Professional Documents
Culture Documents
State-of-the-Art Report on
Precast Concrete Pavements
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Highway
BLACK: Administration
P P- 05- 12
First Editio n
U.S. Department
of Transportation
WHITE: Federal Highway
Administration
Documents 1–4
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
STATE-OF-THE ART REPORT
ON PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
Publication PP-05-12
Copyright © 2012
By Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in a review
written for inclusion in a magazine or newsletter.
ISBN 978-0-9853079-6-7
This document has been prepared and reviewed through an extensive Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute (PCI) Committee process to present state-of-the-art information on
precast concrete pavement systems. Substantial effort has been made to ensure that all
collected data and information included in this report are accurate. PCI, the committee
members, the authors, and the quoted agencies cannot accept responsibility for any errors
or oversights in this report, the use of this material, or in the preparation of any design and
engineering plans. This document is intended for reference by professional personnel who
are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and who are able
to accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. Actual conditions on
any project must be given special consideration and more specific evaluation and
engineering judgment may be required that are beyond the intended scope of this work.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the agencies
mentioned, and do not constitute a standard or policy for design or construction.
iv (SEP 12)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication is a product of a cooperative agreement between PCI and the Federal Highway Administration.
PCI wishes to thank FHWA for its participation, encouragement, and guidance in this work. In addition, other
products will be developed as part of the cooperative agreement.
The chairman of the PCI Pavement Committee, David K. Merritt, was instrumental in the accomplishment of this
document. As a graduate student, Merritt worked under the direction of Drs. Ned H. Burns and Frank B.
McCullough at the University of Texas at Austin on the development of design and construction methodologies for
precast, prestressed concrete pavement. Their work culminated in the first such project in the United States in
2001 located in Texas. Merritt is a consultant to FHWA and has been uniquely involved in all the FHWA-state
agency precast pavement demonstration projects throughout the country. With that experience, he first prepared
the outline and then the first draft of this publication.
Drawings and photographs not specifically otherwise identified have been provided courtesy of The Transtec
Group, Inc.
Over the several years of development, many others in addition to the committee engaged in discussions at the
meetings and read one or more of the progression of drafts. PCI wishes to thank all of these professionals for their
time and expertise. Many of those who participated in the PCI Pavement Committee process are acknowledged
below. Special appreciation is extended to the following state agency persons who attended meetings and shared
documents and experience from the precast concrete pavement projects in their states:
Kirsten Stahl, California Department of Transportation
William Stewart, Delaware Department of Transportation
Karen Consiglio, Virginia Department of Transportation
Claude Napier, Federal Highway Administration
Daniel Hsiao, Utah Department of Transportation
The following is a list of the active Voting Members of the PCI Pavement Committee at the time this document was
printed
David K. Merritt, Chair R. Jon Grafton Douglas M. Mooradian
The Transtec Group, Inc. U.S. Concrete Precast Group / Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Pomeroy Manufacturers Association of Calif
William N. Nickas, Non-voting
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Frank W. Grubbs Theodore Neff
Institute Grubbs Technical Services, Inc. Post-Tensioning Institute
Wallace Turner, Non-voting Andy J. Keenan Richard Potts
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Prestress Engineering Company, Standard Concrete Products, Inc.
Institute LLC
Chuck Prussack
Reid W. Castrodale Dan Kolb Central Pre-Mix Prestress Co.
Carolina Stalite Company Prestress Engineering Company,
LLC Roy H. Reiterman
John S. Dick Roy Reiterman, P.E. & Associates
J. Dick Precast Concrete Consultant, Larry Krauser
LLC General Technologies Inc. Ziad Sakkal
Con-Fab California Corporation
Thomas R. Dodge Donald F. Meinheit
Prestress Engineering Company, Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Peter Smith
LLC Inc. The Fort Miller Company, Inc.
v (SEP 12)
The following are Consulting Members of the PCI Pavement Committee. Consulting Members are not held to the
same strict attendance standards for Voting Members as set forth in the PCI Group Operating Manual. Many of
these members attended numerous meetings and participated in committee work including verbal and written
reviews of the document.
Heinrich O. Bonstedt Mary Ellen Kimberlin Jack Schmerer
Central Atlantic Bridge Associates Mary Ellen Kimberlin, LLC RMS Productions
Ned H. Burns Steve Koch Milenko Simic
University of Texas at Austin, Sumiden Wire Products Prestressed Systems Inc.
Retired Corporation (SWPC)
Taylor Slate
John Dobbs Bryan J. Lampe Hamilton Form Company
Consultant Dywidag Systems International
Eric Steinberg
USA, Inc.
D. Scott Eshleman Ohio University
Consultant Michael D. LaViolette
Shiraz Tayabji
HNTB Corporation
Jim Fabinski Fugro Consultants, Inc.
EnCon Colorado Andrew Maybee
Suneel N. Vanikar
Concrete Paving Association of
Peter I. Finsen Federal Highway Administration
Tennessee
Georgia/Carolinas PCI
Leif Wathne
Thomas M. McEvoy
Mukand V. Handa American Concrete Pavement
CSA International Anil Mehta Association
Prestressed Systems Inc.
Joe Harrison Lee Wegner
General Technologies Inc. Ghulam Mujtaba Hanson Structural Precast Eagle
Florida Department of
Simon Harton Richard Wells
Transportation
LEAP Associates International, Inc. Insteel Wire Products
Joseph L. Napoli
Todd Hawkinson Gary Wilson
American Spring Wire
Wire Reinforcement Institute Concrete Technology Corporation
Celik Ozyildirim
Timothy Holien Han-Ching Wu
Virginia Transportation Research
Spancrete ConArt Precast LLC
Center
Mohsen A Issa Alfred A. Yee
Burson Patton
University of Illinois at Chicago Yee Precast Design Group Ltd.
Texas Concrete Company
Venkatesh S. Iyer Paul Zia
Robert R. Roeller
AMEC North Carolina State University,
Dayton Superior Corporation
Retired
vi (SEP 12)
INFORMATION FOR USERS
xv (SEP 12)
a) Typical Keyway Dimensions............................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 7
b) Keyway Joint Shown in Installed Panels ....................................................................................................................................... 2 - 7
Figure 2.1.4.1-1 Longitudinal Panel Joint ................................................................................................................................................ 2 - 7
a) Facing Female Keyways in a Longitudinal Joint ........................................................................................................................ 2 - 7
b) Joint Filled with Grout and Finished ............................................................................................................................................... 2 - 7
Figure 2.2.3-1 Multiple "Levels" of Reinforcement to Consider when Determining Thickness of Panels. ................ 2 - 9
Figure 2.2.5-1 Options for Connecting Precast Pavement to Existing Pavement at Terminal Ends using a Closure
Placement (Left) or Dowel/Tie-Bar Slots (Right). ............................................................................................................................ 2 - 10
Figure 2.2.6.2-1 Base materials used for PPCP .................................................................................................................................. 2 - 11
a) Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete .................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 11
b) Permeable Asphalt Treated Base .................................................................................................................................................. 2 - 11
c) Lean Concrete ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 11
d) Crushed Stone ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2 - 11
e) Pervious Concrete ................................................................................................................................................................................ 2 - 12
f) Granular Base .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 12
Figure 2.2.6.3-1 Friction-Reducing Membranes................................................................................................................................ 2 - 12
a) 6-Mil Polyethylene Sheeting ............................................................................................................................................................ 2 - 12
b) Geotextile Fabric ................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 12
Figure 2.2.9.1-1 Stressing Techniques used for PPCP .................................................................................................................... 2 - 14
a) Central Stressing ................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 14
b) End Stressing.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 14
Figure 2.2.11.2-1 Types of PPCP Expansion Joints........................................................................................................................... 2 - 17
a) Armored Joint Before Placement in Form ................................................................................................................................. 2 - 17
b) Armored Joint in Service ................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 17
c) Plain Dowelled Joint with Elastomeric Seal .............................................................................................................................. 2 - 17
d) Header-Type Joint with Silicone Seal .......................................................................................................................................... 2 - 17
Figure 2.3.3-1 Examples of Possible Distresses in PPCP ............................................................................................................... 2 - 21
a) Transverse Panel Crack ..................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 21
b) Spall at Panel Joint ............................................................................................................................................................................... 2 - 21
c) Expansion Joint Seal Deterioration ............................................................................................................................................... 2 - 21
d) Cracking Around Perimeter of Stressing Pockets .................................................................................................................. 2 - 21
e) Lifting Anchor Patch Deterioration .............................................................................................................................................. 2 - 22
Figure 3.2.1-1 Definition of Dimensional Tolerances ........................................................................................................................ 3 - 4
Figure 3.2.4-1 Heavy-duty Steel Formwork used for PPCP Panel Fabrication ....................................................................... 3 - 7
Figure 3.3.4.2-1 Post-tensioning Duct Materials ............................................................................................................................... 3 - 10
a) Galvanized Metal Spiral Duct .......................................................................................................................................................... 3 - 10
b) Both Plastic and Galvanized Metal Ducts .................................................................................................................................. 3 - 10
c) Rigid Plastic Single-Strand Duct ..................................................................................................................................................... 3 - 10
Figure 3.3.4.2-2 Examples of Post-Tensioning End Anchorage Assemblies ......................................................................... 3 - 10
xx (SEP 12)
LIST OF TABLES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This first of four documents on the use of precast concrete pavement systems (PCPS), provides guidance for
owner agencies for determining appropriate applications. It describes the benefits of PCPS to the traveling public
realized through reduced traffic disruption due to 1) speed of construction, 2) improved durability, 3) improved
safety, 4) and all-weather construction. The many types of applications that are appropriate for precast concrete
pavements are described. There are also brief descriptions of some projects that have been completed.
In defining terminology, when PCPS are prestressed, either pretensioning in the fabrication plant, or post-
tensioned during construction, they are referred to as precast, prestressed concrete pavement or PPCP.
Nonprestressed precast concrete panels are called jointed precast pavement systems, or JPPS.
in the direction of traffic, to act as continuous slabs. It is important that prestress is provided in both directions if
the maximum benefits of prestressing are to be realized. Figure 1.1.3-1 shows a schematic view of typical PPCP.
Some of the key components of this system will be discussed further in this and the other three documents in this
series.
Figure 1.1.3-1
Identification of Components of PPCP
Joint Panel
Mid-Slab Anchor Panels/Mid-Slab Anchor Sleeves
(End Stressing Configuration)
Base Panels
P-T Stressing/Anchor
Access Pockets
Expansion Joint
Joint Panel Prepared Base
Transverse
Pretensioning
Friction-Reducing
Post-Tensioning Membrane
Bar Tendon Longitudinal
(Optional) Post-Tensioning
Longitudinal Keyway Panel Joints
Strand Tendons
Post-Tensioning Ducts
pavement can be opened to traffic almost immediately after the panels are installed. These benefits and methods
are described in the sections that follow.
Factory precasting allows the advantages of prestressing to be realized. Prestressing precompresses the concrete
and results in greater structural capacity and improved durability. PPCP can allow thinner panels to be used and
provides improved durability by greatly reducing or eliminating cracking.
1.1.5.3 Durability
Precast concrete lends itself to durable solutions. This results from concrete materials, mixtures, and methods
that are used in permanent precast concrete manufacturing plants. Furthermore, concrete mixtures are
transported only a short distance between the batch plant and the forms, helping to ensure mixture uniformity.
Precast plants offer many options for curing concrete. Some provide indoor fabrication, heat-assisted curing, and
even wet mat curing after removal from the forms. These are some of the options available to help ensure
improved durability of the finished product. In-situ concrete shrinkage is largely eliminated as most shrinkage
will occur prior to installation during curing and storage of the panels at the fabrication plant.
Pretensioning in the plant improves durability by greatly reducing or eliminating cracking. The concrete is
precompressed from the time it is removed from the forms through the life of the pavement.
1.1.5.5 Safety
Safety in the work zone is an important advantage of precast pavement. By permitting construction to be
completed during short closures, it can be restricted to non-peak travel times when both worker exposure to
traffic and traffic exposure to construction operations and traffic control measures is minimized.
1.1.5.7 Sustainability
PCPS are recognized to be a sustainable solution. Sustainability concepts include the impacts of construction on
the traveling public and the longevity of the construction. PCPS are fast to install, thereby reducing traffic
congestion and the associated pollution during construction. Precast concrete products are designed for long life,
prolonging the life cycle of construction, and reducing waste and energy consumption (Merritt and Tyson, 2011).
of rapid construction as PPCP. Figure 1.1.7-1 shows some of the key components of various jointed precast
pavement systems currently available.
