Professional Documents
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Revised Lecture by Sir Janggo
Revised Lecture by Sir Janggo
Concrete – is defined as the composition of paste (water and cement) and mineral
aggregates (coarse and fine aggregates) mixed in the proportions specified. It is a
construction material that is made of Portland cement (or some other form of
hydraulic cement), aggregate ( gravel and sand), and water mixed in predetermined
proportions. Concretes solidifies and hardens after mixing and placement due to a
chemical process known as hydration.
It shall consist of natural sand, stone screenings or other inert materials with
similar characteristics, or combinations thereof, having hard, strong and durable
particles. Fine aggregate from different sources of supply shall not be mixed or stored
in the same pile nor used alternately in the same class of concrete without the
approval of the Engineer.
It shall not contain more than three (3) mass percent of material passing the
0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve) by washing nor more than one (1) mass percent each clay
lumps or shale. The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the approval of the
Engineer.
If the fine aggregate is subjected to five (5) cycles of the sodium sulfate
soundness test, the weighted loss shall not exceed 10 mass percent.
The fine aggregate shall be free from injurious amounts of organic impurities.
If subjected to the colorimatic test for organic impurities and a color darker than the
standard is produced, it shall be rejected. However, when tested for the effect of
organic impurities on strength of mortar by AASHTO T 71, the fine aggregate may be
used if the relative strength at 7 and 28 days is not less than 95 percent.
It shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace slag, or other approved
inert materials (coralline or dolomites) of similar characteristics, or combinations
thereof, having hard, strong, durable pieces and free from any adherent coatings.
It shall contain not more than one (1) mass percent of material passing the
0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, not more than 0.25 mass percent of clay lumps, nor more
than 3.5 mass percent of soft fragments.
If the coarse aggregate is subjected to five (5) cycles of the sodium sulfate
soundness test, the weighted loss shall not exceed 12 mass percent.
It shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO
T 96.
If the slag is used, its density shall not be less than 1120 kg/m3. The gradation
of the coarse aggregate shall conform to Table 311.2.
Only one grading specification shall be used from any one source.
This Item covers criteria for acceptance of Questionable Water either natural or
wash water for use in concrete.
The mixing water shall be clear and apparently clean. If it contains quantities
or substances that discolor it or make it smell or taste unusual or objectionable, or
cause suspicion, it shall not be used unless service records of concrete made with it
(or other information) indicated that it is not injurious to the quality, shall be subject
to the acceptance criteria as shown in Table 714.1 and Table 714.2 or as designated
by the purchaser.
When wash water is permitted, the producer will provide satisfactory proof or
data of non-detrimental effects if potentially reactive aggregates are to be used. Use
of wash water will be discontinued if undesirable reactions with admixtures or
aggregates occur.
Wash water reused as mixing in concrete may exceed the listed ns of sulfate if
it can be shown that the concentration calculated in the total mixing water, including
mixing water on the aggregate and other sources, does not exceed that stated limits.
Water will be tested in accordance with, and shall meet the suggested
requirements of AASHTO T 26.
SIGNIFICANCE:
1. Bulk specific gravity is the characteristic generally used for calculation of the
volume by the aggregate in various mixtures containing aggregate including
portland cement concrete, analyzed on an absolute volume basis.
2. Absorption values are used to calculate the change in the weight of an
aggregate due to water absorbed in the pore spaces within the constituent,
compacted to the dry condition, when it is deemed that the aggregate has
been in contact with water long enough to satisfy most of the absorption
potential.
CALCULATION:
Where:
A = weight of oven-dry test sample in air, g,
B = weight of saturated-surface-dry test sample in air, g,
And
C = weight of saturated test sample in water, g
or Fine Aggregate
Where:
A = weight of oven-dry specimen in air, g
B = weight of pycnometer filled with water, g
C = weight of pycnometer with specimen and water to calibration mark.
S = weight of saturated surface-dry specimen, g
ABRASION TEST
SIGNIFICANCE
APPARATUS:
The test sample shall consist of clean aggregate which has been oven-dried to
constant weight/mass at 110+5oC and shall conform to one of the following table:
Passing Retained on A B C D
37.5 mm 25 mm 1250+25 - - -
25 mm 19 mm 1250+25 - - -
A 12 5000 + 25
B 11 4584 + 25
C 8 3330 + 20
D 6 2500 + 15
1) Place test sample and abrasive charge in the Los Angeles machine rotated
at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm 500 revolutions.
