 406.4 to 482.6 4. 763
Over 482.6 to 558.8 5.556
Over 558.8 to 635 6.350

Bar diameter, mm Tolerance, mm, ±

up to 7.9375 0.127
7.9375 to 11.1125 0.178
11.1125 to 15.875 0.203
15.875 to 22.225 0.229
22.225 to 28.575 0.254
28.575 to 31.75 0.279
31.75 to 34.925 0.305
34.925 to 38.1 0.356
above 38.1 0.406
6.2.1 Nominal solid height here taken is equal to the total number of coils minus one half
coil, multiplied by the bar diameter.

6.2.2 Other tolerances for hot-wound compression springs as given by the SAE spring
committee are as follow:

(a) Free height tolerances = ± (1/16 in. +0.04δ)

Where δ = free to solid deflection
(This applies if a load is not specified)
(b) Load tolerances at fixed loaded height = ± (1/16 in. + 0.03δ) k
Where k = spring rate

6.2.3 These height tolerances are limited to springs with free height not over 36 in.,
not over six times free to solid deflection, and not less than 0.8 times outside diameter.

7. WORKMANSHIP & FINISH

7.1 The surface of the spring should be in quenched and tempered form. It should be
free from defects.

8. MARKING

8.1 The following markings shall appear appropriately on the spring;

(a) Name of the manufacturer

(b) Month and year of manufacture

8.1.1 It shall be stamped on springs with wire diameter of 15 mm and above in such a way
that it should not affect the life and functioning of the spring.

9. INSPECTION

9.1 The following inspections are carried out on springs: -

(a) Dimensional and Geometrical Inspection: All dimensional tests are to be

carried only after the spring has passed through the complete manufacturing
processes. The tests should be conducted in the unloaded condition.

(i) Nominal Dimensions - Not to be checked/ only

reference
(ii) Wire dimensions - using ball ended
Micrometer or vernier calipers
(iii) Outside diameter - using NOGO & GO
Gauges
 (iv) Inside diameter - using NOGO & GO
Gauges
(v) Mean diameter - cannot be measured / a
Calculated value
(vi) Total No. of Coils - measured from one tip
Of the coil to other end
(vii) No. of Active Coils - Cannot be measured /
Calculated value
(viii) Load test - Measured the load at required
loaded length using suitable
spring load tester
(ix) Spring rate - Cannot be measured /
A calculated value.

(x) Cracks: Springs manufactured from wire less than 0.064" / 1.625 mm
in diameter shall receive a close visual examination using X 5
magnification. All springs manufactured from the wire over 0.064" /
1.625 mm in diameter shall undergo a crack test to the relevant NDT.

(xi) Squareness: For the springs which ends are ground shall be measured
by keeping the spring on a surface plate against a square and measuring
the largest deviation from the top end coil and the square by using feeler
gauges.

(xii) Parallelism: It is measured in two ways. When a spring is placed

over the ground surface and a parallel plate is moved in close and touches
the upper end coil, parallelism is the maximum deviation between the
upper end coil and the plate measured using feeler gauges .The other way
is by measuring the height of the spring at two diametrically opposite
points and noting the difference in the two heights. For a number of
places, the maximum height difference gives the measure of parallelism.

(xiii) Bow: When a spring is placed horizontally over a surface plate, and
the maximum deviation measured using feeler gauges between the surface
plate and any coil is the measure of bow.

10. VALIDATION

10.1 Validation Of Spring At Component Level

(a) Load Deflection Test: The spring (where the Rate is important) response for
through out its working length on application of load shall have the linear
characteristics. A graph shall be drawn between load and deflection for minimum of
4 points and shall show the linear curve.
 (b) Fatigue (Endurance) Test: The spring shall be subjected to 106 cycles of
loading and unloading between the working compressions lengths and shall not show
any evidence of failure.

10.2 Validation Of Spring At Functional Level.

10.2.1 Functional test shall be carried out on the spring for the performance of the end
application.

11. DEFENCE STORES CATALOGUE NUMBER

11.1 The items bears a Defence Store Catalogue Number as given below :- DS Cat Part
No. 5360-041 905.

12. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

12.1 Any suggestions for improvement in this document may be forwarded to:
The Director,
Directorate of Standardisation,
Ministry of Defence,
‘H’ Block, Nirman Bhawan P.O,
New Delhi – 110 011
 Appendix – ‘A’

COMPRESSION SPRING MATERIALS

1. BS HR 502 (Nimonic 90): - Nimonic 90 is a Nickel-Chromium-Cobalt alloy and

widely used in high temperature conditions. It has high stress-rupture strength and creep
resistance at high temperature.

