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Air pollution
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"Bad air quality" and "Air quality" redirect here. For the
obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. For the measure of how
polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the properties
of air, see Qualities of air.
Air pollution from a coking oven.
Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of

substances including gases (such as ammonia, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous
oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (b
oth organic and inorganic), and biological molecules are
introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases,
allergies and even death to humans; it may also cause harm
to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and
may damage the natural or built environment. Both human
activity and natural processes can generate air pollution.
Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed
as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the
2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places
report.[1] Outdoor air pollution alone causes 2.1[2][3] to
4.21 million premature deaths annually.[4][5] According to
the 2014 World Health Organization report, air pollution in
2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people
worldwide,[4] an estimate roughly echoed by
the International Energy Agency.[6][7]
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Contents
1Pollutants
1.1Sources
1.1.1Anthropogenic (man-made) sources
1.1.2Natural sources
1.2Emission factors
2Exposure
3Indoor air quality
4Health effects
4.1Mortality
4.2Cardiovascular disease
4.3Lung disease
4.4Cancer (lung cancer)
4.5Children
4.5.1Infants
4.6"Clean" areas
4.7Central nervous system
5Agricultural effects
6Economic effects
7Historical disasters
8Alternatives to pollution
9Reduction efforts
9.1Control devices
10Regulations
10.1Canada
10.2Germany
11Hotspots
12Cities
13Governing urban air pollution
14Projections
15See also
16References
17Further reading
18External links
Pollutants[edit]
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse
effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid
particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of
natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as
primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced
by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle
exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they
form in the air when primary pollutants react or
interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of
secondary pollutants. Some pollutants may be both primary and
secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from
other primary pollutants.
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions

from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive
amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1)
greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3)
increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased
ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of
nitrogen oxides.
Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options

for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions
Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity

include:
Carbon dioxide (CO
2) – Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been
described as "the leading pollutant"[8] and "the worst
climate pollutant".[9] Carbon dioxide is a natural component
of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by
the human respiratory system.[10] This question of
terminology has practical effects, for example as determining
whether the U.S. Clean Air Act is deemed to regulate CO
2 emissions.[11] CO
2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's
atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial
times,[12] and billions of metric tons of CO
2 are emitted annually by burning of fossil fuels.[13] CO
2 increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[14]
Sulfur oxides (SOx) – particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical

compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes
and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often
contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid
rain is formed.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over
the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power
sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – Nitrogen oxides,
particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high
temperature combustion, and are also produced
during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen
as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2.
It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent
air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic

gas.[15] It is a product of combustion of fuel such as natural
gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust contributes to the
majority of carbon monoxide let into our atmosphere. It
creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked
to many lung diseases and disruptions to the natural
environment and animals.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known

outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane
(CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely
efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global
warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant
greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and
prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect
varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs
benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may
lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is
another dangerous compound often associated with industrial
use.
Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as

particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or
fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid
suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined
particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally,
originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland
fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities,
such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants
and various industrial processes also generate significant
amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic
aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for
approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels
of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such
as heart disease,[16] altered lung function and lung cancer.
Particulates are related to respiratory infections and can
be particularly harmful to those already suffering from
conditions like asthma.[17]
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles
are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[18][19]
Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their

compounds.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer;

emitted from products are currently banned from use. These
are gases which are released from air conditioners,
refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air,
CFCs rise to the stratosphere. Here they come in contact with
other gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows harmful
ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead
to skin cancer, eye disease and can even cause damage to plants.
Ammonia – emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is

a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered
as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia
contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of
terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs
and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is
also a building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic
and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides
of nitrogen and sulfur to form secondary particles.[20]
Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions,

nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such
as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:

Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and
compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air
pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur
dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from
vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the
atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3)
is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important
constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly
known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions
involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur
in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high
concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the
combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant and a constituent
of smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) – similarly formed from NOx and
VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of
these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in
Europe under the Air Framework Directive
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach

to particulates
Play media
This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human

fingerprint on global air quality.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds

that are resistant to environmental degradation through
chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of
this, they have been observed to persist in the environment,
to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human
and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potentially significant impacts on human health and the
environment.
Sources[edit]
Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution)
of different foods per 100g of protein[21]
Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq

Food Types
per 100g protein)
Beef 343.6
Cheese 165.5
Pork 142.7
Lamb and
139.0
Mutton
Farmed
133.1
Crustaceans
Poultry 102.4
Farmed Fish 65.9
Eggs 53.7
Groundnuts 22.6
Peas 8.5
Tofu 6.7
Anthropogenic (man-made) sources[edit]
Controlled burning of a field outside

of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation
for spring planting.
Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana,

2018
These are mostly related to the burning of fuel.
Stationary sources include smoke stacks of fossil fuel power
stations (see for example environmental impact of the coal
industry), manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of
fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor
countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source
of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop
waste and dung.[22][23]
Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and

aircraft.
Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest
management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique
sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie
restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural
part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire
can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates
the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing
the forest.
There are also sources from processes other than combustion
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and
other solvents. These can be substantial; emissions from these
sources was estimated to account for almost half of pollution
from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in
the 2010s.[24]
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.

Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures
with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace
oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may
result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5%
by displacement.
Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic

gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen

oxides.[25]
Natural sources[edit]
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with

little vegetation or no vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for

example cattle
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust.
Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring,
radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium.
It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural
sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined
areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent
cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of

actives wildfires, smoke from uncontrolled biomass combustion
can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by
concentration.[26]
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally

significant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on
warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic
pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic
carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze of secondary
pollutants.[27] Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some
examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The
VOC production from these species result in ozone levels up
to eight times higher than the low-impact tree species.[28]
Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash

particulates
Emission factors[edit]
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission
Factors
Beijing air on a 2005-day after rain (left) and a smoggy day
(right)
Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative

values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant
released to the ambient air with an activity associated with
the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually
expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight,
volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted
per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation
of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In most
cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data
of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be
representative of long-term averages.
There are 12 compounds in the list of persistent organic
pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and
intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open
burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine
disruptors and can mutate the human genes.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has
published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors for
a wide range of industrial sources.[29] The United
Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have
published similar compilations, as well as the European
Environment Agency.[30][31][32][33]
Exposure[edit]
Up to 30 % of Europeans living in cities are exposed to air
pollutant levels exceeding EU air quality standards. And
around 98 % of Europeans living in cities are exposed to levels
of air pollutants deemed damaging to health by the World Health
Organization's more stringent guidelines.[34]
Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant

and the exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure
can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g.
neighborhoods or children living in a country), or for entire
populations. For example, one may want to calculate the
exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area,
which includes the various microenvironments and age groups.
This can be calculated[35] as an inhalation exposure. This
would account for daily exposure in various settings (e.g.
different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations).
The exposure needs to include different age and other
demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant
women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure to an
air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air
pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting and
the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for each
specific time that the subgroup is in the setting and engaged
in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working,
spending time in traffic, etc.). For example, a small child's
inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child
engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration
rate than the same child in a sedentary activity. The daily
exposure, then, needs to reflect the time spent in each
micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in
these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each
microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to
indicate the exposure.[35] For some pollutants such as black
carbon, traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure
despite short exposure times since high concentrations
coincide with proximity to major roads or participation to
(motorized) traffic.[36] A large portion of total daily
exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but
it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their
frequency and health impact.[37]
Indoor air quality[edit]
Main article: Indoor air quality
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where

people often spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas,
a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations
and trapped inside houses. Building materials
including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO)
gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate
into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is
introduced with the use of air fresheners, incense, and other
scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves
and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smoke
particulates into the air, inside and out.[38] Indoor
pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and
other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by
faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning
of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a
tent.[39] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even
from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all
domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out
of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other
dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the
extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic
environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous
material in many localities. Asbestosis is a
chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue
of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to
asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures.
Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are
at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung
cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressed in
non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish
between several forms of relevant diseases. According to
the World Health Organization (WHO), these may defined
as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and Peritoneal
Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more
widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged
exposure to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors,
as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,
people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed
hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce
enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants
emit methane, mold forms on walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems
can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants,
soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and
mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these
airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would
otherwise occur in nature.
Health effects[edit]
See also: Neuroplastic effects of pollution
In 2012, air pollution caused premature deaths on average of
1 year in Europe, and was a significant risk factor for a
number of pollution-related diseases, including respiratory
infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung
cancer.[4] The health effects caused by air pollution may
include difficulty in breathing, wheezing,
coughing, asthma and worsening of existing respiratory and
cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased
medication use, increased doctor or emergency
department visits, more hospital admissions and premature
death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far
reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory
system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions
to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person
is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's
health status and genetics.[35] The most common sources of
air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide,
and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that
live in developing countries are the most vulnerable
population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor
and outdoor air pollution.[40]
Mortality[edit]
The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every
year air pollution causes the premature death of some 7 million
people worldwide.[4] Studies published in March 2019
indicated that the number may be around 8.8 million.[41]
India has the highest death rate due to air
pollution.[42] India also has more deaths from asthma than
any other nation according to the World Health Organization.
In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000
people in China each year.[43] There is a positive correlation
between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor
vehicle emissions.[44]
Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are
estimated at 430,000[45]-800,000[41] An important cause of
these deaths is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides
(NOx) emitted by road vehicles.[45] In a 2015 consultation
document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide
is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per
annum.[46] Across the European Union, air pollution is
estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine
months.[47] Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease,
COPD, lung cancer, and lung infections.[4]
Urban outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause 1.3 million
deaths worldwide per year. Children are particularly at risk
due to the immaturity of their respiratory organsystems.[48]
The US EPA estimated in 2004 that a proposed set of changes
in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000
fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks,
6,000 fewer emergency department visits by children with
asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital
admissions each year in the United States.[49]
The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone
concentration to 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 to
5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the
75-ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective
standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of
aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed
work or school.[50][51] Following this assessment, the EPA
acted to protect public health by lowering the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone
to 70 parts per billion (ppb).[52]
A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs
of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin
Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800
people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than
normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal
standards. The number of annual premature deaths is
considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto
collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000
per year.[53][54][55]
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to
combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In
several human experimental studies, using a well-validated
exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular
dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[56][57]
The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased
cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include
pulmonary and systemic inflammation.[58]
Cardiovascular disease[edit]
A 2007 review of evidence found that, ambient air pollution
exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total
mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per
10 microg/m3 increase).[59]
Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke,
particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels
are highest.[60] A 2007 study found that in women, air
pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic
stroke.[61] Air pollution was also found to be associated with
increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke in a
cohort study in 2011.[62] Associations are believed to be
causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction,
low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis[63] Other
mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have
also been suggested.[64] [65]
Lung disease[edit]
Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing
asthma[66] and COPD[67] from increased exposure to
traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution
has been associated with increased hospitalization and
mortality from asthma and COPD.[68][69] Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.[70]
A study conducted in 1960–1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of
1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents of
Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low
reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects
were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the
subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects
exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough,
phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak
flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence.
The differences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to
59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so
concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the
observed differences.[71] More recent studies have shown that
air pollution exposure from traffic reduces lung function
development in children [72] and lung function may be
compromised by air pollution even at low
concentrations.[73] Air pollution exposure also cause lung
cancer in non smokers.
It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in
a more urban environment serious health hazards become more
apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients
suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function,
and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.[74]
Cancer (lung cancer)[edit]
Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent

to smoking multiple cigarettes per day,[75] potentially
increasing the risk of Cancer, which is mainly the result
of environmental factors.[76]
A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution

exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found solid data
to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine
particulates) increases the overall risk of non-accidental
mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5
was also associated with an increased risk of mortality
from lung cancer (range: 15% to 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase)
and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a
10 microg/m3 increase). The review further noted that living
close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated
risks of these three outcomes – increase in lung cancer deaths,
cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths. The
reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to
PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality from coronary
heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from
lung cancer, but the data was insufficient to provide solid
conclusions.[77] Another investigation showed that higher
activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol
particles in human lung and recommended avoiding heavy
activities like running in outdoor space at polluted
areas.[78]
In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study
found an increased risk of lung cancer for
patients who lived in areas with high
nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study,
the association was higher for non-smokers
than smokers.[79] An additional Danish
study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence
of possible associations between air
pollution and other forms of cancer,
including cervical cancer and brain
cancer.[80]
In December 2015, medical scientists
reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a
result of environmental factors, and not
largely down to bad luck.[76] Maintaining a
healthy weight, eating a healthy diet,
minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking
reduces the risk of developing the disease,
according to the researchers.[76]
Children[edit]
In the United States, despite the passage of
the Clean Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least
146 million Americans were living
in non-attainment areas—regions in which
the concentration of certain air pollutants
exceeded federal standards.[81] These
dangerous pollutants are known as
the criteria pollutants, and include
ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.
Protective measures to ensure children's
health are being taken in cities such as New
Delhi, India where buses now use compressed
natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup"
smog.[82] A recent study in Europe has found
that exposure to ultrafine particles can
increase blood pressure in
children.[83] According to a WHO
report-2018, polluted air is a main cause
poisoning millions of children under the age
of 15 years and ruining their lives which
resulting to death of some six hundred
thousand children annually.[84]
Infants[edit]
Ambient levels of air pollution have been
associated with preterm birth and low birth
weight. A 2014 WHO worldwide survey on
maternal and perinatal health found a
statistically significant association
between low birth weights (LBW) and increased
levels of exposure to PM2.5. Women in regions
with greater than average PM2.5 levels had
statistically significant higher odds of
pregnancy resulting in a low-birth weight
infant even when adjusted for
country-related variables.[85] The effect
is thought to be from stimulating
inflammation and increasing oxidative
stress.
A study by the University of York found that
in 2010 exposure to PM2.5 was strongly
associated with 18% of preterm births
globally, which was approximately 2.7
million premature births. The countries with
the highest air pollution associated preterm
births were in South and East Asia, the Middle
East, North Africa, and West sub-Saharan
Africa.[86]
The source of PM 2.5 differs greatly by region.
In South and East Asia, pregnant women are
frequently exposed to indoor air pollution
because of the wood and other biomass fuels
used for cooking which are responsible for
more than 80% of regional pollution. In the
Middle East, North Africa and West
sub-Saharan Africa, fine PM comes from
natural sources, such as dust
storms.[86] The United States had an
estimated 50,000 preterm births associated
with exposure to PM2.5 in 2010.[86]
A study performed by Wang, et al. between the
years of 1988 and 1991 has found a correlation
between sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and total
suspended particulates (TSP) and preterm
births and low birth weights in Beijing. A
group of 74,671 pregnant women, in four
separate regions of Beijing, were monitored
from early pregnancy to delivery along with
daily air pollution levels of sulfur Dioxide
and TSP (along with other particulates). The
estimated reduction in birth weight was 7.3
g for every 100 µg/m3 increase in SO2 and 6.9g
for each 100 µg/m3 increase in TSP. These
associations were statistically significant
in both summer and winter, although, summer
was greater. The proportion of low birth
weight attributable to air pollution, was 13%.
This is the largest attributable risk ever
reported for the known risk factors of low
birth weight.[87] Coal stoves, which are in
97% of homes, are a major source of air
pollution in this area.
Brauer et al. studied the relationship
between air pollution and proximity to a
highway with pregnancy outcomes in a
Vancouver cohort of pregnant woman using
addresses to estimate exposure during
pregnancy. Exposure to NO, NO2, CO PM10 and
PM2.5 were associated with infants born small
for gestational age (SGA). Women living
<50meters away from an expressway or highway
were 26% more likely to give birth to a SGA
infant.[88]
"Clean" areas[edit]
Even in the areas with relatively low levels
of air pollution, public health effects can
be significant and costly, since a large
number of people breathe in such pollutants.
A study published in 2017 found that even in
areas of the U.S. where ozone and PM2.5 meet
federal standards, Medicare recipients who
are exposed to more air pollution have higher
mortality rates.[89] A 2005 scientific
study for the British Columbia Lung
Association showed that a small improvement
in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5
and ozone concentrations) would produce $29
million in annual savings in the Metro
Vancouver region in 2010.[90] This finding
is based on health valuation of lethal (death)
and sub-lethal (illness) affects.
Central nervous system[edit]
Data is accumulating that air pollution
exposure also affects the central nervous
system.[91]
In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers
at the University of Rochester Medical
Center, published in the
journal Environmental Health Perspectives,
it was discovered that early exposure to air
pollution causes the same damaging changes
in the brain as autism and schizophrenia.
The study also shows that air pollution also
affected short-term memory, learning
ability, and impulsivity. Lead researcher
Professor Deborah Cory-Slechta said that
"When we looked closely at the ventricles,
we could see that the white matter that
normally surrounds them hadn't fully
developed. It appears that inflammation had
damaged those brain cells and prevented
that region of the brain from developing, and
the ventricles simply expanded to fill the
space. Our findings add to the growing body
of evidence that air pollution may play a role
in autism, as well as in
other neurodevelopmental disorders." In a
study of mice, air pollution also has a more
significant negative effect on males than on
females.[92][93][94]
In 2015, experimental studies reported the
detection of significant episodic
(situational) cognitive impairment from
impurities in indoor air breathed by test
subjects who were not informed about changes
in the air quality. Researchers at
the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate
Medical University and Syracuse University
measured the cognitive performance of 24
participants in three different controlled
laboratory atmospheres that simulated those
found in "conventional" and "green"
buildings, as well as green buildings with
enhanced ventilation. Performance was
evaluated objectively using the widely used
Strategic Management Simulation software
simulation tool, which is a well-validated
assessment test for executive
decision-making in an unconstrained
situation allowing initiative and
improvisation. Significant deficits were
observed in the performance scores achieved
in increasing concentrations of
either volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
or carbon dioxide, while keeping other
factors constant. The highest impurity
levels reached are not uncommon in some
classroom or office
environments.[95][96] Air pollution
increases the risk of dementia in people over
50 years old.[97]
Agricultural effects[edit]
In India in 2014, it was reported that air
pollution by black carbon and ground level
ozone had reduced crop yields in the most
affected areas by almost half in 2011 when
compared to 1980 levels.[98]
Economic effects[edit]
Air pollution costs the world economy $5
trillion per year as a result of productivity
losses and degraded quality of life,
according to a joint study by the World
Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics
and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of
Washington.[99][100][101] These
productivity losses are caused by deaths due
to diseases caused by air pollution. One out
of ten deaths in 2013 was caused by diseases
associated with air pollution and the problem
is getting worse. The problem is even more
acute in the developing world. "Children
under age 5 in lower-income countries are
more than 60 times as likely to die from
exposure to air pollution as children in
high-income countries."[99][100] The
report states that additional economic
losses caused by air pollution, including
health costs[102] and the adverse effect on
agricultural and other productivity were not
calculated in the report, and thus the actual
costs to the world economy are far higher than
$5 trillion.
Historical disasters[edit]
The world's worst short-term civilian
pollution crisis was the 1984 Bhopal
Disaster in India.[103] Leaked industrial
vapours from the Union Carbide factory,
belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A.
(later bought by Dow Chemical Company),
killed at least 3787 people and injured from
150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom
suffered its worst air pollution event when
the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed
over London. In six days more than 4,000 died
and more recent estimates put the figure at
nearer 12,000.[104] An accidental
leak of anthrax spores from a biological
warfare laboratory in the former USSR in
1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have
caused at least 64 deaths.[105] The worst
single incident of air pollution to occur in
the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in
late October, 1948, when 20 people died and
over 7,000 were injured.[106]
Alternatives to pollution[edit]
There are now practical alternatives to the
principal causes of air pollution:
 Areas downwind (over 20 miles) of major
airports more than double total
particulate emissions in air, even when
factoring in areas with frequent ship
calls, and heavy freeway and city traffic
like Los Angeles.[107] Aviation
biofuel mixed in with jetfuel at a 50/50
ratio can reduce jet derived cruise
altitude particulate emissions by 50-70%,
according to a NASA led 2017 study (however,
this should imply ground level benefits to
urban air pollution as well).[108]
 Ship propulsion and idling can be switched
to much cleaner fuels like natural gas.
(Ideally a renewable source but not
practical yet)
 Combustion of fossil fuels for space
heating can be replaced by using ground
source heat pumps and seasonal thermal
energy storage.[109]
 Electric power generation from burning
fossil fuels can be replaced by power
generation from nuclear and renewables.
For poor nations, heating and home stoves
that contribute much to regional air
pollution can be replaced by a much cleaner
fossil fuel like natural gas, or ideally,
renewables.
 Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key
factor in urban air pollution, can be
replaced by electric vehicles. Though
lithium supply and cost is a limitation,
there are alternatives. Herding more
people into clean public transit such as
electric trains can also help.
Nevertheless, even in emission-free
electric vehicles, rubber tires produce
significant amounts of air pollution
themselves, ranking as 13th worst
pollutant in Los Angeles.[110]
 Reducing travel in vehicles can curb
pollution. After Stockholm reduced
vehicle traffic in the central city with
a congestion tax, nitrogen dioxide and
PM10 pollution declined, as did acute
pediatric asthma attacks.[111]
 Biodigesters can be utilized in poor
nations where slash and burn is prevalent,
turning a useless commodity into a source
of income. The plants can be gathered and
sold to a central authority that will break
it down in a large modern biodigester,
producing much needed energy to use.
 Induced humidity and ventilation both can
greatly dampen air pollution in enclosed
spaces, which was found to be relatively
high inside subway lines due to braking and
friction and relatively less ironically
inside transit buses than lower sitting
passenger automobiles or subways.[112]
Reduction efforts[edit]
Various air pollution control technologies
and strategies are available to reduce air
pollution.[113][114] At its most basic
level, land-use planning is likely to
involve zoning and transport infrastructure
planning. In most developed countries,
land-use planning is an important part of
social policy, ensuring that land is used
efficiently for the benefit of the wider
economy and population, as well as to protect
the environment.
Because a large share of air pollution is
caused by combustion of fossil fuels such
as coal and oil, the reduction of these
fuels can reduce air pollution drastically.
Most effective is the switch to clean power
sources such as wind power, solar
power, hydro power which don't cause air
pollution.[115] Efforts to reduce pollution
from mobile sources includes primary
regulation (many developing countries have
permissive regulations),[citation
needed] expanding regulation to new sources
(such as cruise and transport ships, farm
equipment, and small gas-powered equipment
such as string trimmers, chainsaws,
and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency
(such as through the use of hybrid vehicles),
conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion
to electric vehicles.
Titanium dioxide has been researched for its
ability to reduce air
pollution. Ultraviolet light will release
free electrons from material, thereby
creating free radicals, which break up VOCs
and NOx gases. One form
is superhydrophilic.[116]
In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon
Armitage of University of
Sheffield prepared a 10 meter by 20
meter-sized poster coated with microscopic,
pollution-eating nanoparticles of titanium
dioxide. Placed on a building, this giant
poster can absorb the toxic emission from
around 20 cars each day.[117]
A very effective means to reduce air
pollution is the transition to renewable
energy. According to a study published
in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015
the switch to 100% renewable energy in the
United States would eliminate about 62,000
premature mortalities per year and about
42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used. This
would save about $600 billion in health
costs a year due to reduced air pollution in
2050, or about 3.6% of the 2014 U.S. gross
domestic product.[115]
Control devices[edit]
The following items are commonly used as
pollution control devices in industry and
transportation. They can either
destroy contaminants or remove them from an
exhaust stream before it is emitted into the
atmosphere.
 Particulate control
o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones,
multicyclones)
o Electrostatic precipitators An
electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
electrostatic air cleaner is a
particulate collection device that
removes particles from a flowing gas
(such as air), using the force of an
induced electrostatic charge.
Electrostatic precipitators are highly
efficient filtration devices that
minimally impede the flow of gases
through the device, and can easily
remove fine particulates such as dust
and smoke from the air stream.
o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust
loads, a dust collector consists of a
blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning
system, and a dust receptacle or dust
removal system (distinguished from air
cleaners which utilize disposable
filters to remove the dust).
o Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a
form of pollution control technology.
The term describes a variety of devices
that use pollutants from a furnace flue
gas or from other gas streams. In a wet
scrubber, the polluted gas stream is
brought into contact with the scrubbing
liquid, by spraying it with the liquid,
by forcing it through a pool of liquid,
or by some other contact method, so as
to remove the pollutants.
 Scrubbers
o Baffle spray scrubber
o Cyclonic spray scrubber
o Ejector venturi scrubber
o Mechanically aided scrubber
o Spray tower
o Wet scrubber
 NOx control
o Low NOx burners
o Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
o Selective non-catalytic
reduction (SNCR)
o NOx scrubbers
o Exhaust gas recirculation
o Catalytic converter (also for VOC
control)
 VOC abatement
o Adsorption systems, using activated
carbon, such as Fluidized Bed
Concentrator
o Flares
o Thermal oxidizers
o Catalytic converters
o Biofilters
o Absorption (scrubbing)
o Cryogenic condensers
o Vapor recovery systems
 Acid Gas/SO2 control
o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue-gas desulfurization
 Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology
o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
o K-Fuel
 Dioxin and furan control
 Miscellaneous associated equipment
o Source capturing systems
o Continuous emissions monitoring
systems (CEMS)
Regulations[edit]
Smog in Cairo
Main article: Air quality law