4) Wash all materials coarser than 1.70 mm, dry to constant weight/mass at
about 105oC to 110oC and weigh accurately to the nearest 1 gram.
CALCULATION:
Express the difference between the original weight/mass and the weight/mass
of material coarser than 1.70 mm sieve as a percentage of the original weight/mass of
test sample. This value represents the percent abrasion loss.
FINENESS MODULUS:
Is the sum of total aggregates retained on specified sieve( N0.4 – 100)
divided by 100. Based on ASTM C33, FM of fine aggregates must be
within 2.3 to 3.1., the higher the FM the coarser the aggregates and
usually a lower FM results in more paste making concrete easier to finish.
In high cement factor used in the production of a high strength concrete,
a coarser sand with a FM of 3.0 will produce concrete with the best
workability and highest compressive strength . However, ACI table V have
standards and corrections to be used in calculation of Concrete Mix
Design.
DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC IMPURITIES IN SANDS FOR CONCRETE
SIGNIFICANCE
The test determines the presence of the injurious organic compounds in natural
sands which are to be used in cement mortar or concrete. The purpose of the test is
to furnish a warning that further tests of the sand are necessary before they are
approved for use.
APPARATUS:
SAMPLE:
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill a glass bottle to the approximately 130 ml level with the sample of the
sand to be tested.
2. Add a 3 percent NaOH solution in water until the volume of the sand and
liquid, indicated after shaking, is approximately 200ml.
3. Stopper the bottle, shake vigorously, and then allow to stand for 24 hr.
UNIT WEIGHT/MASS DETERMINATION IN AGGREGATE
SIGNIFICANCE:
𝟏
Abs. Vol. of Concrete = . 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟗
𝟏𝟏 (𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓)
𝟒𝟎
Abs. Vol. of 40 kg Bag Cement = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟐)
𝟑.𝟏𝟐 (𝒔𝒑.𝒈𝒓.) 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈/m3
Adjustment from table V for water content considering the max. size of aggregates.
Determine the corrected slump:
Actual slump−Std.slump
Slump correction = (±3%)
25.4
101.6mm−76.2mm
=
25.4mm
= +3%
𝟏𝟖𝟒+𝟏𝟖𝟒(𝟑%)
Net Water =
𝟏𝟖𝟗.𝟓𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬/𝐦𝟑
189.52kg/m3
Abs. Vol. of Water per Bag =
11 bags/m3x1000 kg/m3
= 0.01722 m3/bag
𝟏𝟖𝟗.𝟓𝟐
Water/Cement = = . 𝟒𝟑
𝟏𝟏𝐱𝟒𝟎
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒇.𝒎.−𝒔𝒕𝒅.𝒇.𝒎.
% F.m. corr = = . 𝟓%
𝟎.𝟏
( 𝟐.𝟖𝟕−𝟐.𝟕𝟓 )
= . 𝟓%
.𝟏
= .60
Total Corrections = .60% - 2.8%
= -2.2%
Corrected Weight
𝟕.𝟐𝟏−𝟑.𝟖𝟐
F.A = 68.516 ( 𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝒈
[𝟐.𝟎𝟗−𝟏.𝟕𝟓]
C.A = 88.946 ( 𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
)
= 𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝒈
𝟏
Abs. Vol. of Concrete = . 𝟏𝟎 m3
𝟏𝟎
𝟒𝟎
Abs. Vol. of Cement = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟗
𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟒𝟖(𝟏𝟎𝟏.𝟔−𝟕𝟔.𝟐)𝟑%
Net Water = 𝟏𝟒𝟖 + − 𝟒. 𝟕(𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄. ) = 147.74
𝟐𝟓.𝟒
𝟏𝟒𝟕.𝟕𝟒
Water/Cement Ratio = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟗 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔/𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟒𝟎
𝟏
Water/Cement Corrections (. 𝟑𝟔𝟗− . 𝟓𝟕) ( )
𝟎.𝟓
= −𝟒. 𝟎𝟐
.𝟓
Corrections for Fineness Modulus: [𝟑. 𝟔𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓).