Nonprestressed, precast concrete pavement systems offer a unique advantage: individual precast panels can be
removed if necessary and replaced without concern for maintaining the integrity of continuous post-tensioning
tendons as in a prestressed pavement. This may be beneficial, for example, in pavements in urban areas where
utility cuts are expected. Nonprestressed pavement systems also provide a solution that is more easily adapted to
complex intersections and challenging geometries such as superelevated sections, compound curves, or
applications with unusual features like drainage inlets and manholes.
Prestressed JPPS have also been developed and utilize two-way pretensioning in lieu of a double mat of mild steel
reinforcement. Similar to nonprestressed JPPS, they can be used for isolated slab replacements, providing the
additional benefit of prestressed pavement.
Figure 1.1.7-1
Components of Jointed Precast Pavement Systems
Ports for Underslab Grout
Reinforced Precast or Foam Injection
Concrete Panels
12 ft – 20 ft
Ports for Grouting Dowel Bar Slots Joint Spacing
(Bottom of Slab Configuration)
reinforced pavements for roadways, airfields, and bridge decks. High strength grout is used in the panel joints and
reinforcing bar couplers.
1.2 APPLICATIONS
1.2.1 New Construction
PCPS are most cost-effective for reconstruction and rehabilitation of existing pavements, but also have
applications for new construction. There are sections of highway construction projects that require rapid
construction. This would include locations where access must be provided to construction vehicles or detoured
traffic.
The rate of construction for PCPS will probably not be competitive with conventional cast-in-place (slipform)
paving for new construction of mainline pavement. However, there may be portions of a project where PCPS
could be used. These include bridge approach slabs or intersections with intersecting highways or streets.
Other opportunities include by-pass lanes around toll booths to facilitate electronic tolling. Such lanes are being
installed in many states and need to be installed quickly with as little disruption to traffic as possible. Other
mainline applications for PPCP include projects in remote areas without convenient access to ready-mix concrete
or specialized paving equipment.
The first PPCP project in the United States is shown in Figure 1.2.1-1a. It was constructed in 2001 as a
demonstration project to provide 1,100 ft of I-35 frontage road near Georgetown, Tex. (Merritt et al., 2002).
The largest such project to date was a mainline pavement completed in 2009 in Indonesia on the Island of Java
shown in Figure 1.2.1-1b (Nantung et al., 2010). The new 22-mile-long alignment of four-lane divided highway
utilized PPCP . The primary value of using PPCP was to avoid importing large specialty paving equipment, and to
boost the local economy through the employment of hundreds of local workers for precasting and construction.
Figure 1.2.1-1
PPCP Installations for New Construction
a) Project near Georgetown, Tex. (Photo: Merritt et al., b) Project in Indonesia (Photo: Tommy Nantung)
2002)
1.2.2 Reconstruction
The vast majority of highway infrastructure work in the United States involves reconstruction of existing facilities
that have reached the end of their useful lives. Most of this infrastructure renewal is occurring in urban areas
where lane closures must be minimized. Reconstruction means the complete removal of a pavement section with
a new pavement.
Reconstruction may or may not include the removal and reconstruction of the underlying base and subgrade. For
most rapid-renewal applications, it is desirable to minimize disruption or replacement of the underlying material.
An advantage of PPCP for reconstruction is that it has the potential to eliminate the need for replacement of
underlying base layers. PPCP can be designed to account for less than optimum support by adjusting the level of
reinforcement or prestress in the panels. The use of precast pavement also permits reconstruction to be
completed in shorter lane closures, one section at a time, keeping the pavement open to traffic during peak travel
times.
1.2.2.1 Mainline
Mainline pavement reconstruction often has a major impact on the travelling public as many highways,
particularly in urban areas, already exceed their designed capacity, especially during peak travel times. Closing
even a single lane for reconstruction can substantially increase congestion and associated travel delays. For this
reason, many state highway agencies consider only one of the following options as a viable solution for mainline
reconstruction in urban areas:
Full closure of the roadway for the duration of construction, with available detour routes clearly
identified to the traveling public.
Closure of only one or two lanes at a time, and only during non-peak travel times (generally nighttime or
weekend closures).
Full closures of a roadway will permit conventional cast-in-place paving operations. Nightly or weekend closures
of one or two lanes will require rapid-construction techniques such as PCPS. PCPS will not only meet the
requirements for rapid reconstruction, but will provide a longer-lasting pavement.
The Virginia and Delaware Departments of Transportation installed PPCP using nighttime closures. These
projects are shown in Figure 1.2.2.1-1 (see Merritt and Tyson, 2011).
Figure 1.2.2.1-1
Mainline Pavement Reconstruction Projects Using PCPS During Nighttime Closures
a) PCPS Used in Virginia (Photo: David Shiells, Virginia b) PCPS Used in Delaware
Department of Transportation)
1.2.2.2 Ramps
Ramps are the critical links to every highway. The closure of ramps for reconstruction can result in long detours
to adjacent ramps which can significantly increase congestion and impact safety. Minimizing the closure time of
ramps for reconstruction is a very important consideration, and PPCP offers a solution that will permit ramp
reconstruction to be completed during non-peak travel times. Ramps were part of the project constructed in
Virginia as reported in Merritt and Tyson (2011), and shown in Figure 1.2.2.2-1.
Figure 1.2.2.2-1.
Ramp Reconstruction During Nighttime Closures in Virginia
a) A slab from the Existing Ramp Being Removed b) A New Jointed Precast Pavement Slab Being
Installed
1.2.3 Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is a treatment applied to an existing pavement that will help prolong its useful life at a lower cost
than full reconstruction. For concrete pavements, overlays and repairs to, or replacement of, individual slabs or
sections of slabs are common rehabilitation techniques. These are further described in the following sections.
a) In Michigan Using the Full-depth Slab and Joint b) In New Jersey Using the Super Slab® System
Replacement method
Full-width panels are an ideal application for overlays. While lane-by-lane construction is also possible, it would
require additional maintenance of traffic considerations. Constructing an unbonded overlay one lane at a time
with PCPS would require safety barriers between lanes to protect traffic from the drop-off between the new
overlay in one lane and existing pavement in the adjacent lane.
Figure 1.2.3.2-1.
Unbonded Concrete Overlay Concept (Graphic: Harrington, 2008)
1 - 10 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.2 Applications
Figure 1.2.4-1.
PCPS used for Bridge Approaches in Iowa
a) Two Panels Formed the Width of the Approach b) Panels after Installation and Grouting
Roadway
1.2.5 Airfield and Industrial Pavements
PCPS have been used for airfield pavements to a limited degree in the United States. In general, precast concrete
pavement has been used for critical areas, such as aprons, taxiways, and runways at busy airports that cannot be
closed to aircraft except during short overnight windows. Precast concrete panels have been used previously for
temporary pavement at the intersection of two runways. This allowed operations on one runway during
conventional reconstruction of the other.
Airfield pavement slabs are generally much thicker than conventional highway pavements, and individual slabs
are generally much larger in size. This may require the use of multiple precast concrete panels to replace a single
existing slab. Prestress levels can be adjusted so that thinner panels can be used, while also providing for higher
flexural handling stresses from larger panel sizes.
Similar to airfield pavements, industrial pavements and driveways may support very heavy wheel loads, requiring
stronger pavement sections. Usually, they cannot be closed for long periods of time for reconstruction. PPCP
provides a solution for heavy-duty pavement where the prestress levels in the panels can be adjusted for the load
levels that the pavement will experience. This provides a solution for pavements at ports, container yards, mines,
warehouses, and other facilities where construction must be completed during very short closures.
Applications are shown in Figure 1.2.5-1 and described in Merritt et al. (2008).
Figure 1.2.5-1.
PPCP Panels can be used for a Variety of Applications
a) Heavy-Use Industrial Application in Alaska (Photo: b) Precast Airfield Pavement in New York (Photo:
Teck Alaska Incorporated) Shiraz Tayabji)
1 - 11 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.3 Considerations For Site Selection
1.2.6.1 Widening
Widening an existing pavement typically involves removal of the existing shoulder and replacement with
structural pavement and new shoulder. In general, the pavement structure beneath the existing shoulder is not
designed for mainline traffic loading, which could require significant base and subgrade reconditioning. PCPS
offer a solution for widening an existing pavement that can be installed during short closures while providing the
new required structural capacity.
1.2.6.4 Intersections
Intersections are unique in that they affect travel for two roadways. Intersections can generally be closed only for
very short periods of time. PCPS provide a rapid construction solution for this type of application. Most
intersections are three-dimensional in nature, with combinations of various cross-slopes and grade changes. This
requires a detailed survey of the intersection including locating all utilities prior to designing the layout of the
precast panels.
1.2.6.5 Limited Overhead Clearances
For reconstruction of pavements beneath bridges or other structures with limited clearance, PPCP provides a
solution that can reduce the thickness of the pavement section, while resulting in desirable short-term lane
closures. High-strength concrete in combination with prestressing can result is pavement thicknesses
significantly less than traditional pavements.
Crowned pavement sections can be accommodated by varying the thickness of full-width precast panels or by
using panels of uniform thickness and creating a continuous longitudinal joint at the crown line. Sections with
variable cross slopes, such as superelevation transition areas, can be accommodated with special proprietary
warped or folded panels of uniform thickness or by varying the thickness of each panel to accommodate the
varying surface geometry. If uniform thickness panels are not used in these areas, the thickness of panels may
need to be varied within each panel and from panel to panel complicating panel fabrication and subgrade
preparation requirements.
Figure 1.3.1-1
Roadway Curvature is not a Limitation for PPCP
a) Customized, Curved, Prestressed, Heavy-Use b) Typical PPCP Panels Used in a Vertical Curve in Texas
Industrial Pavement Panels (Photo: Teck Alaska (Photo: Merritt et al., 2002)
Incorporated)
1 - 13 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.4 Agency Considerations
For all unique applications such as these, it may be necessary to develop shop drawings based on digital terrain
models of the existing roadway. Then, the precast concrete panels can be produced to fit each unique location.
1 - 14 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.4 Agency Considerations
Some of the more important items that must be addressed when developing specifications for PCPS applications
include:
Concrete mixture design―allow mixture designs to be used that are common to plant-produced precast
concrete, so long as they satisfy durability requirements for concrete pavement mixtures
Concrete materials―permit materials such as aggregates, pozzolans (slag and other supplemental
cementitious materials), and admixtures to be used that may not normally be required for concrete
pavements
Strength Requirements―specify concrete compressive or flexural strength that is appropriate for precast
concrete
Surface Finish―allow variance to normal cast-in-place concrete pavement finishing requirements. Some
alternative surface textures (e.g., turf drag) are easier to achieve in precast production.
Curing―allow standard precast concrete curing methods to be used, even if they are not common for
concrete pavement
Joint Materials―allow expansion joint seals (e.g., neoprene and other preformed materials) to be used
even if they are not normally used for concrete pavement
Inspection―provide inspection criteria and inspector training that are appropriate for precast concrete
pavement for items such as panel fabrication, base preparation, installation tolerances, post-tensioning,
and grouting
Distress and Repair―provide distress identification guidelines and repair procedures that are
appropriate for precast concrete pavement
Ride Quality―specify finished pavement ride quality requirements that are appropriate for what can be
expected from a precast concrete pavement
Opening to Traffic―specify opening to traffic criteria that are appropriate for precast concrete pavement
1 - 15 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.5 Resources For Additional Information/1.6 Cited References
1 - 16 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT ONE
APPLICATIONS FOR PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
1.6 Cited References
PCI Committee on Bridges and PCI Bridge Producers Committee. 2011. “State-of-the-Art Report on Full-Depth
Precast Concrete Bridge Deck Panels”, First Edition. (SOA-01-1911E). Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
Chicago, IL. 141 pp.
https://netforum.pci.org/eweb/DynamicPage.aspx?Site=PCI_NF&WebKey=9766331d-1b7d-4c4b-89cb-
fc801bc30745&ListSearchFor=bridge%20deck%20panels (Fee)
Tayabji, S. D., E. J. Barenberg, W. Gramling, and P. Teng. 2001. Prestressed Concrete Pavement Technology Update,
In the Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Concrete Pavements. September 9-13, Orlando, FL. pp.