In general, there are two types of air quality
standards. The first class of standards (such
as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive)
set maximum atmospheric concentrations for
specific pollutants. Environmental agencies
enact regulations which are intended to
result in attainment of these target levels.
The second class (such as the North
American air quality index) take the form of
a scale with various thresholds, which is
used to communicate to the public the
relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale
may or may not distinguish between different
pollutants.
Canada[edit]
In Canada, air pollution and associated
health risks are measured with the Air
Quality Health Index or (AQHI). It is a
health protection tool used to make decisions
to reduce short-term exposure to air
pollution by adjusting activity levels
during increased levels of air pollution.
The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a
federal program jointly coordinated
by Health Canada and Environment Canada.
However, the AQHI program would not be
possible without the commitment and support
of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs.
From air quality monitoring to health risk
communication and community engagement,
local partners are responsible for the vast
majority of work related to AQHI
implementation. The AQHI provides a number
from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health
risk associated with local air quality.
Occasionally, when the amount of air
pollution is abnormally high, the number may
exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air
quality current value as well as a local air
quality maximums forecast for today, tonight
and tomorrow and provides associated health
advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Very
Ris Low (1- Moderate (4 High (7-–
high (ab
k: –3) -–6) 10)
ove 10)
As it is now known that even low levels of