.𝟏𝟎
= +𝟒. 𝟑%
Total Corrections
+𝟒. 𝟑
−𝟒. 𝟎
−𝟑
− 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐%
Table V
𝟑𝟏% − 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐% = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟖%
Corrected Weights:
%𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Uncorrected wt (𝐅. 𝐀)[𝟏 + ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓.𝟔𝟓− 𝟐.𝟔𝟕
= 𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝟏 [𝟏 + ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Fine Aggregates = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟕
%𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
Uncorrected wt (𝐂. 𝐀)[𝟏 − ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏.𝟖𝟏− 𝟏.𝟒𝟖
= 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟗𝟐 [𝟏 − ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Water Corrections
= [ 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝟏 + 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟗𝟐] + 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟒 − [𝟒𝟎 + 𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟕 + 𝟏𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟔]
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟓 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔/𝒌𝒈
Item 311 - Portland Cement Concrete Pavement
A. Cement
Quantity: 9.0 bags /m3 (40 kg/bag)
1 - Q, Quality Test
B. Fine Aggregate
Quantity:
1 - G, Grading Test
C. Coarse Aggregate
Quantity:
1 - G, Grading Test
D. Water
Tests: 1 - Certificate from Project Engineer or 1 - Q, Quality Test if source is
questionable.
E. Joint Filler
1.) Poured Joint Filler
Tests: 1 - Q, Quality Test on each type of ingredient for each shipment
G. Steel Bars
Tests: For every 10,000 kg or fraction thereof for each size:
H. Concrete
Tests: Flexural Strength Test on Concrete Beam Samples:
Five (5) holes per km per lane or five (5) holes per 500 m when two (2)
Based on mix having a water cement ratio of 0.57 by weight of 27.7 liters per sack of
cement. 76.2 mm. slump and natural sand having fineness modulus of about 2.75
Requirements of concrete:
Curing:
Two (2) principal methods or procedures for the protection and curing of concrete,
namely:
1. By maintaining a moist environment by the application of water through
ponding, spray, steams or saturated cover materials such as earth,
sawdust, or burlap.
Care should be taken to ensure that saturated cover materials do not dry
out and absorb water fall from the concrete.
2. By prevention of loss of mixing water from the concrete by means of
sealing materials, such as impervious sheets of paper or plastic, or by the
application of a membrane forming curing compound to the freshly placed
concrete.
When concrete is kept continuously damp it slowly expands, but both the
total amount and rate of expansion are normally so small that the volume is
considered to remain constant. Usually concrete is not kept damp, hence it is subject
to water loss and shrinkage, rather than expansion.
The more porous the hardened paste, the greater is the shrinkage. With the
same paste, the higher paste content of the concrete, the greater the shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage is a primary cause of cracking in concrete.
Heat of Hydration:
Excessive temperature rise is undesirable for it may impair strength and cause
cracking of the concrete. Some of the measures used to control rapid temperature
rise are, using a lean mix or low heat type of cement, precooling materials and using
ice with mixing water.
1. Selection of Materials
2. Design of Concrete Mixtures
3. Aggregate Production Control
4. Concrete Production Control
5. Control in Transporting and Placing
6. Control of Consistency
7. Sampling and Testing of Concrete Mixtures
8. Curing and Protection
Selection of Materials
1. Aggregates:
A quality aggregate consist of particles which are free from fractures,
not easily abraded, favorably graded, and not flat or elongated, with rough
surface textures, and which contain no minerals that interfere with cement
hydration or react with cement hydration products to cause excessive
expansion.
2. Cement
There are various types of cement for different usages; for example, highly
early strength, surface resistant or low heat.
Type I Portland Cement is for general use and is the type ordinarily available.
Factors to be considered:
1. Requirements as to placing.
2. Interrelationships of cement content, water-cement ratio, and gradation of
aggregate.
3. Required strength.
4. Quality of concrete necessary to satisfy the condition of exposure.
5. Considerations of economy
After the aggregates have been selected, there should be constant check on
cleanliness and gradation during production.
In stockpiling aggregate at the plant site, care should be exercised such that
there is no segregation of the coarse from finer sizes.
A basic requirement for placing equipment and methods is that the quality of
the concrete in terms of water-cement ratio, slump, homogeneity and air content
must be preserved. Concrete should be placed in horizontal layers not exceeding 60
cm. in depth, avoiding inclined layers and cold joints. For monolithic construction
each concrete layer should be placed while the underlying layer is still responsive to
vibration, and layers should be insufficiently shallow to permit knitting the two
together by proper vibration. On sloping surface, concrete should be placed at the
lower portion of the slope first, progressing upward, thereby increasing natural
compaction of the concrete.