871-890.
http://www.concretepavements.org/
Tayabji, S., D. Ye, and N. Buch. 2011. Modular Pavement Technology. Preliminary Draft Report, Strategic Highway
Research Program 2, Transportation Research Board of The National Academies, Washington, D.C. 256 pp.
1 - 17 (SEP 2012)
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PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT TWO
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.0 Introduction/2.1 Features Of PPCP
2.0 INTRODUCTION
This second of four documents on the use of precast concrete pavement systems (PCPS), provides guidance for
layout, design, and maintenance. Topics included are prestress design (both pretensioning and post-tensioning),
joints and load transfer, and numerous other design details. Maintenance considerations are presented. General
specifications, drawings of details, and recommendations for maintaining records of performance of the finished
pavement are provided.
In defining terminology, when PCPS are prestressed, either pretensioned in the fabrication plant, or post-
tensioned during construction, they are referred to as precast, prestressed concrete pavement or PPCP.
Nonprestressed precast concrete panels are called jointed precast pavement systems, or JPPS. Some of the topics
in this document on design refer specifically to PPCP, but other subjects can be applied to both systems. Generally,
these topics are identified as they are discussed in the text.
Base Panels
P-T Stressing/Anchor
Access Pockets
Expansion Joint
Joint Panel Prepared Base
Transverse
Pretensioning
Friction-Reducing
Post-Tensioning Membrane
Bar Tendon Longitudinal
(Optional) Post-Tensioning
Longitudinal Keyway Panel Joints
Strand Tendons
Post-Tensioning Ducts
An important consideration when using panels with varying thickness is the amount of prestress in the panel.
Effective stress in the concrete will vary with thickness and should be taken into account to ensure that thicker
sections have adequate prestress and thinner sections are not overstressed. Additionally, the effects of non-
concentric prestressing must be considered for effects on camber.
2.1.3 Prestressing
Prestressing creates compressive stress in the pavement slab to reduce or overcome tensile stresses resulting
from handling, traffic, and environmental loading. This is intended to reduce or eliminate cracking and greatly
enhances the long-term performance of the pavement. Prestressing in both directions is an important benefit of
PPCP. Observations of prestressed, cast-in-place concrete pavements by FHWA-sponsored studies in the 1980s
2-2 (SEP 2012)
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT TWO
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.1 Features Of PPCP
(Cable et al.,1985, and Mendoza et al. ,1986) found that transverse prestress is as important as longitudinal
prestress. The transverse prestress levels may not need to be as large as the longitudinal prestress. For this
reason PPCP features two-way prestressing as described in the following sections.
Figure 2.1.3.1-1
Formwork and Reinforcement for PPCP Panels. Pretensioning is Longitudinal in the Form (Transverse to Traffic
Direction) and Post-tensioning is Across the Form (Longitudinal to Traffic and the Pavement)
transferred to the pavement through bond. Just the local area near the tendon interruption will be affected by the
loss of prestress.
Grouting provides an additional layer of corrosion protection for the post-tensioning tendons in addition to the
protection provided by the concrete cover, tendon duct, and, if it is used, epoxy-coating on the strand. It should be
noted that the ducts are not continuous across the panel joints, and therefore this layer of corrosion protection is
not present unless a positive duct coupler is used to join ducts between panels.
With bonded tendons, portions of the pavement can be removed for utility access or repair, or to replace damage.
The prestress beyond the area removed will remain effective.
Figure 2.1.3.5-1
Temporary Post-tensioning used to Clamp Panels Together During Installation
Figure 2.1.4.1-1
Tongue and Groove Panel Keyway
2” Min.
H+1/8” H
D-1/8” 2” Min.
H+1/8” H
2” Min. D
a) Facing Female Keyways in a Longitudinal Joint b) Joint Filled with Grout and Finished
2.2 DESIGN
2.2.1 Geometric Considerations
One of the first considerations for design of a PCPS is the roadway geometry. New pavement not abutting existing
adjacent pavement may be designed by specifying horizontal and vertical curvature and associated
superelevation transitions. New precast pavement installed next to existing pavement will require a detailed
survey of the existing pavement in order to fabricate new precast panels to match. Careful surveying is sufficient
for most situations although match casting may be required in very unique cases.
For tangent sections, even those with some degree of vertical curvature, standard panels with tongue and groove
joints may be used. However, a survey should still be conducted, even though less detailed, to identify potential
changes in alignment that might appear to be perfectly tangent.
When PCPS are constructed on a tangent section adjacent to existing pavement, the edge of the existing pavement
must be surveyed to document deviations in alignment. If deviations from a tangent line are found, the new
panels must be fabricated accordingly. Alternatively, the existing pavement may be cut to a true tangent line that
is slightly offset from the non-tangent existing edge and the new panels fabricated to that line.
When PCPS are constructed on a new alignment, a reference line should be surveyed and marked on the surface
of the base, and the PCPS panels aligned to that mark. Alignment of every panel is very important so overall
alignment is maintained. If the first panel is not set exactly perpendicular to the longitudinal reference line, the
alignment will quickly wander from the centerline.
When selecting the thickness, consider the reinforcement, pretensioning, and post-tensioning hardware that will
be cast into the panel, as depicted in Figure 2.2.3-1. Thickness should be adequate to provide necessary concrete
cover for reinforcement, pretensioning, and post-tensioning tendons and other hardware, given the environment
where the pavement will be constructed.
A practical minimum panel thickness will generally be 8 in. Thinner panels may be too flexible during handling,
and may not provide adequate space for all of the embedments plus required concrete cover, particularly if the
top surface will be diamond ground after installation. For projects completed to date, panels of uniform thickness
have been at least 8-in. thick. For panels with variable cross-sections, thickness has been as much as 13 in. at the
pavement crown, and tapered to as little as 5¾ in. at the edges of pavement shoulders. No post-tensioning ducts
are present in these thin sections.
Figure 2.2.3-1
Multiple "Levels" of Reinforcement to Consider when Determining Thickness of Panels.
Concrete Pretensioning
Cover Strand
Post-Tensioning
Nonprestressed
Ducts
Reinforcement
post-tensioning and due to expansion and contraction from daily and seasonal temperature variations. Therefore,
it is recommended that only the mid-section of the PPCP slab (e.g., within 10 ft of mid-slab anchors) be tied to
existing pavement or shoulders. For barriers, it is recommended that isolation joints be provided between PPCP
and the barrier.
The terminal ends of a PPCP section may be connected to existing pavement to provide load transfer. This is done
through the half of the joint panel that abuts the existing concrete pavement but is isolated from the post-
tensioned section by the expansion joint. This half of the joint panel can safely be tied to the existing pavement
using dowel bars (if joint movement must be accommodated) or tie-bars (if joint movement does not need to be
accommodated) through either closure pours or slots cut into the existing pavement, as shown in Figure 2.2.5-1.
Figure 2.2.5-1
Options for Connecting Precast Pavement to Existing Pavement at Terminal Ends using a Closure Placement (Left)
or Dowel/Tie-Bar Slots (Right).
Dowel Bar/Tie-Bar Slots
Closure Pour
(sawcut into existing pavement)
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PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT TWO
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.2 Design
difficult to construct the base to such small tolerance, the tolerance can be increased to ±¼ in. in 10 ft. However,
relaxing the tolerance will likely result in more voids beneath the panels, and under-slab grouting will be required
to fill those voids, possibly even before the pavement is opened to traffic.
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PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS_________________________________________________DOCUMENT TWO
DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.2 Design
Figure 2.2.6.3-1
Friction-Reducing Membranes
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.2 Design
2.2.8.1 Pretensioning
Pretensioning of the panels provides the beneficial precompression for long-term pavement performance, while
countering stresses from lifting and handling. Lifting and handling stresses can be calculated using methods
shown in the PCI Design Handbook (2010), using lifting configurations and panel dimensions anticipated for the
project. In general, pretensioning requirements for lifting and handling are determined so that the panel remains
in compression during handling, taking into account its lower concrete strength and the “suction” force during
removal from the form.
Long-term prestress requirements from pretensioning are determined in the same manner as long-term prestress
requirements from post-tensioning (see the following section), taking into account prestress losses over time,
curling stresses, and traffic loading on the pavement. Frictional restraint stresses due to slab-base interaction are
not as critical for pretensioning due to the relatively short length of the slab in the transverse direction. As a
general guideline, 200 psi compressive stress in the panels after transfer of force at the fabrication plant should
provide adequate long-term prestress from pretensioning.
2.2.8.2 Post-Tensioning
Long-term stresses in the pavement slab necessary to determine the level of longitudinal post-tensioning include
those from wheel loads and those caused by environmental stresses, such as expansion, contraction, and curling.
In determining effective prestress levels from post-tensioning, prestress losses from slab-base frictional restraint,
elastic shortening, creep, and shrinkage must also be taken into account. It should be noted that because the
panels have been precast, much of the concrete shrinkage will have occurred prior to post-tensioning, resulting in
less prestress loss due to shrinkage than is typical in pretensioned concrete or seen from cast-in-place concrete.
Additionally, losses during tensioning due to strand-duct friction and wobble (alignment deviations along the
duct) must also be accounted for.
Stresses from wheel loads can be determined through layered elastic analysis using the properties (thickness and
modulus) of the underlying pavement layers. If not explicitly determined by the layered elastic analysis, these
stresses should be increased to account for edge loading on the pavement slab if wheel loads are anticipated on
the edge of the slab. Stresses from environmental effects, including frictional restraint stresses due to slab
expansion and contraction, and stresses due to slab curling can be calculated by finite element modeling of the
pavement slab (Mendoza et al., 1986). Prestress losses can be estimated using methods presented in the PCI
Bridge Design Manual (2011), and the PTI Post-Tensioning Manual (2006).
The general guideline for post-tensioning prestress levels is a minimum of 200 psi compressive stress in the PPCP
at completion of construction (after all construction-related losses) at all points along the pavement. However,
whenever possible, an analysis of stresses in the pavement slab should be used to establish prestress
requirements.
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.2 Design
mid-depth of the panels. However, shifting the tendons slightly below mid-depth (e.g., ½ in.) will provide an
eccentric moment at the ends of the slab to help counteract any upward curling of the slab and associated loss of
support at the expansion joints.
Two methods have been used to post-tension slabs longitudinally: end stressing and central stressing, as
illustrated previously in Figure 2.1-1, and shown below in Figure 2.2.9-1. In the end stressing method, pockets
are cast into the special joint panels at the ends of each post-tensioned section or slab (varies in length from 150
to 300 ft). Post-tensioning tendons are then fed into the ducts from the stressing pockets at one end, through all
the panels, to the pockets at the other end of the post-tensioned section. In the central stressing method, pockets
to access the post-tensioning ducts are cast into either one or two panels at the center of the post-tensioned
section and in the end joint panels. The strands are fed into the ducts from the center stressing pockets in
opposite directions to the pockets in the joint panels where strand anchors are attached. In the central stressing
pockets, the two strands lapping from opposite directions are spliced together using a special “ring” anchor or
“dog bone” anchor that allows both strands to be tensioned simultaneously by pulling on one while reacting
against the other.
Figure 2.2.9.1-1
Stressing Techniques used for PPCP
a) Central Stressing (Photo: David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin)
b) End Stressing
The advantage of central stressing is that the tendon length is effectively half of the slab length, reducing losses in
the tendon during stressing. The anchors at both ends of the slab are fixed-end anchors (also referred to as dead-
end anchors).
The advantage of end stressing is that it eliminates the need for one or more unique center stressing panels,
reducing the number of different types of panels, and reducing the number of blockouts that need to be filled after
stressing.
All stressing pockets should be large enough to accommodate the stressing ram that will be used to tension the
tendons. In general, when taking into account elongation of the strands during stressing, monostrand stressing
rams will be too long for a typical stressing pocket, and the addition of a “curved nose” ram stressing extension
will be necessary.
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.2 Design
specified for bonded post-tensioning tendons. Finally, epoxy-coated strands and bars are available for the
tendons.
of the advantages of a header joint is that the header material can be diamond ground with the surrounding
pavement surface, minimizing local roughness at the expansion joint after grinding. It is also not susceptible to
corrosion in aggressive environments. The header material and silicone seal, however, will have a limited lifespan
and require periodic replacement throughout the life of the pavement.