air pollution can trigger discomfort for the
sensitive population, the index has been
developed as a continuum: The higher the
number, the greater the health risk and need
to take precautions. The index describes the
level of health risk associated with this
number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or 'very
high', and suggests steps that can be taken
to reduce exposure.[118]
Air
Qualit
Health
y Health Messages[119]
Risk
Health
Index
At Risk General
population Population
Ideal air
Enjoy your
quality for
Low '-1–3' usual outdoor
outdoor
activities.
activities
No need to
modify you
Consider r usual
reducing or outdoor
rescheduling activities
strenuous unless you
Moderat
'-4–6' activities experience
e
outdoors if symptoms
you are such as
experiencing coughing
symptoms. and throat
irritation
.
Consider
reducing o
r
rescheduli
Reduce or
ng
reschedule
strenuous
strenuous
activities
activities
'-7– outdoors if
High outdoors.
10' you
Children and
experience
the elderly
symptoms
should also
such as
take it easy.
coughing
and throat
irritation
.
Reduce or
Avoid strenuo
reschedule
us activities
strenuous
outdoors. Chi
activities
ldren and
Very Above outdoors,
the elderly s
high 10 especially
hould also
if you
avoid outdoor
experience
physical
symptoms
exertion and
such as
should stay
coughing
indoors. and throat
irritation
.
The measurement is based on the observed

relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
ground-level Ozone (O3) and particulates
(PM2.5) with mortality, from an analysis of
several Canadian cities. Significantly, all
three of these pollutants can pose health
risks, even at low levels of exposure,
especially among those with pre-existing
health problems.
When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's
original analysis of health effects included
five major air pollutants:
particulates, ozone, and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO).
The latter two pollutants provided little
information in predicting health effects and
were removed from the AQHI formulation.
The AQHI does not measure the effects of
odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.
Germany[edit]
TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.
Hotspots[edit]
Main article: Toxic Hotspots
Air pollution hotspots are areas where air
pollution emissions expose individuals to
increased negative health
effects.[120] They are particularly common
in highly populated, urban areas, where there
may be a combination of stationary sources
(e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile
sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution.
Emissions from these sources can cause
respiratory disease, childhood asthma,
cancer, and other health problems. Fine
particulate matter such as diesel soot, which
contributes to more than 3.2 million
premature deaths around the world each year,
is a significant problem. It is very small
and can lodge itself within the lungs and
enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is
concentrated in densely populated areas, and
one in six people in the U.S. live near a
diesel pollution hot spot.[121]
External video
AirVisual Earth –
realtime map of global
wind and air
pollution [122]
While air pollution hotspots affect a variety

of populations, some groups are more likely
to be located in hotspots. Previous studies
have shown disparities in exposure to
pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous
land uses (toxic storage and disposal
facilities, manufacturing facilities, major
roadways) tend to be located where property
values and income levels are low. Low
socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other
kinds of social vulnerability, including
race, a lack of ability to influence
regulation and a lack of ability to move to
neighborhoods with less environmental
pollution. These communities bear a
disproportionate burden of environmental
pollution and are more likely to face health
risks such as cancer or asthma.[123]
Studies show that patterns in race and income
disparities not only indicate a higher
exposure to pollution but also higher risk
of adverse health
outcomes.[124] Communities characterized
by low socioeconomic status and racial
minorities can be more vulnerable to
cumulative adverse health impacts resulting
from elevated exposure to pollutants than
more privileged communities.[124] Blacks
and Latinos generally face more pollution
than whites and Asians, and low-income
communities bear a higher burden of risk than
affluent ones.[123] Racial discrepancies
are particularly distinct in suburban areas
of the Southern United States and
metropolitan areas of
the Midwestern and Western United
States.[125] Residents in public housing,
who are generally low-income and cannot move
to healthier neighborhoods, are highly
affected by nearby refineries and chemical
plants.[126]
Cities[edit]
See also: List of most polluted cities in the
world by particulate matter concentration
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as