Consolidation of Concrete:
Control of Consistency:
The sampling requirement is to obtain a set of three (3) cylinder samples for
structural concrete or a set of three (3) beam samples for paving concrete for every
75 cu.m. or fraction thereof for each class of concrete. At least one set of samples
shall be obtained for each day of concreting work.
Curing is keeping the concrete moist so that hydration of the cement can
continue. It is done immediately after final placement of the concrete to prevent or
minimize the occurrence of plastic shrinkage cracks.
Heavy impact on green concrete will disturbed the mass should not be
permitted Floors over which construction activities are carried on should be covered.
Back filling against concrete should be done only when the concrete is strong
enough to carry the load, and only if performed with care to avoid impact.
Test results on concrete samples reflect the actual of the structure. If the
sampling and testing of samples is defective, test results will be unsatisfactory but
the concrete may be structurally sound. This may be due to one or a combination of
the following:
1. Incorrect sampling
2. Inadequate compaction of sample
3. Contamination of sample
4. Damage to sample
5. Inadequate curing and protection of sample
6. Incorrect test method and procedure
7. Inaccurate test results
8. Mixed samples
Preparation of Grade:
After the subgrade or base has been placed and compacted to the required
density, the areas which will support the paving machine and the grade on which the
pavement is to be constructed shall be trimmed to the proper elevation by means of
a properly designed machine extending the prepared work areas compacted at least
60 cm beyond each edge of the proposed concrete pavement. If loss of density
results from the trimming operations, it shall be restored by additional compaction
before concrete is placed. If any traffic is allowed to use the prepared subgrade or
base, the surface shall be checked and corrected immediately ahead of the placing
concrete.
The subgrade or base shall be uniformly moist when the concrete is placed.
Setting Forms:
1. Base Support
The foundation under the forms shall ne hard and true to grade so that
the form when set will be firmly in contact for its whole length and at the
specified grade. Any roadbed, which at the form line is found below
established grade, shall be filled with approved granular materials to grade in
lifts of three (3) cm or less, and thoroughly rerolled or tamped. Imperfections
or variations above grade shall be corrected by tamping or by cutting as
necessary.
2. Form Setting
The alignment and grade elevations of the forms shall be checked and
corrections made by the Contractor immediately before placing the concrete.
Testing as to crown and elevation, prior to placing of concrete can be made
by means of holding an approved template in a vertical position and moved
backward and forward on the forms.
When any form has been disturbed or any grade has become unstable,
the form shall be reset and rechecked.
Mixing Concrete:
The concrete may be mixed at the site of the work in a central-mix plant, or
in truck mixers. The mixer shall be of an approved type and capacity. Mixing time
will be measured from the time all materials, except water, are in the drum. Ready-
mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered in accordance with requirements of
AASHTO M 157, except that the minimum required revolutions at the mixing speed
for transit-mixed concrete may be reduced to not less than that recommended by
the mixer manufacturer. The number of revolutions recommended by the mixer
manufacturer shall be indicated on the manufacturer’s serial plate attached to the
mixer. The Contractor shall furnish test data acceptable to the Engineer verifying
that the make and model of the mixer will produce uniform concrete conforming to
the provision of AASHTO M 157 at the reduced number of revolutions shown on the
serial plate.
Mixed concrete from the central mixing plant shall be transported in truck
mixers, truck agitators or non-agitating truck. The time elapsed from the time water
is added to the mix until the concrete is deposited in place at the Site shall not
exceed forty five (45) minutes when the concrete is hauled in non-agitating trucks,
nor ninety (90) minutes when hauled in truck mixers or truck agitators, except that
in hot weather or under other conditions contributing to quick hardening of the
concrete, the maximum allowable time may be reduced by the Engineer.
Limitation of Mixing:
During hot weather, the Engineer shall require that steps be taken to prevent
the temperature of the mixed concrete from exceeding a maximum temperature of
320C.
Concrete not in place within ninety (90) minutes from the time the ingredients
were charged into the mixing drum or that has developed initial set shall not be
used. Retempering of concrete or mortar which has partially hardened, that is
remixing with or without additional cement, aggregate, or water, shall not be
permitted.
Test Specimens:
As work progresses, at least one (1) set consisting of three (3) concrete beam
test specimens, 150 mm x 150mm x 525 mm shall be taken from each 330 m2 of
pavement, 230 mm depth, or fraction thereof placed each day. Test specimens shall
be made under the supervision of the Engineer, and the Contractor shall provide all
concrete and other facilities necessary in making the test specimens and shall
protect them from damage by construction operations. Cylinder samples shall not be
used as substitute for determining the adequacy of the strength of concrete.