2. High Carbon Steels

(a) Music Wire (QQ-W-470, ASTM A228-51)

(b) Hard drawn steel wire (QQ-W-428, TYPE-II: ASTM A227-47)

(c) Oil Tempered Steel wire (QQ-W-428; TYPE I; ASTM A229-56)

(d) Carbon steel valve spring quality wire (ASTM A280-47)

3. Alloy Steel Wire

(a) Chrome-Vanadium Alloy Steel wire

(b) Silico-Manganese Alloy Steel Bar

(c) Chrome-Silicon Alloy Steel Wire

4. Corrosion Resisting Steel Wire

5. Copper Base Alloys

(a) Spring Brass

(b) Phosphor Bronze

(c) Beryllium Copper

6. Nickel Base Alloys

(a) Monel

(b) K-Monel

(c) Inconel

(d) Inconel X

7. Steel Strip High Carbon

(a) SAE 1074

(b) SAE 1095

 Appendix – ‘B’

MANUFACTURING / CONSTRUCTION OF SPRINGS

Springs can be made by cold or hot forming processes. In general, the light
duty springs (approximately wire diameter up to 12 mm) are manufactured by cold drawn
process. General information on a few operations is mentioned below.

(a) Coiling: The coil of a spring can be manufactured using a mandrel or an

automatic coiling machine. Mandrel coiling is done for specially designed springs in
small batches. Automatic coiling machine is used in case of mass production where
the wire is pulled through a series of feed rolls.

(b) Scragging: After the coiling, the spring shall be compressed 4-5 times to its
solid length.

(c) Stress Relieving: Cold formed spring coils should normally be heat-treated for
the purpose of stress relief and enhancing the elastic limit. Springs that are made
from pre-hardened wire such as Music wire, Oil tempered, hard drawn, corrosion
resisting are stress relieved by heating at low temperatures from 200 to 3500 C to
reduce the residual stresses that are formed during coiling operation. For springs
made of annealed wire are hardened and tempered in a manner similar to tool steel.

(d) Cold Set To Solid: This process is to stabilize the free length of a compression
spring, so that subsequent accidental, compression to solid height will not change the
loads at working deflections.

(e) Grinding: End coils are ground in order to make the spring stand upright,
obtain a good seat against a contacting part, reduce buckling, exert more uniform
pressure against the mating part. The end coil grinding can be achieved in a disc-feed
or paddle-feed machine where accuracy of the process should be ensured.

(f) Shot Peening: The fatigue life of springs can be improved by shot peening
process in which the springs are tumbled in an enclosure and also exposed to the shot
projected at high velocity. This process is applied to all highly stressed springs made
from steel and non-ferrous materials. Shot peening will increase the spring life at
least 30 %. All heat-treating and stress relieving processes should be done before shot
peening, except where electroplating is required.

(g) Surface Finishing: The surface finishing can be applied to the springs after it
is heat treated at low temperature and stress relieved. The surface finishing process
includes deburring, polishing, scouring, burnishing, electroplating, etc.
 Appendix-‘C’

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: (ADDITIONAL INFO.)

A few design parameters, which are important in selecting a compression spring

discussed below. Detailed discussions on the design of helical compression springs are
presented in the references mentioned before.

(a) Spring Rate, k : -Spring rate or the stiffness is given as,

P Gd 4
k= =
δ 8 Dm 3 n
Where, P is applied load, is the deflection, G is the shear modulus, d is the
wire diameter, Dm is the coil diameter, n is the number of active coils.

(b) Shear Stress, τ : -

8.Dm
τ= .P
π .d 3
For static or infrequently loaded spring, τ shall be used for evaluating the
design of the spring.

(c) Buckling: - It is the tendency for a spring to fly our sidewise due to buckle
when they are made too long. So it is necessary to choose the spring proportions in
such a way the working load will always less than critical buckling load or if it is not
practical, guides must be provided to prevent sidewise motion.
Buckling spring deflection,
 G 2
0 .5  E  π .Dm  
δ k = L0 . . 1− 1− . 
G  0 . 5 + G  ν .L0  
1−  E 
E 
Where δ k is the buckling spring deflection, Lo is the free length, G is the
modulus of rigidity, E is the elastic modulus, ν is the seating coefficient

(d) Diameter Change:- For a compression spring, the coil diameter increases
slightly when it is compressed.
 m 2 − 0.8m.d − 0.2d 2 
∆De = 0.1 
 D 
Where ∆De is the increase in coil diameter,
L −d
m, pitch = 0 for springs with ends closed machined flat and ground
n
L − 2.5.d
= 0 For springs with ungrounded ends
n
d is the wire diameter of the spring

(e) Natural Frequency: The resonance can occur in a spring if it excited at

frequency equals to its natural frequency, hence it is of great importance to designer.
The lowest natural frequency of a helical compression spring held between two
parallel plates may be written as,
 2.d Gg
Natural Frequency, f e =
π .n.Dm 32 ρ
2

Where ρ is the density of the spring material, g is the acceleration due to

gravity, n is the active number of coil.

(f) Impact: In some cases, spring may be exposed to impact loads, which results
in excessive stress in the spring. The increase in shear stress due to impact with a
velocity v may be written as,
2.ρ .G
∆τ = v. .
g