While there is no perfect solution for expansion joints, several options have proven successful for PPCP.
Durability and maintenance considerations should be weighed when selecting the expansion joint detail,
particularly considering the traffic demands.
Figure 2.2.11.2-1
Types of PPCP Expansion Joints
c) Plain Dowelled Joint with Elastomeric Seal d) Header-Type Joint with Silicone Seal
affect the maximum joint width. The initial width can be set to a specified dimension at the fabrication plant, or it
can be set on site by forcing the two halves of the joint panel apart. Initial joint width must be determined through
prediction of joint movement over the life of the pavement.
2.3.1.2 Instrumentation
Instrumentation of PPCP can provide useful information for validating design assumptions and identifying
potential causes of performance issues. Temperature sensors, strain gauges, and displacement transducers are
the most commonly used instruments. Temperature sensors are used to monitor mid-depth slab temperatures, as
well as top-to-bottom slab temperature gradients. Thermocouples or self-powered internally logging temperature
sensors can be used to monitor temperature. At a minimum, temperature sensors should be embedded at 1 in.
from top and bottom surfaces and at mid-depth of the precast concrete panels in at least one or more locations
along the slab. Sensors should be kept a minimum of 2 ft from slab edges or expansion joints.
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.3 PPCP Management Considerations
Strain gauges are used to monitor strains in the concrete and prestressing tendons. These strains can then be
converted to stresses given the modulus of elasticity of the concrete and prestressing steel. Measuring concrete
and prestressing steel strains (and stresses) can help validate original design assumptions. Vibrating wire strain
gauges are the most common devices used for concrete, but conventional strain gages mounted to pieces of
reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete can also be used. Strain gages for prestressing steel are normally
mounted to the post-tensioning strands prior to stressing and measure the strains during post-tensioning. New
strain gauge technology, such as inductive loop strain gauges are also available as a less-intrusive solution.
Monitoring post-tensioning tendon strain gauges over time will help validate design assumptions for post-
tensioning tendon stresses initially and over time.
Displacement transducers are used primarily to monitor horizontal and vertical slab movement. These
transducers are typically mounted at the corners of the expansion joints to monitor expansion joint movement
and vertical slab movement due to slab curling. For measuring expansion joint movement, the width of the
expansion joint as well as the relative movement of one or both slabs on either side of the expansion joint should
be monitored. For measuring slab curling (vertical movement), the gauges must be mounted to a fixed reference
separate from the slab (typically a concrete lug in the ground next to the slab), and the movement of the corners
of each slab monitored. Total station surveying equipment has been used previously for this purpose, but does
not provide adequate resolution for the small deflections typical of slab curling (Luckenbill, 2009).
Several PPCP projects constructed to date have included instrumentation embedded in the precast panels. The
most extensive instrumentation program was completed by the University of Missouri for a PPCP project
constructed on I-57 near Sikeston, Mo. (Luckenbill, 2009; Davis, 2006; Dailey, 2006).
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.3 PPCP Management Considerations
incompressible material to fall into these joints and spall the edges of the joint over time. Spalls could also occur
at expansion joints if the joints close completely or if the joint fills with incompressible material. Mid-panel
spalling is unlikely, but may occur at cracks or if reinforcing steel is exposed.
Joint Seal Deterioration―If joint seals are not installed properly, they may detach from the faces of the joint over
time. If a poured silicone seal is used and is installed too high in the joint, the seal may “bulge” from the top of the
pavement surface when the joints close due to warm temperatures.
Stressing Pocket Distress―If the concrete material used to fill the stressing pockets is not placed properly, or if
the material is not suitable for the application, the concrete may deteriorate and be ejected from the pockets
under traffic. Also, if the pocket concrete is not cured properly or if the inner face of the pocket is not prepared
properly, shrinkage cracks may occur around the perimeter of the pocket causing distress.
Lifting Anchor Patch Deterioration―If the material used to patch the lifting anchor recesses is not installed
properly, it may deteriorate and be ejected under traffic loading.
Patch Deterioration―If the concrete for partial-depth patches (e.g., for repairing spalls) is not placed properly, or
if the material is not suitable for the application, the concrete may deteriorate and come out of the patch area
under traffic. If the patch is not cured properly or the inner face of the patch is not prepared properly, shrinkage
cracks may occur around the perimeter of the pocket causing distress.
Figure 2.3.3-1
Examples of Possible Distresses in PPCP
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.3 PPCP Management Considerations
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.4 Resources For Additional Information
material cannot be fully removed, it may be necessary to follow partial-depth patching procedures by enlarging
the anchor recess slightly.
Existing Patch Repair―Similar to the lifting anchor patch repair, the existing patch material should be fully
removed and the patch recess cleaned, prior to installing new patch material. Enlarge the existing patch slightly if
necessary if the old patch material cannot be fully removed.
Stressing pockets should be checked for any noticeable distress that may indicate problems with the post-
tensioning anchorage and integrity of the concrete material used to patch the pockets. Joints between individual
precast panels should be checked for the presence of spalls that may indicate stress concentrations at the joint. If
new spalls are observed, they should be cleaned and repaired while shallow and small in area.
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DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
2.5 Cited References
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PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS______________________________________________DOCUMENT THREE
MANUFACTURING PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENT PANELS
3.0 Introduction/3.1 Industry Quality Assurance
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This third of four documents on the use of precast concrete pavement systems (PCPS), provides guidance for
manufacturing the precast panels. Topics include quality assurance and fabrication tolerances; details of
materials; formwork; fresh concrete handling, finishing and curing; unique fabrication procedures; the need for
and types of repairs; and lifting, handling, and storage. The precast concrete industry will find this summary of
experience from projects completed very helpful as a starting point for planning their involvement in upcoming
work. Owner agencies will find these details useful in knowing how to deal with and evaluate their partnership
with industry on their first PCPS project.
In defining terminology, when PCPS are prestressed, either pretensioned in the fabrication plant, or post-
tensioned during construction, they are referred to as precast, prestressed concrete pavement or PPCP.
Nonprestressed precast concrete panels are called jointed precast pavement systems, or JPPS. Some of the topics
in this document on fabrication refer specifically to PPCP and other topics to JPPS. Other subjects can be applied
to both systems. Generally, the topics and their applications are identified as they are discussed in the text.
Nonconformances contained in the written report require an immediate response. The plant’s plan to mitigate the
issue must be stated. Such measures will be reviewed at the subsequent audit. If the numerical grade falls below
specific criteria, the plant must undergo an immediate special audit. Failure to comply with standards will result
in decertification.
3.2 TOLERANCES
Tolerances provide for the dimensional control of precast concrete products and construction.
Projects using precast pavement panels must be successful from all points of view, namely, owner satisfaction, on-
time schedule performance, economy, aesthetics, constructability, and long-term functional durability. It is
essential that the members of the project team collaborate to provide an overall project tolerance system that will
meet all of the project’s functional needs and allow the most economical fabrication and construction.
The tolerances presented in this document provide a suggested reference point. Each of these tolerances was set
based on current modern precast concrete production techniques and experience gained from projects using
precast pavement panels. They are based on a standard of quality and craftsmanship that can be reliably
accomplished by a PCI-certified producer. These tolerances are not intended to be an unyielding and rigid set of
tolerances used only as a measure for acceptance or rejection. Instead, they should provide both a feasible and
economically reasonable set of starting tolerances that will enable the party responsible for tolerances to develop
a successful project tolerance plan. Two sets of tolerances are necessary for a successful project:
Product Tolerances―Product tolerances are defined as those tolerances related to the dimensions and
dimensional relationships of the individual precast concrete members. Product tolerances are provided
in this document.
Erection Tolerances―Erection tolerances are defined as those tolerances that are required for the
acceptable matching of the precast members after they are erected. Erection tolerances are presented in
Document 4.
The tolerances shown in this document are guidelines for acceptability. Many projects involve situations that
require variation from the published tolerances. Only the recognized and agreed upon “project tolerances” govern
the production of the precast members. Not all tolerances are critical in every case, particularly when the
structural performance is not impaired. In some circumstances, the engineer may accept an out-of-tolerance
member if it conforms to any of the following:
Exceeding the project tolerances does not affect the structural integrity or field fit of the member.
Often the input of the Engineer of Record is necessary to evaluate the consequences of out-of-
tolerance situations.
The member can be brought within project tolerance by structurally satisfactory means. Repair
methods used to correct tolerance problems should not compromise structural performance or
materially affect long-term durability.
The total erected assembly can be modified to meet all structural requirements.
Modification of installation activities to accommodate out-of-tolerance members requires close coordination
between the producer’s representative and the contractor.
The effects of prestressing can have an effect on member dimensions and should be considered in the plan to
meet specified tolerances. The producer should assure that the effects of prestressing have been accounted for in
determining the form setup dimensions for member casting. Axial shortening of the member as result of the
applied axial compressive force of the prestress is one effect. Another is camber due to eccentricity in a panel with
a variable thickness.
Solar heating of members stacked in the precasting yard or jobsite may cause camber variations due to
differential temperature. Because of this it may be important to measure camber in the panels at times when
thermal effects are minimal.
Accurate measuring devices and methods with the precision appropriate to the tolerance being considered should
be used for checking product and erection tolerances. Typically, the precision of the measuring technique used to
verify a dimension, either pre- or post-casting, should be capable of reliably measuring to a precision of one-third
the magnitude of the specified tolerance.
between adjacent panels. While ¼-in. deviation is not desirable in terms of smoothness for a pavement surface, it
can be ground with a single pass of a diamond grinding machine to bring the pavement surface within typical
smoothness standards.
Tolerances on overall dimensions are important to ensure that panels fit where they are intended to be installed.
This is particularly important for reconstruction projects, where PCPS must be installed in a confined excavation
where the existing pavement was removed. Tolerances for overall dimensions are also important for ensuring the
pavement does not “grow” or “shrink” in length (finished pavement shorter or longer than designed) or alignment
(curve or sweep in pavement that deviates from the intended alignment). A tolerance of ±⅛ in. is generally
specified for overall panel width (i.e., same direction as the length of the actual pavement) and for overall length
(i.e., same direction as the width of the actual pavement). The tolerance for squareness, which is measured
diagonally across the top surface of the panel from corner to corner, is generally specified to be no greater than
±⅛ in. from the calculated plan dimension.
Other overall dimensional tolerances include those for mating edge straightness and vertical batter at the edges of
the panel, as defined in Figure 3.2.1-1. Table 3.2.1-1 provides dimensional tolerances for PPCP panels.
Tolerances for JPPS are listed in Section 3.10.2.2.
Figure 3.2.1-1
Definition of Dimensional Tolerances
Width
ess
aren
Squ
Thickness
Mating Edge
aren
Straightness
(Vertical Camber)
ess
Vertical
Batter
Plan Profile
Table 3.2.1-1
Dimensional Tolerances
Length and Width ±⅛ in.
Nominal Thickness ±⅛ in.
Squareness―difference from calculated plan
dimension (measured diagonally from ±⅛ in.
corner to corner across top surface)
Mating edge straightness (upon release of
stress)―Deviation from straightness of ±⅛ in.
mating edge of panels
Vertical batter (edge squareness) along
±⅛ in.
transverse joint faces and ends of panels
width along the length of the joint. The width of the expansion joint may not be uniform after post-tensioning, but
it should be within this tolerance when shipped from the fabrication plant.
For dowel bars cast into the panels, horizontal and vertical alignment tolerance is generally specified as ±⅛ in.
For dowel location, a tolerance of ±¼ in. from the plan location in both the horizontal and vertical location is
normally specified. For dowel embedment on both sides of the expansion joint, ±1 in. tolerance is adequate.
Table 3.2.3-1
Tolerances for Expansion Joints
Vertical Dowel Alignment (parallel to bottom of panel) ±⅛ in. 1
Horizontal Dowel Alignment (normal to expansion
±⅛ in.
joint)
±¼ in. Vertical1
Dowel Location (deviation from shop drawings)
±¼ in. Horizontal
Dowel Embedment (in both sides of expansion joint) ±1 in.
Straightness of expansion joints ±⅛ in.
Initial width of expansion joints ±⅛ in.
Dimensions of blockouts/pockets ±⅛ in.