The beams shall be made, cured, and tested in accordance with AASHTO T 23
and T 97.
Joints:
Joints shall be constructed of the type and dimensions, and at the locations
required by the Plans or Special Provisions. All joints shall be protected from the
intrusion of injurious foreign material until sealed.
1. Longitudinal Joint
Deformed steel tie bars of specified length, size, spacing and materials
shall be placed perpendicular to the longitudinal joints, they shall be placed
by approved mechanical equipment or rigidly secured by chair or other
approved supports to prevent displacement. Tie bars shall not be painted or
coated with asphalt or other materials or enclosed in tubes or sleeves. When
shown on the Plans and when adjacent lanes of pavement are constructed
separately, steel side forms shall be used which will form a keyway along the
construction joint. Tie bars, except those made of rail steel, may be bent at
right angles against the form of the first lane constructed and straightened
into final position before the concrete of the adjacent lane is placed. In lieu of
bent tie bars, approved two-piece connectors may be used.
The portion of each dowel painted with one coat of lead or tar,
in conformance with the requirements of the item 404, Reinforcing
Steel, shall be thoroughly coated with approved bituminous
materials, e.g., MC-70, or an approved lubricant, to prevent the
concrete from binding to that portion of the dowel. The sleeves for
dowels shall be metal designed to cover 50 mm plus or minus 5
mm, of the dowel, with a watertight closed end and with a suitable
stop to hold the end of the sleeves at least 25mm from the end of
the dowel.
Acceptance of Concrete:
The strength level of the concrete will be considered satisfactory if the
averages of all sets of three (3) consecutive strength test results equal or exceed the
specified strength, fc ‘ and no individual strength test result is deficient by more than
15 % of the specified strength, fc ‘ . A set shall consist of a minimum of three (3)
concrete beam specimens.
If the strength of control specimens does not meet the requirements of this
subsection, and it is not feasible or not advisable to obtain cores from the structure
due to structural considerations, payment of the concrete will be made at an
adjusted price due to strength deficiency of concrete specimens as specified
hereunder:
4.2 Joints
Concrete slabs will crack randomly from natural actions such as shrinkage or
curling. Therefore, joints are vital elements introduced into JPCPs to control cracking
and horizontal movements of the slabs. Joints in JPCP include transverse contraction
and construction joints, and longitudinal contraction and construction joints. Without
joints, plain concrete pavements would be riddled with cracks within one or two
years after placement. Even with JPCPs, incorrectly placed or poorly designed joints
will result in premature cracking.
In the following, the two types of joints commonly used in JPCPs are
discussed.
The isolation joint prevents the joints and cracks in the adjacent lane
from propagating to the new added lane. A joint filler material is used to fill
the isolation joint to prevent infiltration of incompressible materials. The filler
material should be continuous from one edge of the slab to the other. The top
of the filler material should be recessed below the surface of the slab to allow
space for joint sealant application.
Tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints (see Figure 4) and transverse
construction joint in a nondoweled shoulder addition/reconstruction (see Standard
Plan P-3) to hold tight the faces of abutting concrete in contact.
Figure 4. Tie Bars in a Longitudinal Joint
Tie bars used in JPCP construction are 30-inch long Grade 60 No. 6
deformed steel bars, placed in the mid depth of the JPCP slab, perpendicular
to the longitudinal construction and contraction joints. Tie bars are placed a
minimum of 15 inches from transverse joint location in between slabs and at
18-inch spacing thereafter. The use of epoxy-coated tie bars is not necessary
for JPCP, except in areas where corrosion is known to be a problem (e.g.,
because of the presence of salts or the application of de-icing salts).
Dowel bars also limit slab curling over time. Slab curling is defined as
when the edges of the slab curl up or down as the temperature changes
throughout the day and night causing rougher pavement profile and increased
stresses on the edges of the concrete slabs, which accelerates spalling and
cracking of the slab. Slab curling is caused by the temperature difference
between the top and bottom of the concrete slab. Because the underside is
insulated from temperature changes, the surface expands and contracts at a
different rate compared to that of the underside of the slab. This causes the
slab to become larger on the surface than the underside during the day
resulting in the slab curling down on the edges as shown in Figure 8 (top
drawing). At night, the process reverses and the surface shrinks compared to
the underside causing the slab to curl up at the edges as shown in Figure 8
(bottom drawing). Warping is defined as the moisture fluctuations throughout
the depth of the slab. Due to warping, slabs deform in the same manner as
with curling as affected by the degree of moisture saturation, as shown in
Figure 8.