measured from satellite 2002–2004
Deaths from air pollution in 2004
Air pollution is usually concentrated in

densely populated metropolitan areas,
especially in developing countries where
environmental regulations are relatively
lax or nonexistent.[127] However, even
populated areas in developed countries
attain unhealthy levels of pollution,
with Los Angeles and Rome being two
examples.[128] Between 2002 and 2011 the
incidence of lung cancer in Beijing near
doubled. While smoking remains the leading
cause of lung cancer in China, the number of
smokers is falling while lung cancer rates
are rising.[129]
Most polluted cities by PM[130]
Particulate
matter,
City
μg/m3 (2004
)
168 Cairo, Egypt
150 Delhi, India
Kolkata, India
128
(Calcutta)
125 Tianjin, China
123 Chongqing, China
109 Kanpur, India
109 Lucknow, India
104 Jakarta, Indonesia
101 Shenyang, China
Governing urban air pollution[edit]

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on
ambient air quality assessment and
management provides a common strategy
against which member states can "set
objectives for ambient air quality in order
to avoid, prevent or reduce harmful effects
on human health and the environment ... and
improve air quality where it is
unsatisfactory".[131]
On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek
v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court
of Justice ruled that under this
directive[131] citizens have the right to
require national authorities to implement a
short term action plan that aims to maintain
or achieve compliance to air quality limit
values.[132]
This important case law appears to confirm
the role of the EC as centralised regulator
to European nation-states as regards air
pollution control. It places
a supranational legal obligation on the UK
to protect its citizens from dangerous levels
of air pollution, furthermore superseding
national interests with those of the citizen.
In 2010, the European Commission (EC)
threatened the UK with legal action against
the successive breaching of PM10 limit
values.[133] The UK government has
identified that if fines are imposed, they
could cost the nation upwards of £300 million
per year.[134]
In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up
Area remains the only UK region in breach of
the EC's limit values, and has been given 3
months to implement an emergency action plan
aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality
Directive.[135] The City of London has
dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations,
estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year
within the city.[136] As well as the threat
of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with
legal action for scrapping the
western congestion charge zone, which is
claimed to have led to an increase in air
pollution levels.[137]
In response to these charges, Boris
Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the
current need for European cities to
communicate with Europe through their nation
state's central government, arguing that in
future "A great city like London" should be
permitted to bypass its government and deal
directly with the European Commission
regarding its air quality action plan.[135]
This can be interpreted as recognition that
cities can transcend the traditional
national government organisational
hierarchy and develop solutions to air
pollution using global governance networks,
for example through transnational relations.
Transnational relations include but are not
exclusive to national governments and
intergovernmental
organisations,[138] allowing sub-national
actors including cities and regions to
partake in air pollution control as
independent actors.
Particularly promising at present are global
city partnerships.[139] These can be built
into networks, for example the C40 Cities
Climate Leadership Group, of which London is
a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state'
network of the world's leading cities that
aims to curb their greenhouse
emissions.[139] The C40 has been identified
as 'governance from the middle' and is an
alternative to intergovernmental
policy.[140] It has the potential to improve
urban air quality as participating cities
"exchange information, learn from best
practices and consequently mitigate carbon
dioxide emissions independently from
national government decisions".[139] A
criticism of the C40 network is that its
exclusive nature limits influence to
participating cities and risks drawing
resources away from less powerful city and
regional actors.
Projections[edit]
It is expected that Africa could represent
the half of the world's pollution emissions
by 2030, warns Cathy Liousse director of
research of atmospheric sounding of the CNRS,
along with many other researchers. According
the report the sub-Saharan Africa is
experiencing a fast increasing pollution,
derived to many causes, such as burning wood
for cooking, burning open waste, traffic,
agri-food and chemical industries, the sand
dust from the Sahara carried by the winds
through the Sahel area, all this reinforced
by a greater demography and urban
density.[141]
See also[edit]
 Air pollutant concentrations  Global dimmin
 Air stagnation  Great Smog of
 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze
Haze Pollution  Health Effect
 Asian brown cloud  Indicator val
 Atmospheric chemistry  Industrial Hy
 Beehive burner  Intake fracti
 BenMAP  International
 Best Available Control Technology on Cancer
 Building biology  Kyoto Protoco
 Critical load  Light w
 Emission standard sustainability
 Emissions & Generation Resource List of smogs
Integrated Database  Lowest Achiev
 Environmental agreement  Montreal Prot
 Flue-gas emissions from NASA Clean Ai
fossil-fuel combustion  Organic molec
 Global Atmosphere Watch  Particulate m
 Polluter pays
 Regulation of
under the Clean
 Tire fire
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pollution mortelle mais d'ampleur
inconnue". Le Monde (in French).
Further reading[edit]
 Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A
History of Air Pollution in London Since
Medieval Times (Methuen, 1987)
 Brimblecombe, Peter. "History of air
pollution." in Composition, Chemistry and
Climate of the Atmosphere (Van Nostrand
Reinhold (1995): 1–18
 Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, László (2005).
"Selections from the history of
environmental pollution, with special
attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From
medieval times to the 19th
century". International Journal of
Environment and Pollution. 23 (4): 351–
67. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
 Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus
the Environment: The Politics of Wealth,
Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
 Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The
Biography (2015)
 Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a
Continuing Health Threat in World's
Cities," The Nation's Health (February
2012) 42#1 online
 Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the
Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental
Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M
University Press, 2000)
 Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air
pollution: Urban growth, ecological
modernization, and symbolic
inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
 Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). "From
Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke
Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before
World War I.". Western Pennsylvania
Historical Magazine. 61 (3): 187–202.
 Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean
Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War
America" in Martin V. Melosi,
ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities,
1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.
 Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review
of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...;
Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim
Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency, Integrated Science Assessment
for Particulate Matter (External Review
Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air
Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to
EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated
Science Assessment for Particulate Matter,
April 11, 2019], The New York Review of
Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September
2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent
of people worldwide live in areas where air
pollution levels exceed the World Health
Organization's recommended limits....
[T]here is no safe level of exposure to
fine particulate matter.... Most of these
fine particles are a by-product of...
burning... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood
, trash... These particles can get past
the defenses of our upper airways to
penetrate deep into our lungs and reach
the alveoli... From there, they cross into
the bloodstream and spread throughout the
body. They can travel through the nose, up
the olfactory nerve, and lodge... in
the brain. They can form deposits on the
lining of arteries, constricting blood
vessels and raising the likelihood
of... strokes and heart attacks. [T]hey
exacerbate respiratory illnesses
like asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease... There's... evidence
linking air pollution exposure to an
increased risk of Alzheimer's and other
forms of dementia." (p. 64.)
 Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world:
a history of smoke pollution in Victorian
and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge,
2013.
 Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental
Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United
States (Cambridge University Press,
2002) online
 Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution:
Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since
1800 (2009)
External links[edit]
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 World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air
quality and health
 Impact assessment of the mortality effects
of longer-term exposure to air pollution:
exploring cause-specific mortality and
susceptibility by BG Miller. Institute of
Occupational Medicine Research Report
TM/03/01
 The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure
to Particulate Air Pollution in the United
Kingdom, UK Committee on the Medical
Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.
 Ozone Pollution at EPA.gov
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What is Air Pollution?
Pollution is now a commonplace term, that our ears are attuned to.
We hear about the various forms of pollution and read about it
through the mass media. Air pollution is one such form that refers
to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors or outside.
A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the
atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful
gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult
for plants, animals, and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- visible

