1

Introduction to Distribution Systems

The major components of an electric power system are shown in Figure 1.1.
Of these components, the distribution system has traditionally been char-
acterized as the most unglamorous component. In the latter half of the
20th century, the design and operation of the generation and transmission
components presented many challenges to the practicing engineers and
researchers. Power plants became larger, and transmission lines crisscrossed
the land, forming large interconnected networks. The operation of the large
interconnected networks required the development of new analysis and
operational techniques. Meanwhile, the distribution systems continued to
deliver power to the ultimate user’s meter with little or no analysis. As a
direct result, distribution systems were typically over-designed.
Nowadays, it has become very important and necessary to operate a dis-
tribution system at its maximum capacity. Some of the questions that need to
be answered are as follows:

1. What is the maximum capacity?

2. How do we determine this capacity?
3. What are the operating limits that must be satisfied?
4. What can be done to operate the distribution system within the
operating limits?
5. What can be done to make the distribution system operate more
efficiently?

All of these questions can be answered only if the distribution system is

modeled very accurately.
The purpose of this text is to develop accurate models for all of the major com-
ponents of a distribution system. Once the models have been developed, analy-
sis techniques for steady-state and short-circuit conditions will be developed.

1.1  T he Distribution System

The distribution system typically starts with the distribution substation that
is fed by one or more subtransmission lines. In some cases, the distribution

1
2 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

Interconnected
Bulk power Subtransmission Distribution Primary
Generation transmission
substation network substation feeders
system

FIGURE 1.1
Major power system components.

substation is fed directly from a high-voltage transmission line in which case,

most likely, there is no subtransmission system. This varies from company to
company. Each distribution substation will serve one or more primary feed-
ers. With a rare exception, the feeders are radial, which means that there is
only one path for power to flow from the distribution substation to the user.

1.2  D istribution Substations

A one-line diagram of a very simple distribution substation is shown in
Figure 1.2.
Although Figure 1.2 displays the simplest of distribution substations, it
does illustrate the major components that will be found in all substations.

1.
High-side and low-side switching: In Figure 1.2, the high-voltage
switching is done with a simple switch. Substations that are more
extensive may use high-voltage circuit breakers (CBs) in a variety of
high-voltage bus designs. The low-voltage switching in Figure 1.2
is accomplished with relay-controlled CBs. In many cases, reclosers
will be used in place of the relay–CB combination. Some substation
designs include a low-voltage bus CB in addition to the CBs for each
feeder. As is the case with the high-voltage bus, the low-voltage bus
can take on a variety of designs.
2.
Voltage transformation: The primary function of a distribution substa-
tion is to reduce the voltage down to the distribution voltage level. In
Figure 1.2, only one transformer is shown. Other substation designs
will call for two or more three-phase transformers. The substation
transformers can be three-phase units or three single-phase units
connected in a standard connection. There are many “standard” dis-
tribution voltage levels. Some of the common ones are 34.5, 23.9, 14.4,
13.2, 12.47 kV, and, in older systems, 4.16 kV.
3.
Voltage regulation: Because the load on the feeders vary, the voltage
drop between the substation and the user will vary. In order to
maintain the user’s voltages within an acceptable range, the voltage
Introduction to Distribution Systems 3

Subtransmission line

Disconnect switch

Fuse

Transformer

Voltage regulator

Meters

Circuit breakers

Primary feeders

FIGURE 1.2
Simple distribution substation.

at the substation needs to vary as the load varies. In Figure 1.2, the
voltage is regulated by a “step-type” regulator that will vary the
voltage plus or minus 10% on the low-side bus. Sometimes this func-
tion is accomplished with a “load tap changing” (LTC) transformer.
The LTC changes the taps on the low-voltage windings of the trans-
former as the load varies. Many substation transformers will have
“fixed taps” on the high-voltage winding. These are used when the
source voltage is always either above or below the nominal voltage.
The fixed tap settings can vary the voltage plus or minus 5%. Mostly,
instead of a bus regulator, each feeder will have its own regulator.
This can be in the form of a three-phase gang-operated regulator or
individual phase regulators that operate independently.
4.
Protection: The substation must be protected against the occurrence
of short circuits. In the simple design in Figure 1.2, the only auto-
matic protection against short circuits inside the substation is by way
of the high-side fuses on the transformer. As the substation designs
become more complex, more extensive protective schemes will be
employed to protect the transformer, the high- and low-voltage
buses, and any other piece of equipment. Individual feeder CBs or
reclosers are used to provide interruption of short circuits that occur
outside the substation.
5.
Metering: Every substation has some form of metering. This may be
as simple as an analog ammeter displaying the present value of sub-
station current as well as the minimum and maximum currents that
have occurred over a specific time period. Digital recording meters
4 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

are becoming very common. These meters record the minimum,

average, and maximum values of current, voltage, power, power
factor, etc., over a specified time range. Typical time ranges are
15 min, 30 min, and 1 h. The digital meters may monitor the output
of each substation transformer and/or the output of each feeder.