1 Measured from bottom of panel
3.2.4 Formwork
Proper formwork is the key to ensuring that overall panel dimensional and keyway tolerances are achieved. They
must be rigid enough to prevent bending, bowing or sagging when fresh concrete is placed in the forms and
consolidated, and must be rugged enough for repeated use without deformation or damage. The forms must also
be securely fastened in place to ensure they will not move when the pretensioning strands are tensioned or when
fresh concrete is placed.
Experience has shown that heavy-duty steel formwork shown in Figure 3.2.4-1 provides the best material for
ensuring that PPCP panel tolerances are achieved, particularly for the non-match cast keyway joints. Steel
formwork is less susceptible to warping, will not swell, and can be re-used virtually any number of times as long
as it is properly maintained. While wooden formwork may also be fabricated to the required tolerances, it is not
recommended for projects when the formwork must be re-used repeatedly. For these larger projects, wooden
forms will likely need to be replaced partway through production, increasing the possibility of variances in panel
dimensions, particularly keyways.
The tolerances to which the forms are made and the tolerances to which they can reliably be adjusted are an
important determinant of the ability to achieve specified member tolerances. The proportion of the product
tolerance variation that results from form fabrication tolerances or adjustment precision should be considered in
the plan to achieve specified member tolerances. One of the most important considerations that should be taken
into account in the selection of the types of forms to be used is the precision of dimensional tolerance specified for
the member. As a rule of thumb, forms should be manufactured to tolerances of one-half the allowable
dimensional tolerances for the product.
Figure 3.2.4-1
Heavy-duty Steel Formwork used for PPCP Panel Fabrication
a) Side and Tongue Form (Photo: David Merritt, Center b) Transverse End Form and Surface Form
for Transportation Research, University of Texas at
Austin)
3.3 MATERIALS
3.3.1 Concrete
3.3.1.1 Strength
The typical strength of mixtures used in precast, prestressed concrete products will be more than adequate for
concrete pavement. Typical compressive strength requirements for PPCP are 3,500 to 4,000 psi at transfer of
prestress, and 5,000 to 6,000 psi at 28 days. Mixtures should not be “over-designed” to achieve higher than
necessary strength. High strength concrete is not necessarily advantageous for pavement slabs, and in fact may
have adverse effects on pavement performance due to the higher modulus of elasticity. It is also more difficult to
finish.
3.3.1.2 Durability
Mixtures for PPCP panels should be selected to satisfy the durability requirements for both precast concrete
elements as well as portland cement concrete pavement exposed to the conditions anticipated for the project.
Standard specification requirements for both types of construction (precast concrete and concrete pavement)
should be reviewed to determine which requirements will govern for PPCP. Because the panels are installed on
grade, they should meet requirements for concrete permanently exposed to earth. Other important durability
requirements include low permeability for protection of prestressing steel and nonprestressed reinforcement,
and adequate air content for freeze-thaw resistance.
3.3.1.3 Aggregates
Aggregate requirements affect durability as well as pavement performance, and are governed more by concrete
pavement specifications than precast concrete specifications. Durable, nonreactive aggregates are important
because, depending on location, pavement slabs are subjected to continual wetting and drying cycles, freeze-thaw
cycles, and exposure to de-icing salts. Aggregates should not be susceptible to alkali-silica reactivity or D-cracking.
Concrete with a lower coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), which is primarily dictated by the CTE of the
aggregate, is generally more desirable, as CTE directly affects slab movement under daily and seasonal
temperature cycles. Less slab movement will reduce expansion joint movement and slab-base frictional restraint
stresses. Therefore, if a precast plant typically uses a high CTE aggregate (e.g., 6-9 µε/ºF), a lower CTE aggregate
(e.g., 2-5 µε/ºF) may need to be obtained for production of PPCP panels.
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MANUFACTURING PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENT PANELS
3.3 Materials
Functional performance is also affected by aggregate properties. Pavement friction is highly dependent upon the
abrasion and polish resistance of the coarse and fine aggregates in the concrete mixture. As such, the agency may
require aggregates that are more resistant to abrasion and polishing for PPCP panels, similar to those typically
used for pavement aggregates. If aggregates commonly used in a particular plant for precast elements are deemed
not suitable for a pavement surface, aggregate with better abrasion resistance may need to be obtained for PPCP
panel production.
An alternative or supplement to strand tendons is bar tendons. High-strength (Grade 150) threaded bars are
commonly used for post-tensioning in other applications. Bar tendons may be cast into or inserted into ducts on
site in each individual panel to allow the panels to be “sequentially” assembled by coupling the bar tendons for
each panel to the tendons in the previous panel. This permits the contractor to terminate each day’s installation at
any location, while ensuring an adequate level of post-tensioning force to compress the joints in the pavement
between installations. Bar tendons can be used for all of the post-tensioning tendons, or to replace two or more
strand tendons. On some of the projects completed to date, two bar tendons were used as the temporary post-
tensioning, replacing two of the strand tendons in each panel. Bar tendons will require larger post-tensioning
ducts than strand tendons, particularly when couplers are used. As with strand tendons, epoxy-coated bar
tendons are available for use in aggressive environments, and increase the diameter of the bar by only
approximately 0.05 in.
Figure 3.3.4.2-1
Post-tensioning Duct Materials
a) Galvanized Metal Spiral Duct b) Both Plastic and Galvanized Metal Ducts
Figure 3.3.4.2-2
Examples of Post-Tensioning End Anchorage Assemblies
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3.3 Materials
c) Two-strand Anchorage (Photo: David Merritt, Center d) Spring-loaded Encapsulated Anchor (Photo: David
for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Merritt, Center for Transportation Research,
Austin) University of Texas at Austin)
Figure 3.3.4.2-3
Mid-panel Grout Vents used with Plastic Ducts
a) Ribbed Plastic Duct b) Smooth Plastic Duct (Photo: David Merritt, Center
for Transportation Research, University of Texas at
Austin)
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3.4 Prestressing
Figure 3.3.5-1
Types of Forms used for Stressing Pockets
a) Steel Form Wrapped with Thin Layer of Foam b) One-time-use Wood Form
(Photo: David Merritt, Center for Transportation
Research, University of Texas at Austin)
3.4 PRESTRESSING
3.4.1 Placement of Strands
PPCP panels should be designed to utilize the maximum allowable jacking force in the pretensioning strands in
order to minimize the total number needed. The location of the strands should result in concentric prestress force
as much as possible, which will typically require strands to be alternated above and below the post-tensioning
ducts that are normal to the pretensioning strands.
Planning strand layout should seek to minimize the number of pretensioning strand patterns for a particular
project. Ideally, for panels with the same dimensions, only 1 or 2 strand patterns should be necessary to
accommodate all typical, joint, and stressing panels. Pretensioning strands may be harped (deviated from a
straight line) slightly if the panel has a variable thickness or sloping top surface. Some examples of deflection
methods are shown in Figure 3.4.1-1. Stiff steel bulkheads can be bolted to the bottom (soffit) form and used as
deflection points. Strong bar chairs can also be used to support the strands from the bottom at deflection points
within the panels.
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3.4 Prestressing
Figure 3.4.1-1
The Trajectory of Prestressing Strands may be Deviated in the Forms
a) Steel Bulkheads between Panels used to Deflect b) Steel Chairs used to Support Pretensioning Strands
Pretensioning Strands at Deflection Points
a) Plastic Ducts Supported with Multiple Chairs b) Rigid Metal Ducts Supported between Pretensioning
Strands
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3.5 Expansion Joint Panels
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3.6 Concrete Placement, Finishing, and Curing
Figure 3.5-1
Fabricating Expansion Joint Panels (Photo: David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research, University of
Texas at Austin)
a) Armored Expansion Joint b) First of Two Halves of a c) Second Half of a Plain Dowelled
Header-type Joint Joint Set Up to Cast
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3.6 Concrete Placement, Finishing, and Curing
Figure 3.6.1.1-1
Fabrication and Concrete Placement Techniques
a) Internal Vibrators (Stingers) being used to b) The Second Lift of Concrete is shown being Placed in
Consolidate Concrete around Well-anchored Blockout a Two-lift Production Sequence (Photo: R. Jon Grafton)
Formers (Photo: David Merritt, Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at
Austin)
3.6.1.2 Consolidation
Concrete should be vibrated to consolidate it into edges, corners, and around embedments, but should not be
over-vibrated resulting in segregation. Segregation of the mixture will result in a variable water/cementitious
materials ratio and leave mortar and fine aggregates at the top surface of the panels. That will reduce durability
and abrasion resistance. Flowing concrete mixes or self-consolidating concrete, which require minimal or no
vibration to consolidate, have been shown to work very well for precast pavement panels. However, these mixes
will not work as well for panels with a variable thickness as shown in Figure 3.6.1.2-1. For variable thickness
panels, the fresh concrete must be stiff enough to resist the tendency to flow “downhill” from the high point in the
formwork. The concrete should not be so stiff that the surface is difficult to finish or that honeycombing might
occur in the panel.
Figure 3.6.1.2-1
PPCP Panels Fabricated for Two Projects with Variable Thickness
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3.6 Concrete Placement, Finishing, and Curing
Figure 3.6.2-1
Panel Surface Textures
a) A Section of Artificial Turf is being Drug to Impart a b) A Specially Fabricated Bristle Broom the Full Width
Longitudinal Finish (Photo: David Merritt, Center for of the Panel Applies a Longitudinal Finish
Transportation Research, University of Texas at
Austin)
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3.6 Concrete Placement, Finishing, and Curing
c) A Jig with Tines was used to Apply a Longitudinal d) Applying a Transverse Broom Texture
Finish
3.6.3 Curing
Curing precast concrete pavement panels is an important procedure due to the large exposed surface area.
Shrinkage cracks before or during curing may be cause for rejection because these cracks could be a point of
ingress for chlorides and significantly affect long-term pavement performance. Many precast plants use the
application of heat to accelerate curing. This allows the concrete to attain the required release strength within a
matter of hours after concrete placement. Radiant heat can be supplied through pipes circulating hot liquids.
Some fabricators vent steam in the spaces surrounding the concrete. In some cases, concrete mixtures containing
Type III portland cement have been used successfully without the need for supplemental heat. For panels that are
not exposed to steam, including those using radiant heat curing, a thick (i.e., two coats) application of curing
compound should be applied to the panel surface as soon as possible after texturing to prevent surface
evaporation of moisture. If any part of the formwork is removed during the curing process (for non-steam-cured
panels), the exposed surface of the precast panel should receive a thick application of curing compound or be
covered with plastic sheeting or wet mats. Various curing techniques used for PPCP panels are shown in Figure
3.6.3-1.
Curing of the concrete in the forms is required until the panels achieve prestress transfer strength. Upon removal
from the forms, additional curing may be required by the owner agency until the 28-day design compressive
strength is achieved (which may be in as few as 24 to 72 hours after the panels are removed from the forms). The
curing in storage includes the tops and sides of the precast panels. Curing can use membranes (curing
compound), plastic sheets, or wet mats. Curing compound applied to the panel keyway edges should be removed
using a wire brush, wire wheel, or light sandblasting so that the curing compound does not interfere with the
bond of the epoxy joint sealant.
For accelerated curing processes, careful consideration should be given to the cool-down regimen, particularly
when panels are produced under colder ambient conditions. Cracking from thermal shock may occur if the panels
are exposed to cold ambient temperatures immediately after heat curing.
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3.6 Concrete Placement, Finishing, and Curing
Figure 3.6.3-1
Concrete Curing Techniques
a) Ambient Curing using Curing Compound (Photo: b) Steam Applied under Plastic Tarpaulins
David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research,
University of Texas at Austin)
c) Dry Heat Applied under Curing Cover (being d) Supplemental Wet Mat Curing after Stripping
lowered)
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
spalling occurs around a blockout on the top surface of the panel, it may be necessary to saw cut and clean the
spalled area for a partial-depth repair, as described in the following section.
Pretensioning strands should be trimmed and slightly recessed into the end surfaces of the panels. After
trimming, the exposed ends of the strands should be painted or otherwise protected using galvanized paint,
epoxy, or an epoxy grout, similar to that typically used for the ends of strands on bridge girders. If the panels are
to be installed next to other panels or existing pavement, care should be taken to ensure that the epoxy treatment
does not affect the trueness of the end of the panel.
3.7.1.1 Spalls
Spalls occur for many reasons including point loads along the edges of a panel. Some result from stripping form
work and others from contact between panels during handling. They may be very shallow or as much as half the
panel thickness in depth. Several types that have been observed are described below and illustrated in Figure
3.7.1.1-1.