air pollution and invisible air pollution. Another way of looking
at air pollution could be any substance that holds the potential
to hinder the atmosphere or the well being of the living beings
surviving in it. The sustainment of all things living is due to
a combination of gases that collectively form the atmosphere; the
imbalance caused by the increase or decrease in the percentage of
these gases can be harmful to survival.
Read here more about 40 facts of air pollution.
Save

The Ozone layer considered crucial for the existence of the

ecosystems on the planet is depleting due to increased
pollution. Global warming, a direct result of the increased
imbalance of gases in the atmosphere has come to be known as the
biggest threat and challenge that the contemporary world has to
overcome in a bid for survival.
Types of Pollutants
In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several

divisions can be made.
Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or

secondary sources. The pollutants that are a direct result of the
process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a
primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from
factories
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the

intermingling and reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created
by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known to be
as a secondary pollutant.
Various Causes of Air pollution
1. The burning of fossil fuels
Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like

coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles are one the major
cause of air pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles including
trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause an immense amount of
pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily basic needs of
transportation.
But, their overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases
are polluting the environment. Carbon Monoxide caused by improper
or incomplete combustion and generally emitted from vehicles is
another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is
produced from both natural and man-made processes.
2. Agricultural activities
Ammonia is a very common byproduct from agriculture-related

activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere.
Use of insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers in agricultural
activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into
the air and can also cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries
Manufacturing industries release a large amount of carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby
depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found
at every corner of the earth and there is no area that has not been
affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and
various other chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land
pollution.
4. Mining operations
Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted

using large equipment. During the process dust and chemicals are
released in the air causing massive air pollution. This is one of
the reasons which is responsible for the deteriorating health
conditions of workers and nearby residents.
5. Indoor air pollution
Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic

chemicals in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed
that once you paint the walls of your house, it creates some sort
of smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe?
Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another

cause of pollution. Referring to the particles afloat in the air,
SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion, etc.
Disastrous Effects of Air pollution
1. Respiratory and heart problems
The effects of air pollution are alarming. They are known to create
several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among
other threats to the body. Several million are known to have died
due to direct or indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in
areas exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from
pneumonia and asthma.
2. Global warming
Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world

is witnessing due to global warming. With increased temperatures
worldwide, increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder
regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already
signaled an impending disaster if actions for preservation and
normalization aren’t undertaken soon.
3. Acid rain
Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released
into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it
rains, the water droplets combine with these air pollutants,
becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid
rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals, and
crops.
4. Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a condition where a high amount of nitrogen

present in some pollutants gets developed on sea’s surface and turns
itself into algae and adversely affect fish, plants and animal
species. The green colored algae that are present on lakes and ponds
is due to the presence of this chemical only.
5. Effect on wildlife
Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects of

air pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can
force wildlife species to move to a new place and change their
habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water
and can also affect sea animals.
6. Depletion of the ozone layer
Ozone exists in the Earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for

protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone
layer is depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As the ozone
layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and
can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the
capability to affect crops.
Save

When you try to study the sources of Air pollution, you enlist a
series of activities and interactions that create these pollutants.
There are two types of sources that we will take a look at Natural
sources and Man-made sources.
Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from

locations with very little or no green cover, gases released from
the body processes of living beings (Carbon dioxide from humans
during respiration, Methane from cattle during digestion, Oxygen
from plants during Photosynthesis). Smoke from the combustion of
various inflammable objects, volcanic eruptions, etc along with
the emission of polluted gases also makes it to the list of
natural sources of pollution.
While looking at the man-made contributions towards air pollution,

smoke again features as a prominent component. The smoke emitted
from various forms of combustion like in biomass, factories,
vehicles, furnaces, etc. Waste used to create landfills generate
methane, that is harmful in several ways. The reactions of certain
gases and chemicals also form harmful fumes that can be dangerous
to the well being of living creatures.
Solutions For Air Pollution
1. Use public mode of transportation
Encourage people to use more and more public modes of

transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of
carpooling. If you and your colleagues come from the same locality
and have same timings you can explore this option to save energy and
money.
2. Conserve energy
Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. A large number
of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save
the environment from degradation by reducing the number of fossil
fuels to be burned.
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
Do not throw away items that are of no use to you. In-fact reuse
them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can use old jars to store
cereals or pulses.
4. Emphasis on clean energy resources
Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and geothermal are on

high these days. Governments of various countries have been
providing grants to consumers who are interested in
installing solar panels for their home. This will go a long way
to curb air pollution.
5. Use energy efficient devices
CFL lights consume less electricity as against their counterparts.