A more comprehensive substation layout is shown in Figure 1.3.

The substation in Figure 1.3 has two LTC transformers, serves four distri-
bution feeders, and is fed from two substransmission lines. Under normal
conditions, the CBs are in the following positions:

Circuit breakers closed: X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6

Circuit breakers open: Z, 2, 5

With the breakers in their normal positions, each transformer is served from
a different subtransmission line and serves two feeders. If one of the sub-
transmission lines goes out of service, then breaker X or Y is opened and
breaker Z is closed. Now both transformers are served from the same sub-
transmission line. The transformers are sized such that each transformer
can supply all four feeders under an emergency operating condition. For
example, if transformer T-1 is out of service, then breakers X, 1, and 4 are
opened and breakers 2 and 5 are closed. With that breaker arrangement, all

Line 1

Line 2

X N.C. N.C. Y
N.O.

T-1 T-2

N.C. N.O. N.C.

1 2 3

N.C. FD-1 N.O. FD-3 N.C.

4 5 6

FD-2 FD-4

FIGURE 1.3
Two-transformer substation with breaker and a half scheme.
Introduction to Distribution Systems 5

four feeders are served by transformer T-2. The low-voltage bus arrangement
is referred to as a “breaker and a half scheme,” because three breakers are
required to serve two feeders.
There is an unlimited number of substation configurations possible. It is
up to the substation design engineer to create a design that provides the five
basic functions and provides the most reliable service economically possible.

1.3  R adial Feeders

Radial distribution feeders are characterized by the presence of only one
path for power to flow from the source (“distribution substation”) to each
customer. A typical distribution system consists of one or more distribution
substations consisting of one or more “feeders.” Components of the feeder
may consist of the following:

1. Three-phase primary “main” feeder

2. Three-phase, two-phase (“V” phase), and single-phase laterals
3. Step-type voltage regulators
4. In-line transformers
5. Shunt capacitor banks
6. Distribution transformers
7. Secondaries
8. Three-phase, two-phase, and single-phase loads

The loading of a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced because of the

large number of unequal single-phase loads that must be served. An addi-
tional unbalance is introduced by the nonequilateral conductor spacings of
the three-phase overhead and underground line segments.
Because of the nature of the distribution system, conventional power-flow
and short-circuit programs used for transmission system studies are not
adequate. Such programs display poor convergence characteristics for radial
systems. The programs also assume a perfectly balanced system so that a
single-phase equivalent system is used.
If a distribution engineer is to be able to perform accurate power-flow and
short-circuit studies, it is imperative that the distribution feeder be modeled
as accurately as possible. This means that three-phase models of the major
components must be utilized. Three-phase models for the major compo-
nents will be developed in the following chapters. The models will be devel-
oped in the “phase frame” rather than applying the method of symmetrical
components.
Figure 1.4 shows a simple “one-line” diagram of a three-phase feeder.
6 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

Fuse
Substation
Transformer
Voltage regulator
Circuit breaker

Single-phase lateral
Node
“V” phase lateral
b b
c c
a a
Three-phase lateral
c
b b Capacitor bank
c
Underground cables ab c Fuse

b Distribution
transformer
c
b
a
Secondary
Customers
In-line transformer

FIGURE 1.4
Simple distribution feeder.

Figure 1.4 illustrates the major components of a distribution system. The

connecting points of the components will be referred to as “nodes.” Note in
the figure that the phasing of the line segments is shown. This is important
if the most accurate models are to be developed.