Surface Spalls―Generally, surface spalls less than ¼ in. deep will not require repair, particularly if the pavement
surface is to be diamond ground after installation. If the spalled area is particularly large (e.g., greater than 4 in. in
diameter), and the surface will not be diamond ground, repair should be considered. Spalls deeper than ¼ in.
should be repaired.
Keyway Spalls―Keyway spalls that may affect assembly of the panels or grouting of the post-tensioning ducts
should be repaired. Spalls less than ¼ in. deep may not require repair, but any loose material should be
thoroughly removed. Spalls deeper than ¼ in. should be repaired or the panel rejected if deep spalls are present
over more than 25% of the length of the keyway. Spalls of the keyway around the post-tensioning ducts may
prevent a tight seal of the ducts between panels, and should be repaired.
Panel Edge and Corner Spalls―Spalls of panel edges and corners that abut adjacent pavement or other PPCP
panels should be repaired so that a durable joint is accomplished. Spalls of an exterior edge or corner (e.g., in the
shoulder) of the panel may not need to be repaired, pending determination of the agency.
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
Blockout, Lifting Insert, and Grout Port Spalls―Minor spalls (less than ¼ in deep) around the top edges of
blockouts may not require repair. Spalls deeper than ¼ in. should be repaired. For deep repairs, it may be
advantageous to simply prepare the spalled area for a partial-depth repair and finish the repair when the
blockout is filled in the field. Minor spalls around lifting anchors or grout ports may not require repair. Deep
spalls should either be repaired or prepared for patching in the field when the lifting anchors and grout ports are
filled.
Figure 3.7.1.1-1
Examples of Fabrication-Related Spalling
a) Surface Spall (crack filled with epoxy) b) Keyway Spall (bottom lip of keyway)
c) Edge Spall (above pretensioning strand) d) Blockout Spall (Photo: David Merritt, Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin)
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
3.7.1.2 Cracks
Cracks should be assessed after release of prestress because the prestress compression may close some cracks.
For jointed precast pavement panels, assessment of cracking should consider the level of reinforcement in the
panels, since most of these panels are heavily reinforced, so cracks that do form should be held to a small size.
Cracks observed in the panel surface should be assessed to determine if they are shallow surface cracks or
deeper. This may require core-drilling through the panel using a 1- to 2-in.-diameter core drill at the location of
the crack. Extensive cracking is cause for ceasing fabrication until the cause can be determined and eliminated.
The acceptance of cracks in panels must be at the discretion of the owner agency. Several examples of surface
cracks are shown in Figure 3.7.1.2-1.
Surface Cracks―Surface cracks may include shallow longitudinal or transverse cracks, random, and y-cracks, or
plastic shrinkage cracks. Narrow surface cracks, 0.007 in. or less in width may not require any treatment. Cracks
wider than 0.007 in. should be repaired by epoxy injection, particularly if the pavement will be exposed to deicing
chemicals. If not exposed to deicing chemicals, cracks up to 0.012 in. in width may be allowed without treatment.
Full-Depth Cracks―Full-depth cracks should be carefully evaluated to determine the likely cause. Full-depth
cracks can have a significant effect on pavement performance. Full-depth cracks that are not closed by
prestressing to 0.007 in. or less in width may be cause for rejection of the panel, particularly if the panels will be
exposed to deicing chemicals. For panels not exposed to deicing chemicals, crack widths up to 0.012 in. may be
permissible. Alternatively, epoxy injection can be used to repair the crack with the understanding that
reoccurrence of the crack or additional cracking after repair may be cause for rejection. Multiple full-depth cracks
may be cause for immediate rejection.
Keyway Cracks―Cracks along keyways may be repaired only if it is determined that the cracks will not affect
assembly of the panels. Cracks extending more than 25% of the length of the keyway or those that are believed to
weaken the keyway may be cause for rejection of the panel. Cracks up to 0.007 in. wide may not need repair,
while cracks wider than 0.007 in. should be repaired using epoxy injection if the panels will be exposed to deicing
chemicals. Crack widths up to 0.012 in. may be permissible before sealing is necessary if the panels will not be
exposed to deicing chemicals.
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
Figure 3.7.1.2-1
Examples of Fabrication-Related Cracks
c) Keyway Crack
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
Figure 3.7.1.3-1
A Ridge in the Keyway Surfaces due to a Form Joint (Photo: David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research,
University of Texas at Austin)
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
Figure 3.7.1.6-1
Extensive Keyway Damage
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3.7 Panel Nonconformance
For shallow surface cracks, low viscosity sealing materials, such as methyl methacrylate can be used to fill the
cracks by gravity flow or by toweling with a squeegee (Fig. 3.7.2-1). For deeper and wider cracks, epoxy injection
is commonly used. Epoxy injection uses pressure to force the epoxy deep into the crack to bond the two sides of
the crack together and seal it from water intrusion. For shallow spalls or indentations that require repair, epoxy-
based mortar materials can be used.
Partial-depth repair techniques are commonly used to repair deep surface spalls, edge spalls, keyway breaks, or
corner breaks. For partial depth repairs, saw cuts are made a minimum of 2 in. deep into the surface, edge, or
keyway just beyond the limits of the damaged area (Fig. 3.7.2-1). Saw cuts in the top surface of the panel should
not form corners with angles less than 90 degrees in order to reduce the risk of reentrant cracks propagating
from these corners. After saw cutting, unsound concrete material should be removed using a lightweight chipping
hammer. Formwork identical to that used for the initial fabrication should be used to form the patch. For deep
edge spalls, keyway or corner breaks deeper than 2 in., it may be necessary to drill and epoxy No. 3 or No. 4
reinforcing bars into the panel prior to patching to help anchor the patch in place. This reinforcement should be
positioned so that proper concrete cover is provided within the patch. Epoxy-based patching materials have been
used with good success for partial depth patches.
It is important that any repaired areas on the keyways be properly finished and ground as necessary to ensure
that the repair does not protrude from the plane surface of the keyways, preventing mating keyways from fitting
together. Repairs should not cause the keyway or other surfaces to exceed tolerances. Grinding can also be used
to remove any ridges formed along the keyways due to formwork issues.
Figure 3.7.2-1
Examples of Panel Repairs in Progress (Photos: David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research, University of
Texas at Austin)
a) Spalled Keyway Repair (Spalled Area Saw Cut and b) Spalled Blockout Repair (Spalled Area Saw Cut and
Removed) Removed)
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3.8 Lifting and Handling
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3.8 Lifting and Handling
Figure 3.8.1-1
The Impact to the Surface of various Lifting Devices used in PPCP Panels
a) A Type of “Quick Connect” Anchor Pocket Showing b) Another Type of “Quick Connect” Pocket with Lifting
Headed Lifting Stud Anchor Shown
3.8.2 Recommendations
The fabricator should specify a lifting configuration that will minimize stresses in the precast panels during
handling, particularly during early age handling when removing the panels from the forms. Variations in panel
thickness, overall dimensions, and the location of reinforcement and embedments should all be taken into account
to ensure that the load is evenly balanced on the lifting lines. This is particularly important for installing the
panels on site so the panel hangs level and can be safely maneuvered. The Design Handbook (PCI, 2010) provides
excellent guidance for lifting configurations for precast concrete panels. Typically, a four-point lift will be
adequate and safe for the size of precast panels used in PPCP.
It is essential that the lifting configuration is thoroughly checked by the precast producer prior to beginning panel
fabrication. To minimize bending stresses in the panels and forces in the lines and lift devices during handling,
lifting lines should form an angle of no less than 60 degrees where they intersect with the precast panel. A
spreader beam may also be used to maximize the angle between the lifting lines and panel surface, as shown in
(Figure 3.8.2-1 c and d).
For joint panels, a strongback is typically mounted to the top surface of the panels to prevent the expansion joint
from opening or flexing during lifting and handling. The lifting anchors cast into the panels can be used to mount
the strongback to the panel surface, as shown in Figure 3.8.2-1a and b.
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3.8 Lifting and Handling
Figure 3.8.2-1
The use of Strongbacks and Spreader Beams for Handling Panels
a) Strongback Bolted to the top of a Joint Panel b) Strongback Mounted to the End of a Joint Panel
c) Spreader Beam used with a Wheeled Travel Lift to d) Spreader Beam used with a Fork Lift for Handling
keep Lift Lines Vertical Panels (Photo: David Merritt, Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at
Austin)
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3.8 Lifting and Handling
similar to that used for storage at the plant. Long panels (e.g., 24 ft or more) should be carefully evaluated to
ensure prestress levels are adequate for the support configuration and any potential dynamic flexure during
shipment.
Shipment of precast panels should be thoroughly evaluated during the design and project layout stage to strike a
balance between optimization of panel size for production and shipment. Panels over 8 ft wide may require an
oversize load permit, depending on local shipping restrictions. However, the cost of oversize load permits may be
more than offset by the increase in production and installation rates using wider panels. Weight restrictions
should also be considered, as it may be more cost effective to use a specialty truck with more axles to ship more
panels on a load than to ship more loads.
Figure 3.8.3-1
Panel Configurations for Storage and Shipping
a) Storage of Panels with Variable Thickness b) Storage of Panels with Uniform Thickness (Photo:
David Merritt, Center for Transportation Research,
University of Texas at Austin)
c) Shipment of a Single Panel of Width Greater than d) Shipment of Multiple Panels (Photo: David Merritt,
8 Ft Center for Transportation Research, University of
Texas at Austin)
Figure 3.9.1-1
PPCP Panel Fit-up Tests at the Fabrication Plant prior to Full-Scale Production (Left Photo: David Merritt, Center
for Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin)
the panels will be stored for a long period of time, the ducts should be capped after the duct check is complete to
identify that they have been checked and to protect them in storage. The caps should be removed just prior to
installation of the panels at the project site.
The ducts should also be checked for residual water as a result of steam curing. This is particularly important if
the panels are to be stored in sub-freezing temperatures as the water may freeze and create a blockage. Water
should be blown out using compressed air and the duct capped to prevent additional water from rain or snow
from entering the duct during storage.
3.10.2.2 Tolerances
Typical dimensional tolerances for jointed precast panels are similar to those listed for PPCP panels but also
include tolerances for dowel bar and slot positioning, as shown in Table 3.10.2.2-1.
Table 3.10.2.2-1
Tolerances for Jointed Precast Pavement Panels
Width and Length ±3/16 in.
Length of Computed Diagonal Shown on Shop Drawings ±1/4 in.
Thickness ±1/8 in.
Surface Tolerance Measured from a Theoretical Plane Established by
±1/8 in.
Corner Elevations
Edge Squareness Measured in Relation to Top and Bottom Edges ±1/16 in.
Dowel Variance from Level, Squareness to Edge of Slab, and
±1/8 in.
Horizontal and Vertical Location
Slot Horizontal Location and Squareness to Edge of Slab ±1/8 in.
Lifting Anchor Location ±6 in.
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3.10 Fabrication of Jointed Precast Pavement Panels
The tolerances shown in Table 3.10.2.2-1 are necessary to ensure that maximum pavement joint widths
permitted by the specifying agency are achieved. The tolerances also help to ensure that installed multiple panels
do not grow short or long. Most agencies specify a maximum pavement joint width of 3/8 to 1/2 in., which
necessitates an allowable panel length and width tolerance of between ±3/16 and ±1/4 in.
The plant Quality System Manual should clearly indicate when and how measurements are to be taken to
determine conformance to the stated tolerances. Surface tolerance for a warped panel, for example, is most
effectively through checking the form before casting. It is very difficult to check the top surface of the panel for
surface tolerance after it has been finished with a texture.
The accuracy of the bottom surface of a panel is especially important in slab-on-grade systems where the
subgrade surface provides grade control. The best way to ensure an accurate bottom panel surface is to make
sure the form surface is constructed to the tolerance listed in Table 3.10.2.2-1, and will be discussed in Section
3.10.3. Panel thickness is difficult to measure except along the edges of the panel. However, it should be checked
and necessary changes made to side rail heights.
3.10.3 Formwork
The general comments made in Section 3.2.4, Formwork, apply to casting beds for all precast panel systems,
including jointed precast concrete panels. Forms for jointed panels should conform to the rule of thumb for form
accuracy cited in that section of “one-half the allowable dimensional tolerance for the product.” A form surface
accuracy of ±1/16” from the plane defined by the four corners of the panel is a very exacting tolerance and can
only be achieved by using heavy duty, rigid steel form beds that maintain dimensional accuracy over multiple
casts.