They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills
and also help you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.
Several attempts are being made worldwide on a personal, industrial
and governmental levels to curb the intensity at which air
pollution is rising and regain a balance as far as the proportions
of the foundation gases are concerned. This is a direct attempt
at slacking Global warming. We are seeing a series of innovations
and experiments aimed at alternate and unconventional options to
reduce pollutants. Air pollution is one of the larger mirrors of
man’s follies, and a challenge we need to overcome to see a tomorrow.
 Author
 Recent Posts
Rinkesh
A true environmentalist by heart ❤️. Founded Conserve

Energy Future with the sole motto of providing helpful
information related to our rapidly depleting environment.
Unless you strongly believe in Elon Musk‘s idea of making
Mars as another habitable planet, do remember that there
really is no 'Planet B' in this whole universe.
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41 Super Easy Ways to Stop Air Pollution - Conserve Energy

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Air pollution sources
 PDF
Page Last modified 21 Nov 2019
1 min read
Air pollutants are emitted from a range of both man-made and
natural sources including:
 burning of fossil fuels in electricity generation,
transport, industry and households;
 industrial processes and solvent use, for example in the
chemical and mining industries;
 agriculture;
 waste treatment;
 natural sources, including volcanic eruptions,
windblown dust, sea-salt spray and emissions of volatile
organic compounds from plants.
Air pollutants can be released directly into the atmosphere

(primary emissions) or can form as a result of chemical
interaction involving precursor substances.
The air pollutant emissions cause air pollution, however,

reductions in emissions do not always automatically result
in similar cuts in concentrations. There are complex links
between air pollutant emissions and air quality. These include
emission heights, chemical transformations, reactions to
sunlight, additional natural and hemispheric contributions
and the impact of weather and topography. Significant cuts
in emissions are essential for improving air quality.
Source: EEA Signals 2013
 Explore our data on air pollution emissions
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 See also
123
Slovakia - Air pollution country fact sheet
France - Air pollution country fact sheet
Malta - Air pollution country fact sheet
Germany - Air pollution country fact sheet
Slovenia - Air pollution country fact sheet
Greece - Air pollution country fact sheet
Spain - Air pollution country fact sheet
Sweden - Air pollution country fact sheet
Hungary - Air pollution country fact sheet
Turkey - Air pollution country fact sheet 2019
Switzerland - Air pollution country fact sheet
Austria – air pollution country fact sheet
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Understanding air quality data
Air Quality Index (AQI)expand Air quality index
Concentration units
Standards and goals
Data averaging periods
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How air quality alerts are raised
Glossary of air quality terms
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Air pollutant units and conversion factors

Air pollutants are measured in various units. Find out about the
units and how to convert them so you can compare our data with data
from other sources.
We report air pollutant measurements in 2 different ways: as Air

Quality Index (AQI) values and as concentration values.
Air Quality Index (AQI) values calculated using measurements of ozone,
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, airborne
particles and visibility. The AQI provides a comparison of air
pollutants, standardising these measurements into one
easy-to-understand index. See details on the AQI calculations.
Concentration values are the primary measurements of parameters
obtained from air quality monitoring stations. Concentrations are
reported as:
 particles (as PM10, PM2.5) – micrograms per cubic metre
(µg/m3)
 NEPH or visibility – reported in units of 10-4 m-1. This
means that a NEPH value of 1.5 should be read as 1.5x10-4 m-1. On
multiplying by 100, you can convert this number to the widely used
unit for visibility, known as inverse megametres (Mm-1).
 gases – parts per million (ppm) for CO and parts per hundred
million (pphm) for others. Gaseous concentration values are reported
referenced to a temperature of 0°C and an absolute pressure of 101.325
kilopascals. This conversion table will allow you to compare data
in the DPIE air quality monitoring reports with those from other
sources.
Pollutant Concentration to convert multiply

units we report from our by
in… reported
units to…
Ozone pphm µg/m3 (0°C) 21.4

µg/m3 (25°C) 19.6
Nitric pphm µg/m3 (0°C) 13.4

oxide (NO) µg/m3 (25°C) 12.3
Nitrogen pphm µg/m3 (0°C) 20.5

dioxide
(NO2)
Nitrogen pphm µg/m3 (25°C) 18.8

oxides
(NOx)
Sulfur pphm µg/m3 (0°C) 28.6

dioxide µg/m3 (25°C) 26.2
(SO2)
Lead µg/m3 (0°C) µg/m3 (25°C) 0.92
Carbon ppm mg/m3 (0°C) 1.25

monoxide mg/m3 (25°C) 1.15
NEPH or 10-4 m-1 Mm-1 or 100

visibility inverse
megametres
Page last updated 11 December 2019
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Air pollution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Air pollution from a coking oven.

Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of

Part of the nature series

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions

Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options

Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity

Sulfur oxides (SOx) – particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical

Carbon monoxide (CO) – CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known

Particulate matter / particles, alternatively referred to as

Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer;

Ammonia – emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is

Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes

Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions,

Secondary pollutants include:

A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach

This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds

Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq

Farmed Fish 65.9

Anthropogenic (man-made) sources[edit]

Controlled burning of a field outside

Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana,

Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and

Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.

Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic

Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with

Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of

Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally

Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash

Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative

Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant

Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where

Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution

Main article: Air quality law

As it is now known that even low levels of

The measurement is based on the observed

While air pollution hotspots affect a variety

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as

Deaths from air pollution in 2004

Air pollution is usually concentrated in

168 Cairo, Egypt

150 Delhi, India

125 Tianjin, China

123 Chongqing, China

109 Kanpur, India

109 Lucknow, India

104 Jakarta, Indonesia

101 Shenyang, China

Governing urban air pollution[edit]

 Ambient standards (USA)

Conserve Energy Future

What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- visible

Read here more about 40 facts of air pollution.

The Ozone layer considered crucial for the existence of the