Again, dowel bars help prevent excessive warping and curling that can
develop due to these moisture fluctuation and temperature differentials, thus
keeping the pavement smoother (flatter).
Figure 8. Slab Curling and Warping Concept
Rigid pavements require base and, in some cases, subbase layer for structural
support since the applied traffic loads is transferred across the rigid structure by
providing only bearing stress applied to the underlying foundation. Base and
subbase provide a working platform during construction.
The majority of rigid pavements fail not because of concrete slab failure but
by failure of materials below the concrete slab due to unstable or non-uniform
materials, poor compaction, or poor drainage (e.g., either underground water
percolating into the base or surface water leaching through the concrete and
becoming trapped in the base).
4.6.1 Subgrade
Stabilized bases are the standard for all JPCPs with a Traffic Index (TI)
greater than 11. For lower TI values, unstabilized aggregate base maybe
used. The Department uses stabilized bases to provide a construction
platform for the concrete paving machine and to minimize base erosion and
the development of voids underneath the concrete slabs. Current standard
designs use either lean concrete base or Hot Mix Asphalt–Type A (HMA-A).
Lean concrete base (LCB) is the typical type of base for JPCP primarily
because it not only provides a stable platform for the rigid slab but is also
constructed using the same plants and equipment as concrete. Lean concrete
base is more rigid and less erodible than cement treated base (CTB). The
September 1, 2006 Caltrans HDM edition (June 26, 2006 Metric edition) states
that concrete can be substituted for LCB when justified for constructability or
traffic handling. JPCP should not be bonded with LCB. A 1-inch thick interlayer
of HMA-A should be placed between the JPCP and LCB.
Hot Mix Asphalt–A (HMA-A) is another alternative to lean concrete
base. It provides a smooth base layer, reduces friction, and provides a good
bond breaker layer. HMA-A base layer consists of a combination of mineral
aggregates and asphalt materials mixed mechanically in a plant. HMA-A
provides flexibility to expand and contract with temperature fluctuations.
HMA-A typically performs better than LCB in hotter climate regions like the
desert environments and southern central valley because it provides more
flexibility for concrete to expand and contract with temperature fluctuation.
Asphalt Treated Permeable Bases (ATPB) has been used in the past to
address water infiltration. This type of permeable base is useful where it is
necessary to drain water beneath the pavement (see Figure 10). Water can
enter the pavement as surface water through cracks, joints, and pavement
infiltration. Saturation of the pavement or underlying subgrade, or both,
generally results in a decrease in strength or ability to support heavy axle
loads. Treated permeable base requires the use of edge drains or some other
method of draining water out and away from the pavement. Otherwise, the
collected water will become trapped. Trapping water beneath the concrete
could create an undesirable condition known as pumping. Pumping removes
fines from the saturated base layer (especially untreated ones) by creating
dynamic upward and downward movements due to wheel loads at joints and
cracks. This pumping action develops voids under the concrete slabs that
eventually lead to faulting and premature cracking. It should be noted that if
the edge drains are not maintained in good operating condition, entrapped
water will create conditions that are typically worse than if no permeable base
was provided. For these reasons, treated permeable bases are not
recommended if edge drains could not be maintained, except where there is
an existing treated permeable base that needs to be propagated for drainage
purposes.
One might consider an ATPB layer for low truck traffic locations if adequate
low maintenance drainage is to be included in the design. If ATPB is desired in these
locations, the designer should make sure that edge drains or other drainage systems
can be maintained by field maintenance crews and should even include the costs to
maintain drains in the report (separate from the construction cost estimate) so
maintenance can pursue the resources and equipment needed to maintain the
pavement drainage.
Stripping (water washing away cement paste, binders, and fines) can be an
issue for stabilized bases if care is not taken to specify materials that will not strip in
the presence of water. As a precautionary measure, the Department no longer uses
cement treated base (CTB) or cement treated permeable base (CTPB) as a base in
JPCP construction. LCB is more tolerant to moisture and less susceptible to pumping
and stripping so it should be used in lieu of CTB when widening next to a CTB layer.
ATPB should be used in lieu of CTPB when widening next to an existing CTPB layer.