Side rails for jointed panels should be built with the necessary variability of jointed panel dimensions in mind. An
exaggerated plan view of a jointed panel is shown in Figure 3.10.3-1. The side rails must be designed to easily
accommodate side dimensions that change from panel to panel even though these changes may typically be very
small.
Figure 3.10.3-1
Exaggerated Plan View of a Jointed Precast Pavement Panel (Drawing: The Fort Miller Co., Inc.)
Embedded dowels and tie bars are located as required by the specifying agency and as necessary to align with
corresponding cast-in slots. Most states require a dowel spacing of 12 in. on center over the length of the entire
transverse edge of the panel, or alternatively, three or four dowels in each wheel path, spaced at 12 in. on center,
depending upon the type of repair project. In either case, the side rails must be designed to accommodate
whatever spacing is specified, keeping in mind the lengths of transverse sides are rarely an even number of feet as
shown in Figure 3.10.3-1. As a result, end spaces D and B may not be equal and may vary from panel to panel.
The precaster must work with the panel designer to minimize these changes and keep the casting process as
simple and efficient as possible.
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3.10 Fabrication of Jointed Precast Pavement Panels
Three-dimensional pavement surfaces that constitute a warped rather than a flat plane require warped precast
panels with a surface cast to the identical geometry of the pavement surface it is furnishing. An isometric view of a
warped panel is shown in Figure 3.10.3-2.
Figure 3.10.3-2
Isometric View of a Warped Precast Panel (Drawing: The Fort Miller Co., Inc.)
Sections taken through B-D and A-C are shown in Figure 3.10.3-3. The amount of warp is quantitatively shown as
“∆.”It is defined as the vertical distance between elevation D and a plane drawn through the other three corners
(corners A, B, and C).
Figure 3.10.3-3
Cross-sectional Views of Warped Precast Panels (Drawing: The Fort Miller Company, Inc.)
The panel shown in Figure 3.10.3-2 can be fabricated on a flat casting bed using variable-height side rails. This
would result in a panel with a flat bottom surface and a warped top surface as shown. The resulting variable-
thickness panel must be placed on a subgrade surface that is graded flat. While this may work for a single panel, it
is problematic for a series of adjoining panels because a unique and different subgrade surface would need to be
created for each adjacent panel.
A more constructible approach is to cast a constant-thickness warped panel on a bed that is warped to a plane
that is parallel to the plane of the top surface. The resulting constant thickness panel may then be placed on a
subgrade surface that has been graded parallel to the required pavement surface in the traditional manner that
cast-in-place concrete pavement is built.
A proprietary forming system is available to cast constant-thickness warped panels. It utilizes a form that can be
adjusted to an upward warp of a maximum of approximately 4 in., as shown in Figure 3.10.3-4. The form is
positioned in the precast plant such that corners A, B and C are level. Corner D is adjusted to the specific warp
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3.10 Fabrication of Jointed Precast Pavement Panels
dimension “∆” for each panel. The form is also designed to cast a warped non-rectangular panel such as that
shown in Figure 3.10.3-1.
Figure 3.10.3-4
Proprietary Casting Table and Forming System for Warped Precast Panels
(Photo: The Fort Miller Company, Inc.)
3.10.4 Materials
The information provided in Section 3.3, Materials, applies to jointed precast pavement panels. Although jointed
panels may be prestressed, they are most frequently reinforced with conventional reinforcement. Therefore,
references to pretensioning and post-tensioning materials may not apply.
3.10.4.1 Concrete
If jointed pavement panels are not prestressed, their minimum required concrete compressive strength at
stripping will usually be between 2,500 and 3,500 psi, depending upon their weight and the type of lifting anchor
used. The minimum stripping strength should be determined on a job-by-job basis taking these factors into
consideration.
3.10.4.3 Dowels
Most jointed precast pavement systems utilize standard smooth steel dowels across transverse joints for load
transfer. Epoxy-coated steel dowels are most commonly used in jointed panels but other corrosion-resistant
dowels such as zinc coated, stainless steel, stainless steel clad, and fiberglass dowels may be allowed by the
specifying agency. If dowels are cast in the panels, care must be taken to position them to accurately align with
slots cast or cut in the adjacent panel.
Epoxy-coated dowels should be handled with care because the coating is easily compromised if they are dropped
or scraped. If the dowels penetrate the side rails during the casting process, the rails should be stripped away
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MANUFACTURING PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENT PANELS
3.11 Resources for Additional Information
carefully to avoid damaging the epoxy coating. In addition, dowels in finished panels should be protected during
storage and shipping to prevent damage to the epoxy coating. If the coating is damaged, it should be repaired by
using an agency-approved method prior to final installation.
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MANUFACTURING PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENT PANELS
3.12 Cited References
3 - 37 (SEP 2012)
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PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS________________________________________________DOCUMENT FOUR
CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.0 Introduction/4.1 Installation Staging and Sequencing
4.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the fourth in a series of four documents on the use of precast concrete pavement systems (PCPS). It
provides guidance for construction including topics on scheduling windows, foundation issues, construction
procedures, materials, and equipment, panel installation, and post-tensioning. This information has been acquired
and reinforced from projects constructed to date. It will assist owner agencies in developing project plans and
specifications (including inspection and field guidance), and assist contractors in understanding best practices for
the construction process.
In defining terminology, when PCPS are prestressed, either pretensioned in the fabrication plant, or post-
tensioned during construction, they are referred to as precast, prestressed concrete pavement or PPCP. Jointed
precast pavement systems (JPPS) are generally not prestressed although they may be. Many of the topics in this
document on construction refer specifically to PPCP. Other subjects can be applied to both systems. Generally, the
topics and their applications are identified as they are discussed in the text.
orientation specified. For these projects, contingency plans should be developed in some detail to account for
unexpected problems, such as delays in the delivery of panels.
Additional prestress should not be used to compensate for an existing base that is in poor condition. For this
condition, new base material should be placed, graded, and compacted to the required tolerance.
Base preparation will be governed by the project type, location, and the permissible construction window. For
new construction, there will likely not be as many constraints on construction time. Conventional concrete
pavement base materials and construction processes can be used. For reconstruction projects, however, minimal
disruption of the underlying base is the goal and the materials used will need to permit rapid base preparation for
those projects with short construction windows.
For reconstruction applications, space limitations and construction time constraints generally require a base that
can be quickly placed by hand or with portable equipment. The base must be capable of supporting the weight of
the precast panels within a short time after it is placed. This may require rapid setting mixtures for lean concrete,
or finer graded material for aggregate bases. Hot-mix asphalt materials will generally not be suitable for these
applications due to the specialty paving equipment needed to place them and the amount of time required for the
asphalt to cool before panels may be installed.
PPCP panels will generally be thinner than the pavement that is being replaced. If the new PPCP is only slightly
thinner (e.g., less than 1 in. thinner) than the existing pavement, a “level up” base material such as fine graded
aggregate, grout, or flowable fill will be needed. In this case it is also desirable to over-excavate the existing base
slightly, because it is easier to build up the base than to remove it after panel installation has begun. If the new
PPCP is significantly thinner (e.g., 4 to 6 in. thinner) than the combined thickness of the existing pavement and
base that has been removed, then a more conventional base must be used.
Figure 4.2.2-1
Base Materials that have been used for PPCP
a) Dense Graded Asphalt Concrete (Photo: David b) Permeable Asphalt Treated Base
Merritt, Center for Transportation Research, University
of Texas at Austin)
design elevation have also been developed. This technique should be evaluated on a trial basis before being
deployed on a large scale on a project.
are generally 1-in.- to 1½-in.-diameter, 150 ksi, and may also be epoxy-coated for corrosion protection. If the bars
are epoxy coated, couplers should be epoxy-coated as well, and care should be taken to protect the epoxy coating
during construction. The couplers should contain internal stops that will ensure that each bar is threaded fully
into the coupler.
Transverse post-tensioning tendons may be strand or bar tendons, but strand tendons are more commonly used.
Similar to longitudinal tendons, seven-wire, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands are typically used. These may be
either 0.6-in.- or ½-in.-diameter strands, but the ½-in. strands are more flexible and better able to accommodate
crowned cross sections. Epoxy-coated strands may be used if the project is to be constructed in an aggressive
environment.
Figure 4.3.1-1
Coated and Uncoated Prestressing Strands
a) Seven-wire Prestressing Strands from the Top: b) Close-up of Cross Section of Epoxy-Coated and
Uncoated; Smooth Epoxy-Coated; Fine Grit- Epoxy-filled Strand
Impregnated Epoxy-Coated; Coarse Grit-Impregnated
Epoxy-Coated
Figure 4.3.2-1
Epoxy Application to Keyways during Panel Installation
a) Application of Joint Epoxy with Cloth (Photo: Merritt b) Epoxy Applied to both Faces; Post-tensioning
et al., 2002) Strands are seen between Panels Prior to Moving Them
Together. Note Epoxy kept away from Ducts.
Figure 4.3.4-1
Expansion Joint Seals
a) Preformed Elastomeric Seal b) Preformed Closed Cell Seal c) Poured Silicone Seal with Header
(Photo: David Merritt, Center for Material
Transportation Research,
University of Texas at Austin)
Other expansion joint designs can be considered based on constructability, proven performance, and cost.
Figure 4.3.5-1
Pea Gravel Concrete Mixture (left) and Rapid Setting Concrete Mixture (right) Shown being used to Fill Stressing
Pockets.
Some agencies permit the use of temporary fill material or steel plates to cover the pockets temporarily until they
can be permanently filled during a subsequent closure. Cold-patch asphalt materials, shown in Figure 4.3.5-2,
have been successfully used to temporarily fill these pockets. It is important to note, however, that the pockets
should either be lined with plastic sheeting or thoroughly cleaned after the cold-patch material is removed to
ensure the final fill concrete bonds to the pocket. Steel plates with cold-patch asphalt wedges have also been used
as temporary covers. This technique may not be suitable for high-speed roadways, however, as it can create a
safety hazard for vehicles.
Figure 4.3.5-2
Cold Patch Asphalt Shown used to temporarily Fill Stressing Pockets for Rapid Opening to Traffic
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.4 Panel Installation
installed, the outriggers or tracks should be properly supported so that they will not damage the prepared base.
The base surface should provide adequate support for installation equipment. Any damage to the base must be
repaired prior to installing panels.
Rather than conventional cranes, other equipment options to lift and install the panels include front-end loaders
with a spreader beam and travel-lifts that can straddle the lane(s) where the precast panels are installed. Such
equipment requires less clearance outside of the edges of the installation, which may be necessary for single lane
installations or installations with limited access outside of the pavement being replaced. Equipment that requires
less overhead clearance, such as a front-end loader, may be necessary for installing panels beneath overpasses,
sign bridges, and overhead utility lines. Figure 4.4.2-1 shows examples of equipment that have been used for
PPCP projects.
For projects needing complex maintenance of traffic lane closure sequences, a trial mobilization should be
conducted prior to beginning actual construction. This trial mobilization can be used to identify issues in
equipment mobilization and staging that may affect panel installation. The trial should be completed with the
same conditions (time of day and location) as the actual project.
Figure 4.4.2-1
Examples of Equipment used to install Pavement Panels
tensioning grout from leaking from the duct. The gaskets should be checked continually as the panel is moved into
its final position to ensure that they have not shifted or fallen off. Ideally, gaskets should be glued in place to
minimize the risk of them falling off. They can be glued well in advance of panel installation, saving time on site.
Figure 4.4.4-1
Panel Joint Considerations
a) Epoxy Squeezed from the Top of the Joint b) Compressible Foam Gaskets Adhered around each Duct
(Both Panels)
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.4 Panel Installation
Regardless of the size of strand used, they should not be stressed to more than 70 percent of ultimate strength.
This is because there will be a number of locations along the strand with indented grooves from the teeth in the
wedges of the anchoring chuck, which may weaken the strand. For the same reason, the temporary strands must
not be used as the final post-tensioning tendons. The temporary strands should be removed and replaced with
new strands prior to final post-tensioning. Epoxy-coated strand should not be used for temporary post-tensioning
due to the need for multiple locations of anchorage along the length of the tendon.