1.4  D istribution Feeder Map

The analysis of a distribution feeder is important to an engineer in order to
determine the existing operating conditions of a feeder and to be able to play
the “what if” scenarios of future changes to the feeder. Before the engineer
can perform the analysis of a feeder, a detailed map of the feeder must be
available. A sample of such a map is shown in Figure 1.5.
The map in Figure 1.5 contains most of the following information:

1. Lines (overhead and underground)

a. Where
b. Distances
Introduction to Distribution Systems 7

800′ 67 5′
25 475′ 25
50
50
325′ 50
50 c
275′ 25 0′ 25
400′ 50 a c 250′ 50
c
300′ 25 225′ 17 5 ′ a
50 475′ a 50
325′ 50 c
50 b b b
a c 100′
50 b 50 350′
b
700′ 50
525′ ′ ac b
275′ 700
400′ 0
50 0 b 25
550' 3–1
50 275′
25 ′
50 a c 200 450′
bc 200′
′
25 50 a 275 b
575′ a
325′ 0′ 50
300′ 25 M
275′ a
c 1 75 ′ a
25 275′
50 b 50
c ′ 3–50
50 225′ 250 350′

225′ 550 ′ 250

′ b
5′ c 225′
27 a 50
450′ b 25 0′ 25
1 75 ′ 50 b
575′ 5 ′ 25 b
a 32 0′ 50 ′ c
35 300
225′
25 275′ 50
0 ′ 25
100 100 750′
25 b a
′
275
325′
425′ bca
275′ 50 300′
3–50 ′
650
25 a
325′ 35 0′ 25 b
c ′
250′ 125′ 200
100 b b
50 b 25
b 25
cba 250′ 200′
a
800′ 50
50 b 50
25 350′
25 ′
a 25 250′ 375
400′
25 300′
250′ 500′ 650′
50 ′
25 c 100
50 c 325′ ′
300′ 150
ba 50
250′ b
300′ 25
25 c a
b c ′
3–50 250 375′ c
b b
200' 25 a ′ 250′
250′ 250
′ 825 ′a
a 225 225′
cba ′ 50 25
200 b 250′ 200′
3–50
250 ′ ′ 425 ′ 25
300 25 b 325′
150′ 50
b 300′
′ 25 50
3–100 250 ′
250
′ c 325′ c 200 ′
00 ′ 275 b
2 250 ′
50 525′ 25 50 a
′
300 250′ 175 ′ abc
50
a ca
400′
550′
50 ′ b 350′ 50
3 50 50
′ c
20 0 c
50
25 225 ′ 275′ 50
on
300
′ stati
25 Sub

3-Phase OH
a
3-Phase UG
′
500 2-Phase OH
50 1-Phase OH

50 1-Phase transformer kVA

3-Phase transformer bank

3–50

Voltage regulator

FIGURE 1.5
IEEE 123 node test feeder.
8 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis

c. Details
i. Conductor sizes (not on this map)
ii. Phasing
2. Distribution transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Phase connection
3. In-line transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Connection
4. Shunt capacitors
a. Location
b. kvar rating
c. Phase connection
5. Voltage regulators
a. Location
b. Phase connection
c. Type (not shown on this map)
i. Single-phase
ii. Three-phase
6. Switches
a. Location
b. Normal open/close status

1.5  D
 istribution Feeder Electrical Characteristics
Information from the map will define the physical location of the vari-
ous devices. Electrical characteristics for each device will have to be
determined before the analysis of the feeder can commence. In order
to determine the electrical characteristics, the following data must be
available:

1. Overhead and underground spacings

2. Conductor tables
a. Geometric mean radius (GMR) (ft)
Introduction to Distribution Systems 9

b. Diameter (in.)
c. Resistance (Ω/mile)
3. Voltage regulators
a. Potential transformer ratios
b. Current transformer ratios
c. Compensator settings
i. Voltage level
ii. Bandwidth
iii. R and X settings in volts
4. Transformers
a. kVA rating
b. Voltage ratings
c. Impedance (R and X)
d. No-load power loss

1.6  Summary
As the smart grid [1] becomes a reality, it becomes increasingly more important
to be able to accurately model and analyze each component of a distribution
system. There are many different substation designs possible; however, for the
most part, the substation serves one or more radial feeders. Each component of
a feeder must be modeled as accurately as possible in order for the analysis to
have meaning. Sometimes the most difficult task for the engineer is to acquire
all of the necessary data. Feeder maps will contain most of the needed data.
Additional data such as standard pole configurations, specific conductors used
on each line segment, phasing, three-phase transformer connections, and volt-
age regulator settings must come from stored records. The remaining bits of
information are the values of the loads. Chapter 2 will address the loads in a
general sense. Again, when the smart grid, along with smart meters, becomes
a reality, the load values will become much more accurate, which in turn will
make the analysis more accurate. Once all of the data have been acquired, the
analysis can commence by utilizing system models of the various devices that
will be developed in later chapters.

Reference
1.
Thomas, M. S. and McDonald, J. D., Power System SCADA and Smart Grids, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2015.