Bar tendons are an alternative to strand for temporary post-tensioning. An advantage of bar tendons is that they
can be left in place and used as part of the final post-tensioning. Another advantage is that bar tendons can be
tensioned and “locked off” with temporary anchor plates left in place prior to opening the pavement to traffic
regardless of the number of panels that have been installed. This ensures the pavement slab is in compression
when it is opened to traffic prior to final longitudinal post-tensioning. Temporary strand tendons will likely need
to be removed prior to opening to traffic.
Ducts for bar tendons are cast into the panels at approximately the quarter- or third-points of the panel width,
typically replacing the strand tendons in those locations. The ducts must be large enough to accommodate the
couplers used to couple the sections of bar together. High-strength, threaded post-tensioning bars are inserted
into each panel prior to installation. The bars from the panel being installed are coupled to the bars protruding
from the panels already in place and then tensioned (after each panel or every two or three panels) to pull the
panels together and compress the joint(s). Care should be taken to ensure that the bars are perpendicular to the
joint face when tensioned. Bars skewed even slightly can cause the panels to shift laterally when temporary post-
tensioning is applied. If epoxy coating is used, care should be taken to prevent damage to the coating on the bars
and couplers during installation.
Figure 4.4.5-1
Tensioning Temporary Post-tensioning Tendons
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.4 Panel Installation
opening uniformly during post-tensioning, it may be the result of not having the mid-slab anchors in place. In this
case, it may be necessary to install mid-slab anchors prior to final post-tensioning, if possible. In any case, the
anchors should be installed prior to diamond grinding for final ride quality.
Figure 4.4.6-1
Mid-slab Anchors
a) Anchor Bar Drilled, Driven, and to be Grouted into b) Anchor Bars Installed in Sleeves Cast into Panels
Central Stressing Pocket (Photo: Merritt et al., 2002)
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.4 Panel Installation
Post-tensioning pockets cannot be filled until after final post-tensioning, but should be filled immediately after
stressing whenever possible. Prior to post-tensioning, the pockets can be temporarily filled with cold patch
asphaltic materials, or preferably, covered with steel plates or bolted-down steel covers that are nearly flush with
the top surface of the panel.
To provide for intermittent opening to traffic, transitions from the PPCP to the existing pavement will be required
because an additional 2 to 3 ft of the existing pavement is typically removed to provide working space at the end
of the new pavement. Steel plates may be used over a narrow transition, on the order of 1 to 2 ft long. For wider
than 2-ft-long transitions, the void can be filled with cold patch material, timber mats, or temporary precast
concrete panels as shown in Figure 4.4.9.1-1. Ultimately, the type of transition used will depend on the type of
roadway, traffic volumes, posted speeds, and standard practices permitted by the owner agency.
Figure 4.4.9.1-1
Temporary Precast Panel used to Fill the Gap between the End of the Precast Pavement and the Existing
Pavement.
in the shop drawings and that the post-tensioning pockets are sized for the stressing rams that will be used.
Separate shop drawings for the post-tensioning system should be submitted by the post-tensioning contractor for
incorporation into the precast panel shop drawings.
The post-tensioning contractor should also be involved in planning the construction sequence and schedule to
ensure that provisions are made for all of the necessary steps in post-tensioning and grouting. Contractor
personnel should all be given necessary safety training for working around post-tensioning operations prior to
beginning construction.
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.5 Post-Tensioning Procedures
a) Splicing Two Lengths of Tendon at a Central b) Close-up of Dogbone Anchor in a Central Stressing Panel
Stressing Panel using a Dogbone Anchor
For end stressing procedures (Fig. 4.5.3-2), each tendon is typically stressed from only one end. Longer tendons
may require stressing from both ends due to losses in force from wobble and duct friction. To help ensure that the
prestress force is more uniform over the entire length of a PPCP section, stressing should be alternated between
tendons from one end of the section to the other.
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.5 Post-Tensioning Procedures
Figure 4.5.3-2
Examples of End Stressing from Pockets in the Joint Panels.
For final stressing of strand tendons when bar tendons are used for temporary post-tensioning, the strand
tendons should be stressed first, followed by final stressing of the bar tendons (which should already be
tensioned to the “temporary” stress level). The two bar tendons should be stressed simultaneously if possible.
According to standard post-tensioning practice, the elongation of each tendon must be measured during stressing
and compared with theoretically computed elongations corresponding to the applied tensioning force. As a
standard practice, the tendon is tensioned to 20% of the final stress level, marked, and then stressed to the final
stress level during which the elongation is measured. If measured elongations deviate more than 7% from those
calculated, the discrepancy must be evaluated to determine the probable cause, according to the AASHTO LRFD
Construction Specifications (AASHTO, 2010). One possible cause of discrepancy may be a miscalibrated jack. Jacks
need to be calibrated before the start of the project and at a minimum every 6 months throughout the project.
Transverse tendon stressing (if applicable) should not be completed until longitudinal post-tensioning has been
completed (Fig. 4.5.3-3). Longitudinal post-tensioning may cause differential movement between adjacent
sections of PPCP, after which the sections can be post-tensioned together transversely.
Figure 4.5.3-3
Transverse Post-tensioning
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.5 Post-Tensioning Procedures
a) Duct Grout Tube Extensions on the Surface of the b) Flush Grout Vents Ready to Accept Tube Extensions
Panels
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.6 Repairs and Surface Remediation
a) Diamond Grinding in Progress Across a Panel Joint b) A Full Blanket Grind of a Concrete Pavement Surface
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.6 Repairs and Surface Remediation
4.6.2.1 Spalls
Spalling can occur during installation of the panels when they are moved too quickly and bump into each other. It
often results in a corner spall or spall along the top surface of the keyway. Spalls may also occur during post-
tensioning if there are surface variations such as ridges or bulges of the keyways or if small incompressible debris
is present in the joints between panels. These can lead to spalls along the top of the joint between panels when
post-tensioning is applied. Figure 4.6.2.1-1 shows examples of spalls that can occur during construction.
Surface Spalls―Surface spalls less than ¼ in. deep may not require repair, particularly if the pavement surface
will be diamond ground. If the spalled area is larger than about 4 in. in diameter, and the surface will not be
diamond ground, repair should be considered. Spalls greater than ¼ in. deep should be repaired.
Panel Edge and Corner Spalls―Spalling of panel edges and corners that abut adjacent pavement or other PPCP
panels should be repaired so that a durable joint is achieved. Spalling of the panel edges at an exterior edge or
corner such as in the shoulder of the panel may not need to be repaired, at the discretion of the agency.
Blockouts, Lifting Anchors, and Grout Port Fill Material―If spalling occurs around blockouts or the lifting
anchor recesses during panel installation or post-tensioning, the areas should be repaired. Partial depth patching
techniques described in Section 4.6.3 can be used to remove the spalled concrete and the repair can be made
when the blockout or lifting anchor recess is initially filled.
Figure 4.6.2.1-1
Examples of Spalling that may occur during Construction.
c) Lifting Anchor Patch Spall (Note: the Edges and d) Spalled Corner Patch (Note: Corner had been
Perimeter of Anchor Patch Material have Spalled) Patched Prior to Panel Installation; Patch Spalled after
Post-tensioning)
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.6 Repairs and Surface Remediation
4.6.2.2 Cracks
Cracks that occur during construction generally appear during panel installation or shortly thereafter. They are
typically caused by an uneven underlying base or by unsupported panel edges that cause the panels to bend or
flex due to self weight and construction or traffic loads. Depending on the width of the crack and exposure
conditions of the pavement, cracks observed in the panel surface may need further assessment to determine if
they are shallow surface cracks or full-depth cracks. This may require core drilling through the panel using a 1- to
2-in.-diameter core drill at the location of the crack. Extensive occurrence of cracking should be cause for ceasing
panel installation until the cause of the cracking can be determined and mitigated.
Prestress and reinforcement in the panels should keep cracks held tightly closed. However, cracks observed
during or just after construction should be carefully monitored over time to determine if they are growing wider,
which will generally necessitate repair. Figure 4.6.2.2-1 shows various cracks that can occur during panel
installation.
Surface Cracks―Surface cracks include shallow longitudinal or transverse cracks, random cracks, and y-cracks.
For projects constructed in aggressive environments with routine exposure to freeze-thaw cycles and deicing
chemicals, surface cracks wider than 0.007 in. should be treated according to recommendations in the latest
version of Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures (ACI 224R). For projects constructed in environments that do
not include exposure to repeated freeze-thaw cycles and dicing chemicals, surface cracks wider than 0.012 in.
should be treated. Epoxy injection should be used for repair of cracks exceeding these thresholds.
Full-Depth Cracks―Full-depth cracks are generally oriented transversely or longitudinally. Full-depth cracks
should be evaluated to determine the likely cause, as they may indicate a structural flaw in the pavement and can
have a significant effect on pavement performance. If it is determined that a more serious structural flaw is not
evident, epoxy injection can be used to repair the crack with the understanding that reoccurrence of the crack or
additional cracking after repair may be cause for a more rigorous repair, such as partial-depth patching.
Cracks at Filled Blockouts and Lifting Anchors―Cracks around the perimeter of a blockout or lifting anchor
generally occur if the face of the blockout or lifting anchor recess is not properly wetted or painted with epoxy
bonder prior to placing the fill material, or if the fill is not properly cured, resulting in shrinkage. The guidelines
presented above for surface cracks should be used to determine whether treatment is needed based on crack
width and exposure conditions.
Figure 4.6.2.2-1
Examples of Panel Cracks that may occur during Construction.
a) Keyway Crack (Photo: David Merritt, Center for b) Mid-Panel Transverse Crack
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin)
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.6 Repairs and Surface Remediation
c) Shrinkage Crack around Perimeter of Filled Stressing d) Shrinkage Crack Around Perimeter of Filled
Pocket Lifting Anchor
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.6 Repairs and Surface Remediation
but cannot correct larger defects such as deep spalls, corner, and keyway breaks. If the surface will be diamond
ground, all repairs should be completed prior to grinding to ensure that the repair will not affect the final riding
quality of the pavement.
For shallow surface cracks, low viscosity sealing materials, such as methyl methacrylate can be used to fill the
cracks through gravity flow or by toweling with a squeegee. For deeper and wider cracks, epoxy injection is
commonly used. Epoxy injection uses pressure to force the epoxy into the extremities of the crack to bond the two
sides of the crack together and seal it from water intrusion. For shallow spalls or indentations that require repair,
epoxy-based mortar materials can be used to fill these areas, but should be inspected after diamond grinding to
ensure the repair is sound.
Partial-depth repair techniques are commonly used to repair deep surface spalls, edge spalls, keyway breaks or
corner breaks, as shown in Figure 4.6.3-1. For partial-depth repairs, clean saw cuts should be made a minimum
of 2 in. deep into the surface, edge, or keyway just beyond the extent of the damaged area. Saw cuts in the top
surface of the panel should not form corners with angles less than 90 degrees in order to reduce the risk of
reentrant cracks propagating from these corners. Alternatively, a 1- to 2-in.-diameter core drill can be used to
form the corners of a repair area, with straight saw cuts between the core holes. After saw-cutting, all unsound
concrete material should be removed, using only a lightweight chipping hammer if necessary. For deep edge
spalls, keyway or corner breaks deeper than 2 in. that are repaired prior to installing the panels, it may be
necessary to drill and epoxy No. 3 or No. 4 reinforcing bars into the panel to help anchor the patch in place. This
reinforcement should be positioned so that proper concrete cover is provided after the patch is placed. Epoxy-
based patching materials have been used with good success for partial-depth patches.
Surface repairs can be made across joints (i.e., over more than one panel), but only after post-tensioning has been
completed. Care should be taken to not damage post-tensioning tendons when performing repairs. It is important
that repaired areas on the keyways made prior to installation be properly finished and ground as necessary to
ensure that the repair does not protrude from the plane surface of the keyways, preventing mating keyways from
fitting together. Repairs should not cause the keyway or other surfaces to exceed tolerances.
Figure 4.6.3-1
Examples of Keyway Repairs to Panels Damaged during Construction
a) Damaged Area Saw Cut and Cleaned for Patching b) Repaired Keyway Prior to Diamond Grinding
(Photo: David Merritt, Center for Transportation
Research, University of Texas at Austin)
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4.7 Final Inspection/4.8 Resources for Additional Information
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CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
4.9 Cited References
4 - 29 (SEP 2012)
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